Detroit, City of Cars, City of Music

Author(s): CHRIS QUISPEL

Source: Built Environment (1978-) , 2005, Vol. 31, No. 3, Music and the City (2005), pp.
226-236
Published by: Alexandrine Press

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 Detroit, City of Cars, City of Music
CHRIS QUISPEL

This article explores the relationship between the political, social and economic
environment of the city of Detroit and the music of the Motown record label.
During the 1960s and early 1970s Motown was probably the most important
Black record label in the United States. Although almost everybody involved with
the Motown label was Black, the music was successfully aimed at both a Black and
White audience - this despite the volatile and hostile racial relations in Detroit.
Special attention is paid to the influence of Detroit as the city of Fordism with
its extremely successful form of assembly-line production on the organization and
production techniques at the Motown record label.

In 1967, the United Foundation, started in which this story is told in more detail, 'the
by Henry Ford in 1949 to support social image of three young black women from
programmes in the city of Detroit, ran a the Brewster's Project singing the praise of
successful campaign to collect money to charitable giving, did not appeal to many
help the victims of the race riot of that sameWhite Detroiters and suburbanites, who -
year. Detroit's race riot of 1967 had been"due to the times" - harboured "considerable
one of the most violent and destructive inresentment" toward the community from
the years of the long hot summers. Rioters which the Supremes emerged' (Smith, 1999,
fought the police for five days, 43 people p. 189).
were killed, 2,509 buildings were looted and Amazingly, the popularity of the Supremes
burned and till this day some of the open was not confined to the Black community.
Many of the White inhabitants of Detroit,
places in the centre of Detroit are a visible
result of the riot. The campaign was a who big were supposed to react so unfavourably
success, but not everything went according to a film that prominently featured the Black
Supremes, liked their music and probably
to plan. An important part of the fund-raising
bought their records. The Black-owned
programme should have been the showing
of the film 'It's Happening'. The film showed
Motown record label, started by Berry Gordy,
the rise to fame of Detroit's most popularwhich produced and distributed the records
of the Supremes, was highly successful,
singing group, the Supremes, their youth
in the Brewster's Projects, their personal
not only with Black, but also with White
struggles and their triumphs on the nationalaudiences. Besides the Supremes, other Black
and international stage. Though the Supremesartists like Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye,
carefully avoided any racial confrontation Martha
and and the Vandellas, the Temptations
and many others, sold millions of records to
stressed the importance of racial cooperation,
White organizations refused to show the filman enthusiastic White audience. This despite
to their audiences, because they were afraidthe fact that racial relations, especially in an
it would have a negative influence on the industrial urban setting, were deteriorating
fundraising campaign. According to Suzanne all over the United States. The political suc
cess of George Wallace, governor of Alabama,
Smith in her book Dancing in the Street (1999),

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 DETROIT, CITY OF CARS, CITY OF MUSIC

