European Food Research and Technology

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-023-04343-5

ORIGINAL PAPER

Determination of the quality of smoked sea herring (Sardinella

maderensis) produced by three smoking processes practiced in Ivory
Coast
Mariam Cisse1,2 · Gaoussou Karamoko1 · Mohamed Cisse2 · Christine Chene3 · Romdhane Karoui1

Received: 23 April 2023 / Revised: 26 July 2023 / Accepted: 29 July 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess the impact of smoking processes applied in the Ivory Coast on the quality of sea herring
(Sardinella maderensis) collected from fishermen in the port of Abidjan. The samples were divided into three groups and
smoked using three smoking processes. The first two processes are based on including two artisanal smoking kilns with the
use of mangrove wood as combustible for one, and the rubber wood for the other. The third process is based on improved
kiln using FAO-Thiaroye processing Technique (FTT) with the combination of mangrove wood and coconut shells as com-
bustible. The results revealed that the highest values for pH (6.57 ± 0.09), moisture (54.14 g/100 g ± 1.61), peroxide value
(31.75 ± 1.89 meq ­O2/kg of fish), and total volatile basic nitrogen (37.03 ± 2.78 mg/100 g of fish) were found in samples made
with traditional smoking systems using rubberwood. The factorial discriminant analysis (FDA) applied to the concatenated
fluorescence spectra of aromatic amino acids and nucleic acids (AAA + NA) resulted in a 78.52% correct classification rate
of samples. Samples treated with rubberwood were the best discriminated, while those treated with mangrove wood and
mangrove wood combined with coconut shell remained confused due to the common used fuel: mangrove wood.

Keywords Smoking process · Fluorescence · Physico-chemical · Sea herring

Introduction Given the high level of fish consumption in the Ivory

Fish is one of the most widely consumed aquatic products
in the world, with average global consumption estimated at
17 kg of fish per capita per year [1]. Iceland, the Republic of
Korea, Portugal, Norway, Japan, and Malaysia are the big-
gest consumers of fish, consuming between 50 and 90 kg per
capita per year [1]. In some African countries, such as Ivory
Coast, fish is the most sought-after food in many households
[2]. It occupies an important place in the Ivorian diet, with
an average per capita consumption of 15 to 16 kg/year/per-
son [3], and the most popular fish on the market are Horse
Mackerel and Sardinella [4].
* Romdhane Karoui
romdhane.karoui@univ-artois.fr
1
Univ. Artois, Univ. Lille, Univ. Littoral Côte d’Opale, Univ.
Picardie Jules Verne, Univ. de Liège, INRAE, Junia, UMR-T
1158, BioEcoAgro, 62300 Lens, France
2
Univ. Péléforo Gon Coulibaly, Korhogo, Ivory Coast
3
Adrianor, Rue Jacquart, 62217 Tilloy‑les‑Mofflaines, France
Coast, preservation techniques are one of the most sustain-
able solutions for extending the shelf life of fish, which
remains a highly perishable product due to its composition.
However, fish preservation remains very difficult in develop-
ing countries like Ivory Coast due to the lack of adequate
infrastructure [5]. Among the preservation techniques,
smoking is the technique most used in Côte d’Ivoire [3].
This process brings new sensory and textural characteristics
to fish [6] and also produces antimicrobial substances, such
as phenols and formaldehyde [7].
Smoking is a technique that involves impregnating
foodstuffs with the components of smoke to give them
a specific, highly sought-after taste and odor obtained
during the combustion of wood [8]. In Ivory Coast, sev-
eral species of smoked fish are consumed such as Sar-
dinella maderensis that was reported as the raw mate-
rial most commonly used for smoking (60–65 g/100 g)
(60–65 g/100 g) [9]. Ivoirian smoked fish sector’s actors
use kilns, ranging from traditional to improved kilns
[10]. The former process kilns are made from a circular
metal sheet and a parallelepiped-shaped oven. The latter