symbol of Southern White resistance tothe cradle of important and very interesting
desegregation and presidential candidate,White rock groups, MC5, the Stooges and
during the presidential elections of 1964recently the White Stripes, but they also fall
and 1968, was a clear sign of a 'White back outside the scope of this paper.
lash'. First as a participant in the Demo
cratic primaries and later as an independent
The Case of Memphis
presidential candidate, he was especially
successful in White working-class districts In Detroit in the 1960s the popularity of Black
(Carter, 1995). Meanwhile Blacks, and es music amongst White listeners was at odds
pecially young Blacks, felt a growing dis with their preparedness to accept Blacks as
appointment in the results of the civil social equals and neighbours. This was not
rights movement and lost their belief in unique. In fact, throughout the twentieth
the willingness of Whites to accept them as century, American racial relations are dis
equals. The result was a growing radicali tinguished by a growing influence of Black
zation, a belief in Black power and a sense of cultural forms on American mainstream
Black uniqueness, which to them made Black culture on the one hand and extremely
White cooperation not only unnecessary but high levels of residential segregation and
unwanted and in conflict with the perceived other forms of discrimination on the other
real interests of Blacks (Van DeBurg, 1992). hand. In Memphis in the mid 1950s, young
Below I will seek to address three themes, White singers, most of them from a Southern
relating to the urban environment of Detroit,working-class background began recording
the production of Black music, especially at a type of music which - though still partly
Berry Gordy's Motown label, and American rooted in White country music - was also
obviously heavily influenced by Black
racial relations. The first theme concerns
the paradox of a record company aiming
Rhythm and Blues (Hall, 1998; Kloosterman
at a bi-racial market that flourished inand Quispel, 1990; Gordon, 1995). The result,
a social environment that was hostile toRock and Roll, would not only be a musical
racial cooperation. As a second theme I revolution,
will but would also initiate a new
examine the place of Detroit in twentieth
youth culture. Racial relations in the city of
Memphis
century Black culture, especially in relation to however remained bad as ever.
This did not change in the 1960s when young
the great Black migration from the southern
White
states to northern cities. Thirdly I will ex musicians and composers like Steve
plore the influence of Detroit's economic Cropper,
en Dan Penn and Spooner Oldham
vironment upon the success of the Motown and many others, worked together at the Stax
label. During a large part of the twentieth Studio's with Black singers and musicians like
century, Detroit was the industrial city ofOtis theRedding, Sam and Dave, A1 Jackson and
United States, a city in which experiments Booker T. Jones (Bowman, 2003) The music
with new production techniques and forms seemed Black but was in fact a mix of Black
of labour control were often conducted before and White influences. A comparable mixture
they were introduced anywhere else. Could of Black and White musical influences
this have influenced the way records were was made at the Muscle Shoals studio's in
produced at the Motown label? Below I will Alabama where, among many others, Wilson
explore only the music from the Motown Picket and Aretha Franklin recorded with a

label. I am, of course, fully aware of the group of White musicians (Hoskyns, 1997).
fact that there have been important Black The murder of Martin Luther King and
musicians in Detroit who never recorded the resulting race riots, put an end to this
for the Motown label - John Lee Hookercooperation
for (Bowman, 2003, p. 144) Today
instance. I also realize that Detroit has been Memphis, despite its history of interracial

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 MUSIC AND THE CITY

musical cooperation, is still one of is

themine',
mosta Ray Charles song (Ward, 1998, p.
segregated cities in the American 174). Because Black and White tastes had
South
(Massey and Denton, 1993). become so interchangeable, Billboard decided
Whites had enjoyed Black musicinbefore,1963 to stop publishing separate Black and
White
as was shown by the popularity of charts.
Gospel
music and Jazz. What happened in Memphis
The timing of Billboard's decision proved
however was the start of a new badly
phase in Though Whites never really
chosen.
lostYoung
White appreciation of Black culture. interest in Black music again, the focus
Whites began to listen to music which
of their
they
attention started to change. Young
knew to be originally written and performed
British musicians, heavily influenced by Black
by Black artists (Kloosterman and
Blues
Quispel,
music, which had lost favour among
1990). At first White versions of Black Black listeners just when White audiences
recordings were much more popular. White started to get interested, captivated White
singer Pat Boone is still notorious for his teenage audiences. Even more important,
suffocating versions of Black hits. For proof interest among Blacks for White music dis
compare his version of 'Tutti Frutti' with the appeared quickly. These were the years of
original one by Little Richard. But this would Black power. Blacks, and especially young
soon change. Chuck Berry's hit'Maybellene', Blacks, were searching for their cultural roots.
recorded in 1955, was the first Black record They were looking for African elements in
that heavily outsold covers by White artists. their culture and discarded everything that
Many Black artists followed. It was not onlycould be considered White. After 1965, the
a matter of Whites being interested in Black year they were reintroduced, White artists
music, Black listeners also got interestedrarely made appearances in the Black charts
in White music. Between 1956 and 1958, again.
Elvis Presley had seven number one hits in So it could be said that when Berry Gordy
Billboard's Black Rhythm and Blues charts. started his Motown record label, to sell
He was soon followed by artists like Paulrecords, sung by Black artists, written by
Anka, Frankie Avalon and the Four Seasons, Black songwriters and produced by Black
artists who were much less influenced by producers, to an audience of Whites and
Black music than Elvis Presley. In the early Blacks, he was running against the tide.
1960s, the skin colour of the recording stars Making his eventual success of course even
seemed to have become unimportant to the more remarkable.