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remains, that is the most widely used in Abidjan and its
around [11]. The circular sheet-metal kiln is used mainly
in inland towns outside Abidjan, while in some villages,
its rather traditional round mud kilns are used. However,
the use of these traditional kilns with limited capacity is
confronted with: (i) heat and smoke losses, (ii) excessive
fuel consumption, (ii) carbonization of products, and (iv)
sanitary quality of fish. Face all identified shortcomings,
reflections have been conducted to make improvements
to the practices of fish processors where the majority
of them are women. This is how a proven fish smoking
technology called FAO-Thiaroye Processing Technique
(FTT) is that originated. This technology was developed
by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the
National Training Centre for Fisheries and Aquaculture
Technicians (CNFTPA) in Senegal [12]. Since 2008, it has
been used in several African countries, in particular Ivory
Coast and to date, it has been disseminated to Asian and
Pacific countries. The FTT-Thiaroye kilns include Altona,
Chorkor, Parpaing, and Thiaroye. The FTT-Thiaroye is a
smoking system based on an indirect smoking process.
The major innovation of this system was to separate the
cooking phase from the smoking phase (exposure of the
product to smoke). Then, to prevent the grease from the
cooking product from falling onto the fuel and in turn
generating deposits of tar particles on the product, and
finally to filter and lower the temperature of this smoke
[13]. The advantages of the FTT-Thiaroye oven are that it
improves product quality by reducing the polycyclic aro-
matic hydrocarbon content and giving the fish a uniform
color, it can operate in all weather conditions, and it helps
to protect the environment by reducing wood consumption
as a fuel [12].
Fuel also plays a very important role in the smoking pro-
cess, as the type of wood used. This latter has a major influ-
ence on the color, flavor, and smell of the smoked fish [14].
Fuels are used in the form of sawdust, shavings, or logs.
Each type of wood has its specific organoleptic characteristic
[15]. The wood used should generally be semi-dry, since
hardwoods produce less soot than softwoods. Softwoods,
painted or varnished woods, plywood, or other materials
composed of several kinds of wood should be avoided, as the
combustion of the paint, colorants, varnish, and chemicals
generates more toxic and carcinogenic substances than pure
wood [16]. Indeed, rubberwood, considered a carcinogenic
wood, is the most commonly used wood for the traditional
smoking process, while redwood or mangrove wood is more
commonly used for the improved smoking process [10, 17].
Fish smoking was the subject of several studies in the
Ivory Coast, including socio-health analyses of fish smok-
ing [18, 19], determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocar-
bons [10, 20] and microbiological parameters [9, 11]. Money
et al. [14] depicted the impact of the smoking technique on
13
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European Food Research and Technology
the quality of smoked herring (Sardinella maderensis) by
assessing trace metal elements. In fact, the authors depicted
that the technique used to smoke herring significantly
increase cadmium and lead levels, and decreased mercury
amounts.
To our best knowledge, to date, no studies were carried
out on the characterization of smoked sea herring using
physico-chemical and fluorescence techniques in Ivory
Coast. Consequently, the main objective of the present study
was to assess the effect of the smoking process on the qual-
ity of sea herring (Sardinella maderensis) through the use
of targeted and untargeted techniques (physico-chemical,
colorimetry, and fluorescence spectroscopy).
Materials and methods
Chemicals and reagents
All chemical reagents used in this study were of analytical
grade. Acetic acid, chloroform, saturated potassium iodide,
trichloroacetic acid, perchloric acid, and boric acid were pur-
chased from VWR International, while sodium thiosulfate
was obtained from AppliCham.
Preparation of smoked fish samples
Forty-five samples of fresh herring (Sardinella maderensis)
ranging in weight and length from 150 to 229 g and 25 cm
to 31 cm, respectively, were collected from fishermen in the
port of Abidjan (Ivory Coast). The samples were then kept in