public. Black performers like Sam Cooke,

Chubby Checker or the Shirelles were as Detroit
important as Whites like Bobby Darin,
Leslie Gore and the Shangri-Las. Even more One of the most enduring questions of the
important, in the music itself the difference social sciences is whether personal genius or
between White and Black performers became environmental circumstances are responsible
less and less noticeable. Phil Spector, without for success. In this case, one could ask
doubt one of the most important record whether there was something special about
producers of the era, used White and Black Detroit to make the rise of the Motown label
vocalists for his records, but you cannot possible, or if Berry Gordy's company would
hear the difference in his music. In his book
have been successful wherever he might have
Just my Soul Responding, Brian Ward (1998)started it. At first sight, racial relations did not
describes the first episode of the popularseem to favour a record company working for
music show 'Shindig'. Sam Cooke performeda bi-racial market.
the country classic 'Tennessee Waltz', while the In the summer of 1943, fights between
White Righteous Brothers sang 'This little girl young Blacks and Whites erupted into a

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 DETROIT, CITY OF CARS, CITY OF MUSIC

full blown race riot. Thousands of Whites was the housing situation, already in the pre
and Blacks fought for several days. After war years the cause of some violent, and even
deadly, confrontations (Boyle, 2004). With
three days, 34 people were killed, 25 of them
all available labour being used for the war
Black, 675 were seriously injured and 1,893
people were arrested. The Detroit raceindustries
riot and a rising demand for housing,
did not come as a surprise, 'A blind man due to migration, housing shortage soon
became a big problem and a major source of
could see it coming', wrote Thomas Sancton
tension between Blacks and Whites.
in the New Republic, 'In the last three years
Detroit has swollen and festered with all These tensions would not ease in later
our accumulated national poisons. Detroit
years. Detroit remained the scene of som
brought them to an ugly postulated head'times ugly racial confrontations. According
to aThomas Sugrue, more than 200 violent
(Sancton, 1943). The Detroit race riot was
incidents against Blacks trying to move into
direct result of growing competition between
White neighbourhoods, took place between
Blacks and Whites on the labour and housing
market. The outbreak of the Second World the late 1940s and the middle 1960s (Sugrue
1993, p. 111). White property-owners fought
War had opened job opportunities for Blacks
that until that time had been closed to them. not only for what they thought was a defence
New unions, especially those associated of their neighbourhood, but also of their way
with the CIO, like the United Automobile of life. The anger and the violence of Whit
Workers (UAW), began to accept Blacks inhabitants of Detroit against the threat of
and actively promoted the hiring of Black Blacks moving into their neighbourhoods
labourers (Sugrue, 1996; Meier and Rudwick, was not confined to some racial bigots. It
1979; Lichtenstein, 1982). The Roosevelt involved whole neighbourhoods, young and
government, knowing that Black labour old, male and female. Mothers sometimes
was needed to raise the production to levels demonstrated against a 'Black invasion' of
required to sustain the war, but also aware of their neighbourhoods with babies in their
the fact that a fight against fascism and racism arms. Not as a matter of convenience because
abroad should have consequences at home, there were no babysitters at hand, but as a
clear sign that the arrival of Blacks was a
took steps to stop racial discrimination in the
labour market. By executive order 8802 a non direct threat to the future of their children.

discrimination policy for war industries was To them Black neighbours were not so much
formulated and a Fair Employment Practice a threat to property values as an imminent
Commission (FEPC) was installed. This of danger to safety and a stable family life.
course did not end racial discrimination, but Racial animosity remained strong despite
it gave new hope to Southern Blacks who the important changes that were taking place
began to leave the Jim Crow states en masse in the 1950s and 1960s in the labour market
to find work in northern industries. and the housing situation. First of all there
But not everybody looked upon the arrival was the astonishing rise in the percentage of
of Black Southern migrants as a welcome Blacks living in the inner city. It rose from a
addition to the labour market. To many mere 9.2 per cent in 1940, to 28.9 per cent in
Whites the new job opportunities for Blacks 1960 and an astonishing 63.1 per cent in 1980
were a threat and they desperately tried to (Darden, 1987, p. 4). During this period the
hold on to their former privileges. 'I'd rather number of people actually living in New
see Hitler or Hirohito win than work next York declined. So the rising percentage of
to a nigger', was the reason a White worker Blacks living in the inner city was not only
the result of Black in-migration, but also of
gave for taking part in a walk-out at Packard
against the employment of Black workers White out-migration. Whereas in the 1940s,
(Darden, 1987, p. 68). Even more importantBlacks and Whites lived separately, but

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 MUSIC AND THE CITY

close together, at the end of the 1960s,

Worldthey
War and accelerated during World War
still lived separately, but now far apart.
II, had The
an important effect on Black culture.
suburbs, often independent municipalities,
In Chicago, Blues singers like Muddy Waters,
became White enclaves into which few Howlin Wolf and Elmore James, transformed
Blacks entered. Those Blacks that managedBlues into full blown electric music,
acoustic
which in the 1950s became highly popular
to move out of the inner city often settled
among
in segregated Black suburbs (Massey and the Black working class (Gordon,
Denton, 1993). These dual migrations coIn Detroit, another Southern born Blues
2002).
incided with important economic changes.
singer, John Lee Hooker, also found a large
Black migrants in the 1940s and earlyaudience
1950s among his co-migrants. At the time
thecity.
had no trouble finding work in Detroit music of these Southern Blues singers did
not cross over to a White audience, nor was
These were the heydays of the American
it meant
automobile industry. All the big factories had to do so. However Black popular
music would soon undergo further urban
their plants within the city limits. The success
of the automobile industry demanded new and in that process, purposely or
influences
investments and the building of new not, would find new audiences.
plants.
In the 1950s, the big companies began Manyto young Black kids in the late 1940s
spend billions of dollars on new factories
and early 1950s preferred more sophisticated
and new technologies, but most ofurban
this musicians as their idols. They loved
money was invested outside Detroit.the innovative sounds of Charlie Parker,
Some
of it went to factories in the suburbs,Dizzy
but Gillespie or Miles Davis. Others turned
to Nat King Cole and Black musicians who
a growing amount of money was invested
in other states (Sugrue, 1996; Wilson,were closer to Tin Pan Alley and mainstream
1996).
In 1950, 56 per cent of all workers American
in the popular music. But to acquire the
automobile industry, lived in Michigan; in
instrumental ability to play like the famous
1960 this was only 40 per cent. This did
Jazznot
musicians, or to be able to get access to
the White
only happen in the automobile industry. middle-class market was difficult
After 1960, there was a massive movementand few succeeded. To sing in a vocal group
was a much better proposition. Vocal, or
of capital form the central city to suburbia
doo-wop
(Darden, 1987, p. 20). In 1960 Detroit still had groups, were the big hit in Black
neighbourhoods
42.3 per cent of the area's population and 49.6 in the 1950s. It required a
per cent of its wealth. In 1980 it had 27.6 pervocal ability, but there were no other
certain
cent of the population and only 16.5 perinvestments,
cent such as expensive instruments
of its wealth. During the same periodor sound systems. Like rap music thirty
Black
unemployment rose from 18.2 per cent to years
22.5later, vocal groups had their roots in
per cent, the numbers of Blacks not working
the streets of the black neighbourhoods. Most
were even worse, 37.2 per cent in 1960 of and
these groups literally started their careers
56.4 per cent in 1980 (Sugrue, 1993, p.on110).
the street corners. They belonged to their
Many northern cities underwent comparable
neighbourhood and often fought fierce, but
changes, but few cases were as extreme vocal, as
battles with competing groups of other
Detroit which, unlike for instance Chicago,
neighbourhoods. Doo-wop groups specialized
was unable to make the transition from in fine, delicate harmonies, much in contrast
industrial to trades and service centre. with the more macho and often sexist Blues
lyrics. But there was another even more
important difference with traditional Blues.
Black Migration and Black Culture
Vocal groups were not confined to Black
The massive migration of Southern Blacks toneighbourhoods. Italians, Spaniards, Puerto
northern cities, that started during the FirstRicans and other young ethnic Americans