polystyrene boxes filled with ice and transported to the vari-
ous smoking sites in less than 1 h. The forty-five (45) fresh
sea herring were randomly divided into three batches of 15
samples and smoked by three smoking processes, as shown
in Fig. 1 (an improved smoking process using FAO-Thiaroye
processing Technique with a combination of mangrove wood
and coconut husk (ISMWC); and two artisanal smoking pro-
cesses from artisanal kilns-based, fueled by mangrove wood
(ASMW) and rubberwood (ASRW)). Before each smoking
process, fish were washed and left on grills to drain all the
wash water for 15 min. Measurements of the temperature
for each oven were determined with a digital thermometer
(Checktemp 1, Hanna Instruments), by inserting the probe
into the oven and into the heart of the fish during the smok-
ing. The characteristics of the three smoking processes are
mentioned below:
(i) Improved smoking process (ISMWC) (Fig. 1a): fish
were smoked in FTT-Thiaroye kiln using a combina-
European Food Research and Technology
Fig. 1  Smoking process practiced in Ivory Coast. a Improved smoking process at FTT oven with mangrove wood and coconut shell; b traditional
smoking process with mangrove wood; c traditional smoking process with rubber wood
tion of mangrove wood and coconut husk as fuel at a
temperature that varied from 65 to 90 °C for 4 h;
(ii) Artisanal smoking process (ASMW) (Fig. 1b): man-
grove wood was used as fuel and smoking tempera-
ture varied between 60 and 95 °C for 3 h;
(iii) And artisanal smoking process (ASRW) (Fig. 1c)
where the temperature ranged from 60 to 95 °C for
3 h and rubberwood is used as a fuel.
After the smoking process, fish samples were kept
at room temperature for 30 min and then packaged in
a cardboard box. The smoked fish samples were kept at
4 °C and then transported in less than 24 h in polystyrene
boxes with dry ice to the UMR-T BioEcoAgro INRAe
1158 laboratory (France) for various analyses.
Physico‑chemical analysis
The pH value was measured directly on the smoked sea
herring sample using a digital pH meter (WTW pH 330i
Taschen-pH-Meter, WTW GmbH) [20]. The moisture
content was determined by drying 10 g of sea herring
flesh in an oven (Air Concept, FIRLABO, Emerainville,
France) at 105 °C for 24 h [21].
The peroxide value (PV) was determined by the pro-
cedure developed by Guizani et al. [22]. The values were
expressed as milliequivalents of peroxide oxygen per kg
­ 2/kg of fish). The thiobarbituric acid reac-
of fish (meq O
tive substances (TBARS) value, expressed as mg malonal-
dehyde (MDA)/kg of fish), was evaluated according to the
method of Karoui & Hassoun [20]. The absorbance was
determined at 532 nm using a UV-2600 visible spectro-
photometer (Shimadzu, France).
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) content,
expressed in mg TVB-N/100 g of fish, was determined
using the KjeldahlTM 8100 automatic analyzer (Foss,
France) according to the Regulation (EC) No. 2074/2005,
(2008). All the analyses were made in triplicate.
Colorimetric measurements
The color measurements were performed directly on sea
herring samples using CR-300 spectrocolorimeter (Kon-
ica Minolta Sensing Europe, Roissy Charles De Gaulle,
France), following the system of CIE (1976) and accord-
ing to the method described by Botosoa et al. [23]. L*
describes lightness (L* = 0 for black; L* = 100 for white),
a* describes intensity in red (+ 60 = red; − 60 = green), b*
describes intensity in yellow (+ 60 = yellow; − 60 = blue).
All the analyses were made in triplicate.
Fluorescence measurements
Fluorescence measurements were performed using a Fluo-
romax-4 spectrofluorometer (Jobin Yvon, Horiba, NJ, USA)
equipped with a thermostatically controlled cell placed in a
front angle cell holder set at 60 °C to reduce reflected light
and a Haake A25 CA 200 temperature controller (Thermo
Scientific, France) to control the temperature during analy-
sis. The smoked fish were ground with a Retsch type (GM
200) mill for 1 min at a speed of 3000 rpm, then 2–3 g of
fish were placed in a 10 mm quartz cell, and the spectra were
scanned at 20 °C. The emission spectra of aromatic amino
acids and nucleic acids (AAA + NA) (290–400 nm), trypto-
phan residues (305–450 nm), nicotinamide adenine dinucle-
otide (NADH) (360–600 nm), and riboflavin (405–650 nm)
were acquired with an excitation wavelength set at 250,
13
 European Food Research and Technology