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 DETROIT, CITY OF CARS, CITY OF MUSIC

were just as attracted to the vocal groupharmony and religious, came together at
style. In retrospect it is often hard to makeDetroit's Motown label.
a distinction between records by Black - or
ethnically European vocal groups - and the Fordism
roots of the vocal group style are to be found
just as much in European vocal styles, theDetroit's economy has always been closely
Comedian Harmonists for example, as inlinked to the automobile industry Among
Black American styles (Early, 1995). the automobile factories and their founders,
So, though northern Blacks had brought none have been more well known then the
with them their own music from the South, Ford factory and its founder, Henry Ford. He
they were also influenced by already existinggave his name to a production system that
Black and European northern music. Andfor a long time came to dominate industrial
then of course there was the Black church. production, not only in Detroit, but in large
Every book or article about Black music must parts of the industrial world, Fordism.
pay at least some attention to Black religious
Fordism is essentially a continuation of older
music. If you are looking for the emotions, forms of assembly line production, only
used in a more consequential and thorough
the vocal styles, the rhythm or, if you like the
soul of Black music, you inevitably have to way.
go Whereas in older forms most of the
to the Black church. Artists with some of the attention had been given to mechanization
most beautiful voices in Black musical history, and technical changes, attention was now
like Mahalia Jackson, Marion Williams and focused on the human factor. In Fordism,
R.H. Harris, only recorded religious music. each worker was confined to a few tasks that
Many more started their career in church; few could be learned in two days, three at the
important Black artists, at least before the rise most. Anyone who was not able to perform
of rap and hip hop, had no connection withhis tasks within this period, was fired. As the
the church at all. Black preachers raised in whole system depended on each man doing
the emotional style of the Southern church, his job at exactly the right moment in exactly
migrated north with their flock. The more the right time, labour control was very strict.
inventive made use of the opportunities givenWorkers were under constant observation
to them in their new urban environment to and under a continuous threat of discharge.
acquire a national audience. They got their In 1916, Ford even sent social workers to the
own radio stations and often made recordings homes of his workers to see if they had the
of their more famous sermons, which cir right morals, did not drink and had a stable
culated widely in the Black communities. family life. In Fordism, labourers had a task
Few were more famous then Detroit's C.L. they could perform with a minimum of brain
Franklin. Born in Mississippi, he travelled
work. They had a fixed place on the work
north and after a short term in Buffalo, New
floor giving them very little opportunity
York, he accepted a position as a pastortoininteract with other labourers; they were
virtually isolated socially on automated
the New Bethel Baptist Church in New York.
Using gramophone recordings, radio shows production lines (Gordon, Edwards and Reich
and promotional tours, he became probably1982, pp. 131-134). These working conditions
were counterbalanced by relatively high
the most famous Black preacher of his times.
Some of the most famous names in Black wages, which made working at Ford very
popular but gave the company the extra
religious music performed during his services
advantage of knowing that workers were
and road shows. The best known probably
his own daughter Aretha, who here for very the much aware that others were waiting to
first time found a national audience. All take over their jobs.
these different musical strains, Blues, closeFord's system was rational, flexible and