290, 340, and 380 nm, respectively. The excitation spectra
of vitamin A (250–390 nm) were recorded with the emission
wavelength set at 410 nm. For each sample, three measure-
ments were made.
Multidimensional data analysis
To differentiate between the three smoking techniques,
ANOVA was applied to the physico-chemical and colorimet-
ric data using Fisher’s method at a level of 5 g/100 g. The
fluorescence data were subjected to normalization by reduc-
ing the area under each spectrum to a value of 1 [24]. Prin-
cipal component analysis (PCA) and factorial discriminant
analysis (FDA) were then applied to the normalized data to
study the difference between the smoked herring samples.
Finally, the first 5 PCs of the PCA applied to each fluo-
rophore (AAA + NA, tryptophan, NADH, riboflavin, and
vitamin A) representing more than 99% of the total variance
were combined into a single matrix, and the new table was
analyzed by the FDA with leave-one-out cross-validation
factorial analysis [25]. Statistical analyses were performed
using Matlab and XLSTAT 2013 Software.
Results and discussion
Physico‑chemical parameters of smoked sea herring
The physico-chemical data are summarized in Table 1a. The
pH value of smoked sea herring ranged from 6.28 ± 0.03 to
6.57 ± 0.09 and showed a significant difference (p < 0.05)
according to the smoking process. The highest pH value was
observed for smoked fish produced with the artisanal smok-
ing system using rubber wood as combustion (ASRW), while
the lowest pH value was obtained for smoked fish made with
the improved smoking system using mangrove wood and
coconut shell as fuel (ISMWC). It should be noted that the
pH values obtained for the smoked fish in our study were: (i)
close to those observed by Adegunwa et al. [26] on smoked
herring (Sardinella eba) where pH ranging between 5.92
and 6.57 was obtained; and (ii) higher than those depicted
by Osheba [27] who observed values in the 5.79–6.14 for
smoked sea herring. Generally, a lower pH value is preferred
as it increases the shelf life and induces better organoleptic
characteristics of the product [28]. The change in the pH val-
ues between the three smoking processes could be attributed
to the: (i) difference in the production amount of volatile
basic compounds, such as ammonia, trimethylamine, and
total volatile nitrogen by fish spoilage bacteria [29]; and/or
(ii) absorption of some organic acids and ­CO2 by the flesh
during the smoking process [30].
The highest moisture content was found for the
smoked sea herring samples from ASRW with a value of
54.1 g/100 g, while the lowest one was noted for the smoked
sea herring from ASMW presenting a moisture content of
45.32 g/100 g. The moisture content of smoked sea her-
ring varied from 49.35 to 54.14 g/100 g, lower than the
fresh herring which presented a level of moisture content of
77.24 g/100 g This means that smoking reduced the mois-
ture content of herring between 27.89 and 23.1 g/100 g.

Table 1  (a) Physico-chemical and (b) color parameters of smoked sea herring samples (Sardinella maderensis) under different smoking condi-
tions
(a) Physico-chemical
Smoking process pH Moisture (g/100 g) Peroxide value (Meq TBARS (Mg MDA/ TVB-N
­O2/kg of fish) kg of fish) (Mg/100 g of
fish)

Improved system ISMWC 6.28 ± 0.03a 49.35 ± 0.65a 18.28 ± 0.63a 1.29 ± 0.27a 27.85 ± 1.72a
Artisanal system ASMW 6.45 ± 0.04b 45.32 ± 2.36b 21.65 ± 1.72b 2.51 ± 0.28a 20.04 ± 0.68b
Artisanal system ASRW 6.57 ± 0.09c 54.14 ± 1.61c 31.75 ± 1.89c 1.71 ± 0.65a 37.03 ± 2.78c
(b) Color parameters
Smoking process L* a* b* ΔE*

Improved system ISMWC 60.4 ± 0.04a 2.46 ± 0.01a 26.89 ± 0.01a 66.16 ± 0.03a
Artisanal system ASMW 62.02 ± 0.03b 1.69 ± 0.00b 21.20 ± 0.01b 65.56 ± 0.03b
Artisanal system ASRW 67.05 ± 0.01c 0.64 ± 0.01c 21.54 ± 0.01c 70.43 ± 0.01c

(a) Different lowercase letters (a, b, c) in column represent statistical differences between the different smoking systems ((ISMWC) improved
system at FTT oven with mangrove wood and coconut husk; (ASMW) artisanal system with mangrove wood, and (ASRW) artisanal system
with rubberwood) at the 5% level of significance according to Fisher’s test; TBARS thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, TVB-N total volatile
basic nitrogen. (b) L* corresponds to luminance from 0 (black) to 100 (white), a* corresponds to the intensity of red (positive values) and green
(negative values) and b* characterizes the intensity of blue (positive values) and yellow (negative values); ΔE* corresponds to the total color
difference