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 MUSIC AND THE CITY

ideally suited to an economy based on Supremes

mass expressed the same feelings in
her autobiography: 'The building on West
production and mass consumption. Because
of the inevitable standardization of the Grand Boulevard was a home away from
production it also tended to create a certain
home for many young singers and musicians
'blandness' and it was not only criticized
then. The company was still serving hot
for the psychological consequences forfamily-style
the meals for everyone who hap
workers but also for its contribution to the pened to be around. Those of us who loved
growth of a de-individualized society. Now Motown remember fondly these times of
we have to turn to the question of the extentspecial closeness and friendship' (Wilson,
to which this particular production system1988, p. 114). Talented young people from
was suitable for a totally different production the neighbourhood, or those who thought
sector: the making of music. themselves to be talented, had easy access
to the studio, which was situated on 2648
West Grand Avenue in the middle of a Black
The Rise of Motown
neighbourhood. This gave them a chance
to prove themselves, something they could
The story of Berry Gordy and his rise from
a modest background to the ownership notofdo that easily at other record labels.
one of America's most successful record In this way, Gordy managed to attract an
companies, is one of the classic American
impressive roster of talent, among them the
success stories. The more so, given the Supremes,
fact the Four Tops, Martha and the
Vandellas, the Temptations, Marvin Gaye
that Gordy and most of the people associated
with the Motown label, were Black. After and Stevie Wonder. Others are less well
an unsuccessful bid to run a record store
known, but equally important, like Benn
and a few years of hard work at the Ford
Benjamin and Jamie Jamerson, the extreme
Motor Company, Berry Gordy in 1958 got a
talented rhythm section of the Funk Brothers
breakthrough when two songs he wrote Motown's
for house band and the driving forc
Black singer Jackie Wilson, 'To be loved' of
andmany Motown records. Producers an
'Reet petite', became big hits. Stimulatedsongwriters
by like Smokey Robinson - wh
this success, he tried to start his own record with his own group the Miracles was als
company, Tamla. His first big success was one of the most successful artists of the label
'Money' by Barrett Strong, which he co-wrote - Eddie Holland, Lamont Dozier and Brian
and was released on the Anna label, named Holland and Norman Whitfield were an
after his sister Anna, who also owned the integral part of the success of the Motown
record label. Though at first Gordy used label. Together they made 'crossover music
many different names for his record label, 'Crossover at that time meant that white
he soon settled for Motown, nicknamed, people would buy your records. Berry's
'Hitsville USA'. Quickly the Motown label concept in starting Motown was to make
became the home of a wide range of very music with a funky beat and great stories
successful artists and produced million seller that would be crossover, that would not be
after million seller. Blues. And that's what we did', according to
There are several reasons for Motown's Smokey Robinson (Hirshey, 1984, p. 133).
astonishing success. One reason was that It was not, however, only a matter of
Gordy was able to create an atmosphere in
atmosphere and an accumulation of talent,
it was also the way Gordy organized the
which Black artists felt at home. 'He [Gordy]
had a way of making us feel very wanted, way records were produced. As a former
very much a part of the family', according worker at Ford Motor Company, he knew
to Bertha Barbee-McNeal of the Velvelettes the way cars were produced, and he started
(Dahl, 2001, p. 16). Mary Wilson of the
to introduce methods from the automobile

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 DETROIT, CITY OF CARS, CITY OF MUSIC

industry to create the best possible records. 'It ruthlessly cannibalize old songs for spare
capitalized on the industrial ethos, marketingparts; verbal phrases, thematic ideas, musical
strategies and emerging technologies of figures, accompaniments . . . every song is a
automobile manufacturing, to create its collage', David Morse, historian of Motown,
music and promote its entertainers' (Smith, wrote in 1971 (George, 1985, p. 118). Hits had
1999, p. 104). In an interview for Rolling Stone, to be followed up by similar songs, 'Where
in 1990, Gordy, described how as a Ford did our love go', the first hit of the Supremes,
worker he had noticed how every person did was followed by 'Baby Love'; Martha and
a different thing and that he had wonderedthe Vandellas 'Heatwave', was followed by
how that system could be incorporated in'Quicksand', while the follow up to the Four
the creative process. 'It was just an idea ofTops 'Reach out I'll be there', was aptly called,
coming in one door and having all the things'It's the same old song'. Only when a formula
done. You know the writing, the producing,got stale, meaning less successful, were they
the artist development - that's the groomingallowed to try something different.
of the act, how to talk, how to speak, how to After a song was finished, it was sent to
walk, choreography, all that stuff. And whenQuality Control. Gordy later claimed he
you got through and you came out the door, had heard how such a system worked at
you were like a star, a potential star. It was Lincoln-Mercury Auto Company (Gordy,
just that assembly line approach to things'1994, p. 150). Quality was headed by Billie
(Abbott, 2001, p. 29). In his autobiographyJean Brown, not a producer herself, but
he said it in a more compact way: 'I wanted a trustee of Gordy. The members Quality
a place in which a kid from the street could Control listened to the new recordings and
walk in one door an unknown and come out decided which ones would be submitted to
the Friday evaluation meetings. These Friday
another a recording artist - a star' (Gordy,
1994, p. 140). meetings were, again according to Gordy, 'the
Artists who signed with the Motown labellifeblood of our operation' (Gordy, 1994, p.
151). It was there that the final decisions
first had to go through Artist Development.
Here they were taught how to behave in about
a the new recordings were made. All
the producers and songwriters were there
decent manner, to be polite, how to conduct
themselves during an interview and how to to protect their interests, fully aware of the
dress. They were instructed how to move fact that their careers could start and finish
on stage and learned increasingly intricate
at these meetings.
dance steps for their stage choreography.The production system of Motown could
still give a lot of creative liberty to the
Artist Development, 'turned unsophisticated
individual producers, but once they had
teenagers into polished entertainers' (Werner
1999, p. 19). The next step was the actualfinished their product, they had to submit
recording. Musicians at Motown had to workthemselves to the often harsh judgment of
Quality Control and the Friday meetings. It
at a very tight schedule. 'Sometimes we got
made the system very competitive. Friday at
called into the studio just to cut rhythm tracks
the evaluation meetings, only a few records
for songs that had not even been written yet'
remembered bandleader Earl van Dykegot 'the nod'. Sometimes competing versions
(George, 1985, p. 132). Musicians and singersof the same song were submitted at the
could be summoned at any time. When a
meeting. This happened for instance with the
musician did not immediately manage to get Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell hits, 'You're
all I need to get by' and 'Ain't nothing like the
the right tone or find the right chords, he was
instantly replaced by someone who could real do thing'. Recently a double CD was released
it right. Producers and song writers, often with tracks that did not make it through
Quality Control. The quality is staggering.
put these songs together bit by bit. 'They