13

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European Food Research and Technology
Industrial specifications for smoked products generally rec-
ommend a moisture content in flesh fish below 65 g/100 g
according to Cardinal et al. [31]. Our values were in agree-
ment with this observation and were close to those obtained
by Adegunwa et al. [26], Osheba [27], and Gassem [32],
who, respectively, noted moisture content values ranging
between 50.68 and 77.75 g/100 g, 52.71–60.91 g/100 g, and
44.8 to 53.46 g/100 g for the smoked sea herring (Sardinella
eba), smoked herring, and fermented salted fish, respec-
tively. The levels of moisture content in the present study
are greater than those reported by Adegunwa et al. [26] who
noted moisture contents varying from 7.16 to 10.71 g/100 g
for Nigerian smoked catfish. Furthermore, the moisture
content values of smoked sea herring samples showed a
significant difference (p < 0.05) according to the smoking
process. The smoked sea herring from ISMWC exhibited an
intermediate value of 49.35 g/100 g (± 0.65). The variation
in moisture content of smoked fish is caused by different
factors of smoking processes such as the smoking time and
the temperature. The combination of coconut shell and man-
grove wood for smoking causes a slow combustion of the
wood which would lead to the formation of a layer of burn
charcoal. According to Nithin et al. [28], this charcoal layer
would facilitate efficient heat transfer explaining the lower
moisture content in samples from the improved smoking
system. Furthermore, it is clear that traditional smoking does
not reduce the amount of water in the fish, as the difference
between improved and traditional kilns lies in the design of
the kilns and the fuels used. As traditional kilns are made
from a metal barrel, it allows air and smoke to escape during
the smoking process, resulting in a large amount of water
in the fish. In addition to the design of the oven and the
fuel used during smoking, we can also note a smoking time
and temperature variability, as the temperature of traditional
kilns ranges from 60 to 95 °C for 3 h, against 60 to 90 °C for
4 h for improved. All these factors contribute to limiting the
shelf life of fish from traditional kilns, due to the high-water
content of the fish.
The PV is one of the indicators that determine the level
of lipid oxidation [22, 33]. The PV of sea herring smoked
under different smoking conditions showed a maximum
value for ASRW (31.75 ± 1.89 meq O ­ 2/kg of fish), a mini-
mum value for ISMWC (18.28 ± 0.63 meq ­O2/kg of fish),
and an intermediate value for ASMW (21.65 ± 1.72 meq
­O2/kg of fish). The PV of smoked fish using the ISMWC
process was in line with the conclusions of Majumdar et al.
[33], who obtained values of 16.27, 16.31, and 19.12 meq
­O2/kg of fish, respectively, for Channa striatus, Glossogob-
ius giuris, and Wallago attu. The PV of smoked fish samples
produced with ISMWC and ASMW conditions was within
the acceptable limits of PV according to Jónsdóttir et al.
[34], as it is less than 20 meq O ­ 2/kg of fish. The increase
in PV in ASRW-treated samples is thought to be due to the
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high level of oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish
muscle [34], since, according to Coulibaly et al. [10], rubber
wood is known to be highly toxic in terms of polycyclic aro-
matic hydrocarbons and is not very rich in polyphenols, thus
promoting rapid oxidation in ASRW-treated samples. On the
other hand, the lowest PV observed in ISMWC conditions
could be due to fat saturation by smoke constituents, which
have strong antioxidant properties [35]. It is well known that
the chemical composition of smoke is variable depending
on the temperature and the amount of air present during
pyrolysis [36]. The association of mangrove wood and the
coconut shell used in improved artisanal smoking conditions
[28] might increase the phenolic compounds in smoked sam-
ples under ISMWC conditions, because the coconut shell
would contain 1518 mg/L of phenol. In addition to the fuels
used, temperature plays an important role in lipid oxidation,
because, according to Ramanathan [37], the extent of lipid
oxidation of smoked fish increased after cooking. Indeed,
temperature probably disrupts the muscle membrane system,
thereby exposing lipid components to oxygen and other reac-
tion catalysts such as iron [38]. The higher the temperature,
the more the samples are exposed to lipid oxidation.
The TBARS index is widely used as an indicator of the
freshness of meat and fish [39–41]. The TBARS value
ranged from 1.29 to 2.51 mg MDA/kg of fish for smoked
sea herring samples under different smoking conditions.
These values are within the acceptable limit according to
the Egyptian standards (2005), which depicted that TBARS
values of smoked fish should not exceed 4.5 mg MDA/kg
of fish. Our values are: (i) similar to those reported by Gok-
tepe et al. [41] and Osheba [27], who found 1.19–1.49 mg
MDA/kg of fish for smoked catfish filets stored in air at 2
and 8 °C, and 0.51–1.85 mg MDA/kg for smoked herring
(Clupea harengus), respectively, and (ii) higher than those
observed by Adegunwa et al. [26], who noted values ranging
between 0.02 and 0.11 mg MDA/Kg of smoked herring fish
(Sardinella eba). The low TBARS values could be attributed
to the antioxidant activity of phenols in the smoke absorbed
by the fish during the smoking process and also depending
on the smoking method and temperature [42]. On the other
hand, the increase in the TBARS value could be attributed
to the partial dehydration of the fish and the increased oxi-
dation of unsaturated fatty acids resulting from smoking at
relatively high temperatures (up to 70 °C) [43].
The TVB-N value is an important indicator of fish fresh-
ness, which reflects the degree of protein and amine deg-
radation [44]. A limit of acceptability of 25–30 mg TVB-
N/100 g fish was defined as the TVB-N level above which
smoked fish is considered unfit for human consumption [45].
The TVB-N level of smoked sea herring samples produced
under different smoking conditions ranged from 20.04 to
37.03 mg TVB-N/100 g of fish. Only smoked fish samples
from ISMWC and ASMW conditions showed values within
13