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 MUSIC AND THE CITY

Why did we have to wait so long to hear the 'workers', had to learn qu
producers,
Gladys Knight and the Pips' wonderful
and show results otherwise they woul
'Pieces of my broken heart'? replaced and after repeated failures,
Usually, the same writers and producers, could even lose their jobs. Artists had t
worked with an act. Holland, Dozier and through Artist Development the same w
Holland for instance took care of Supremes, car had to go through the various stage
while Smokey Robinson was responsible decoration and finishing. In the end t
for the Temptations. These were extremely was Quality Control, the last check to f
successful combinations, but despite long out if the finished product met the h
periods of success, failure was not allowed. standards of the company. Ford and Go
'Get Ready' by the Temptations failed toshared a strong paternalism. Gordy like
reach a high position on the charts, it only call his company a family business, refe
went to 29, but reached number one in the not only to the important role of membe
Rhythm and Blues charts. 'A crack appeared his family, but also to the friendly family
in Smokey's armour', according to Berry atmosphere he wanted to achieve. We
Gordy (1994, p. 224). Norman Whitfield im find his paternalism in the racial solida
mediately took over from Smokey Robinson he wanted to install in his 'workers'. As
and produced 'Ain't too proud to beg', one of with Henry Ford, his paternalism was al
their biggest hits, a string of others would inspired by a desire to assert control. He, lik
follow, among them the classic, 'Pappa was a Ford, devised a system in which as little as
Rolling Stone'. possible was left to chance.
There are some obvious similarities However, one might ask, can we reall
between Fordism and the way Gordy
compare
organthe building of cars to the creativ
ized his record company. Musicians andof music and the making of records
process

Motown hit singles that reached the Billboard top 40 in 1964.

Title Artist Highest chart position

Baby don't you do it Marvin Gaye 27

Baby Love The Supremes 1
Baby I need your Lovin' The Four Tops 11
Come see about me The Supremes 1
Dancing in the Street Martha and the Vandellas 2
Every little Bit hurts Brenda Holloway 13
Girl (Why you wanna make me blue)
The Temptations 26
Giving up Gladys Knight and the Pips 38
Hey Harmonica Man Stevie Wonder 29
I like it like that The Miracles 27
I'll be in Trouble The Temptations 33
My Guy Mary Wells 1
Once upon a Time Marvin Gaye and Mary Wells 19
Quicksand Martha and the Vandellas 8
Talking about my Baby The Temptations 12
That's what Love is made of The Miracles 35
Too many Fish in the Sea The Marvelettes 25
Try it Baby Marvin Gaye 15
The Way you do the Things you do The Temptations 25
What's the Matter with you Baby Marvin Gaye and Mary Wells 17
Where did our Love go The Supremes 1
Wilde One Martha and the Vandellas 34
You're a wonderful One Marvin Gaye 15

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 DETROIT, CITY OF CARS, CITY OF MUSIC