limit acceptability (27.85 and 20.04 mg TVB-N/100 g of
fish, respectively), indicating that these samples were suit-
able for human consumption. These results confirmed that
those obtained with the PV and are in disagreement with the
values obtained with the TBARS. The smoked sea herring
samples from ASRW exhibited values above the accept-
able limit (37.03 mg TVB-N/100 g of fish). Nevertheless,
our results were lower than those reported by Gassem [32],
who found TVB-N values varying of 32.20–131.82 mg
TVB-N/100 g of fish for salted fermented fish. Accord-
ing to El-Sherif et al. [46], the increased TVB-N levels in
smoked samples are mainly caused by an autolytic process
that produces compounds from volatile amines. This could
be attributed to the action of hydrolysis of proteins caused
by enzymes for a long time and the lowering of heat tem-
perature during smoking. The highest TVB-N values were
observed for smoked samples under ASRW conditions. This
trend could be explained by the presence of an important
amount of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the rubber
wood [10]. Indeed, according to the findings of Stołyhwo
and Sikorski [47], traditional oven-smoked fish samples con-
tain high levels of BaP (50 µg/kg) compared to improved
oven-smoked fish samples. The increase in TVB-N values
could also be explained by the fact that the traditional smok-
ing technique does not allow to reduce significantly the level
of water in the final product allowing it to expose the product
to the proliferation of microorganisms. This could induce the
formation of ammonia, dimethylamine, and trimethylamine
in fish [48].
Colorimetric parameters of smoked sea herring
Table 1b shows the color parameters for the studied smoked
sea herring. A significant difference at (p < 0.05) was noted
between the smoked fish samples, indicating that the color
Fig. 2  a Similarity map of PCA determined by principal component
(PC1) and (PC2) of physico-chemical and colorimetric parameters of
smoked sea herring samples (Sardinella maderensis) under ISMWC
(improved system of mangrove Wood and Coconut shell) (square),
13
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European Food Research and Technology
parameters of fish samples were affected by the smoking
processes. Regarding the L* value (luminosity index),
the highest value was found for the samples from ASRW
67.05 ± 0.01, which could be explained by the denatura-
tion and oxidation of the proteins as depicted by Karoui
et al. [49] and Boughattas et al. [50] for fresh and frozen-
thawed sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) filets and sturgeon
(Acipenser gueldenstaedtii) stored at 4 °C, respectively. In
addition, the a* and b* parameters exhibited the highest
values for the samples smoked under ISMWC conditions,
respectively, of 2.46 ± 0.01 and 26.89 ± 0.01. This indicates
a movement in the color of the fish flesh tending toward red
and yellow color. The ISMWC conditions allowed fish to
have a flesh color going toward red and yellow. It should
be noted that the improved system has a smoke generator
unlike the traditional system where the fish is smoked in the
open, giving uneven coloring to the fish during the smoking
process. These results are in agreement with those obtained
by Asamoah et al. [51], who obtained 60.56 ± 12.25 for L*;
2.66 ± 2.49 for a*and 20.03 ± 0.95 for b* on smoked mack-
erel skin and muscle. However, our results are different from
those obtained by Rybicka et al. [52], who reported values
for smoked mackerel samples varying from 49.2 to 55.6 for
L*, 1.6 to 3.3 for a*, and 17.0 to 20.0 for b*.
To obtain more information on the evolution of color
parameters between the fish samples under different smok-
ing conditions, the total color difference (ΔE) was deter-
mined. The highest value was observed for samples smoked
under ASRW conditions (70.43 ± 0.01) and the lowest one
was noted for those produced under ASMW (65.56 ± 0.03)
and ISMWC (66.16 ± 0.03) conditions. Our ΔE values
were different from those obtained by Birkeland & Bjerk-
eng [53], where ΔE values of 4.5 ± 1.2 and 5.1 ± 1.1 were
observed for cold smoked Atlantic salmon filets kept at
4 °C and 12 °C, respectively. Furthermore, according to
ASMW (artisanal mangrove wood system) (circle), and ASRW (arti-
sanal rubberwood system) (triangle) conditions; b correlation chart of
variables
European Food Research and Technology
Fig. 3  Normalized fluorescence emission spectra of a AAA + NA
(excitation 250 nm; emission 290–400 nm), b tryptophan residues
(excitation 290 nm; emission 305–450 nm), c NADH (excitation
340 nm; emission 360–600 nm), d riboflavin (excitation 380 nm;
emission 405–650 nm), and e vitamin A (excitation 250–390 nm;
Lerfall and Rotabakk. [54], the observed color differences
between the samples might explain how the smoke com-
ponents reacted with the chemical compounds like fatty
acids in the muscle.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
emission 410 nm) recorded on sea herring samples (Sardinella made-
rensis) samples under ISMWC (improved system at FTT oven using
mangrove wood and coconut shell) (hyphen dashed lines), ASMW
(artisanal mangrove wood system) (doted lines), and ASRW (Artisa-
nal rubberwood system) (thick line) conditions
Analyses of physico‑chemical and colorimetric
parameters using PCA
The PCA similarity map and the correlation map performed
on the physico-chemical and colorimetric data are shown
in Fig. 2a and b, respectively. A clear discrimination was
observed between fish according to the smoking conditions
13