In some ways, yes, it is possible. The of a company like Motown in a Southern

Motown production line probably was the city at that time. Not only for the obvious
closest thing a record company ever came to reason that in the 1960s a Black-owned
assembly-line production. In the 1960s record record label would have had a bad time in
making often seemed a matter of chance, but any Southern city but also because Motown
since the Beatles' 'Sergeant Pepper' and the was influenced by ethnic European musical
Beach Boy's 'Pet Sounds', artists have taken styles that would have been highly unlikely
the freedom to spend much more time in in the South. Of course, in the South White
the studio, sometimes needing a year or country music and Anglo-Saxon folk music,
more to finish a record. Compared to that, had an important influence on Black music,
Motown was extremely efficient and very but late nineteenth- and early twentieth
well organized indeed. century European migration, largely by
Despite the fact that production was so passed the South. So only in northern cities
highly organized and in many ways, de could Black musicians be influenced by, for
individualized, the results, certainly until the instance, Italian music. These cross cultural
late 1960s, were of an extremely high quality. influences were certainly not confined to
Almost forty years later the music of Motown Detroit, listen to the music of the Drifters
has lost nothing of its vigour and beauty. The and other Black vocal groups, who made
miracle of Motown is that, at least for a while, good use of the song writing talents of
Gordy was able to combine his assembly-line White New York composers like Jerry Leiber
production philosophy, with the individual and Mike Stoller, Gerry Goffin and Carole
genius of his highly talented 'workers'. After King, and Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil.
1968 it did not work anymore. Artists likeSecond, what is striking about the Motown
Stevie Wonder and Marvin Gaye asked for production style is the willingness of all the
much more creative freedom. Producers participants, most of them highly talented
like Holland, Dozier and Holland left the on their own, to work together as a team
company because of financial and creative and to submit themselves to the higher goals
conflicts. When the company left Detroit of the company. The Motown production
for Los Angeles in 1972, there would still be line has been called, 'Fordism in music'
some great music, but the days of Hitsville and while it is not necessary to expect Ford
USA, when Motown was 'the heartbeat of like production systems only in Detroit, it is
popular music in America' were over, 'the nevertheless difficult to imagine this type of
magic of the production line has been lost, musical production to be successful in more
discarded, or buried' (George, 1985, p. 202). individualized places like New York and
California. In fact, as we have seen, when
Motown and Detroit
Gordy moved his company to Los Angeles,
the musical direction changed and individual
Is Motown's music typical for Detroit, or were given the room they had lacked
artists
could 'the magic of Motown' have happened
in the years of the production line. Which in
the case of artists like Stevie Wonder, Marvin
in other northern cities? Of course a question
like this cannot be answered conclusively, Gaye and Michael Jackson and the Jackson
as Berry Gordy was born in Detroit, Five,
and could still result in classic records.
this fact alone may be sufficient to explain Highly segregated Memphis gave rise to
why Motown happened in Detroit and 'Rock
notand Roll' a kind of music that was
in another city. However, it can be argued, the product of Black and White musical
that at least the urban environment of this influences. Detroit, in many ways an even
city, made the rise of Motown easier. First more segregated city, gave rise to Motown, a
of all, it is very difficult to imagine the rise Black record label, producing music popular

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 MUSIC AND THE CITY

London:
with Blacks and Whites. Their musical styleWeidenfeld and Nicolson, pp. 553
603.
was heavily influenced by Black musical
traditions, but with an important Hirshey,
EuropeanGerri (1984) Nowhere to Run: The Story of
Soul Music. New York: Times Books.
influence. Like Memphis 'Rock and Roll', the
Hoskyns, Barney (1997) Say It One More Time for
mutual cultural heritage made it attractive
the Brokenhearted. The Countryside of Southern
to Blacks and Whites. Unlike Memphis, the
Soul. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.
music from Detroit was not only the result
Kloosterman, Robert C. and Quispel, Chris (1990)
of cross cultural influences, but also of the
Not just the same old show on my radio: An
combination of Black entrepreneurship andof the role of radio in the diffusion of
analysis
White production techniques. black music among whites in the South of the
United States of America, 1920 to 1960. Popular
Music, 9(2), pp. 151-164.
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