Fig. 4  Discriminant analysis similarity determined by discriminant
factor F1 and F2, FDA performed on the 25 concatenated PCs cor-
responding to the PCA performed on fluorescence spectra of sea her-
ring samples (Sardinella maderensis) under ISMWC (improved sys-
tem at FTT oven using mangrove wood and coconut shell) (square),
ASMW (artisanal mangrove wood system) (circle), and ASRW (arti-
sanal rubberwood system) (triangle) conditions
from the map defined by PC1 and PC2, representing 74.4%
and 23.7% of the total variance, respectively (Fig. 2a). This
map showed the presence of three groups. Indeed, according
to the PC1, smoked samples from ASRW exhibited posi-
tive score values, while those from ISMWC had negative
score values. Regarding smoked samples from ISMW, they
presented negative score values according to the PC2 and
were differentiated from the two other groups. Discrimina-
tion based on the chemical composition of the combustibles
was highlighted according to the smoking conditions.
To investigate the basis of this discrimination between the
smoked sea herring samples according to their smoking con-
ditions, the correlation circle was studied (Fig. 2b). Accord-
ing to the PC1, fish samples from ASRW were character-
ized by higher values of moisture content, TVB-N, PV, pH,
L*, and total difference of color, while those from ISMWC
exhibited the higher values of b* and a*. The PC2 showed
a higher value of TBARS for ISMW samples.
Evaluation of fluorescence measurements
of smoked sea herring fish
Figure 3a shows the normalized AAA + NA emission spectra
recorded on smoked sea herring under ISMWC, ASMW,
and ASRW conditions. It appears that the AAA + NA emis-
sion spectra of sea herring under different smoking con-
ditions were similar. It should be noted that the shape of
AAA + NA spectra recorded after excitation at 250 nm
depends on the content of proteins and nucleic acids, their
structures, and the interactions of proteins with other cel-
lular components [55]. The highest fluorescence intensity
was observed at 394 nm, which could be due to the presence
of phenolic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
European Food Research and Technology
and/or carbonyl compounds. This trend was confirmed by
the tryptophan emission spectra presented in Fig. 3b, which
showed a similar trend as AAA + NA spectra with a maxi-
mum fluorescence intensity at 376 nm. It appeared that the
tryptophan emission spectra were not also affected by the
smoking conditions.
The normalized NADH, riboflavin, and vitamin A spectra
acquired on smoked sea herring samples (Fig. 3c–e, respec-
tively) allowed a better clear differentiation between samples
as a function of the smoking conditions. The NADH spectra
acquired on ASRW samples showed maximum fluorescence
intensity at 475 nm, while those belonging to ASMW and
ISMWC exhibited a maximum fluorescence intensity at 474
and 473 nm, respectively. Furthermore, the spectra of the
samples from ASRW showed the highest fluorescence inten-
sity compared to the spectra of the samples from the two
other groups. The difference in the fluorescence intensity
between the investigated samples could be due to the pres-
ence of many different fluorescent compounds in the smoke.
Given the results obtained with smoked herring NADH
emission spectra, it could be concluded that the NADH
could be more oxidized in ASRW condition, indicating that
NADH spectra can be considered as a fingerprint to differ-
entiate the smoked fish according to the smoking conditions.
For the riboflavin spectra (Fig. 3d), the maximum fluo-
rescence intensity was located at 518 nm for ASRW, 513
and 512 for ISMWC and ASMW samples, respectively. The
maximum peaks could be attributed to the proto-porphyrin
IX. Furthermore, in the 400–500 nm region, β-carotene may
undergo photo-degradation [56], which may influence the
shape of the riboflavin spectra. According to Durek et al.
[57], the storage process accelerates the development of
porphyrin-producing microorganisms and activates the
enzymes involved. The use of rubber wood as a fuel seems to
accelerate the growth of microorganisms in ASRW samples,
because according to Chabi et al. [48], traditional smok-
ing does not meet hygienic standards, hence the presence of
porphyrin-producing microorganisms in rubberwood-treated
samples.
The spectra of vitamin A acquired on the smoked sea her-
ring samples under different smoking conditions showed two
dominant peaks located at 295 and 351 nm for all the inves-
tigated samples (Fig. 3e). The highest fluorescence intensity
of the first peak was observed for the ASRW samples and the
highest fluorescence intensity of the second peak was noted
for ASMW and ISMWC samples. This difference could be
attributed to the different physical states of triglycerides in
fat globules, and/or the membrane interactions of fat glob-
ules with the protein network and/or lipid–lipid interactions
as reported by Karoui et al. [58]. According to Rustad [59],
lipid oxidation products can interact with amino acids, pep-
tides, proteins, nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
and phospholipids to form fluorescent products. All these
European Food Research and Technology

Table 2  Classification table of Smoking process ASRW ASMW ISMWC Total Correct clas-
samples of smoked sea herring sification (%)
(Sardinella maderensis) under
different smoking conditions: AAA + NA
(ISMWC) improved system at
Improved system ISMWC 2 10 33 45 73.33
FTT oven, (ASMW) artisanal
system, and (ASRW) artisanal Artisanal system ASMW 5 29 11 45 64.44
system Artisanal system ASRW 44 1 0 45 97.78
Total 51 40 44 135 78.52
NADH
Improved system ISMWC 5 14 26 45 57.78
Artisanal system ASMW 8 19 18 45 42.22
Artisanal system ASRW 39 5 1 45 86.67
Total 52 38 45 135 62.22
Riboflavin
Improved system ISMWC 9 16 20 45 44.44
Artisanal system ASMW 4 24 17 45 53.33
Artisanal system ASRW 40 2 3 45 88.89
Total 53 42 40 135 62.22
Tryptophan
Improved system ISMWC 5 14 26 45 57.78
Artisanal system ASMW 5 24 16 45 53.33
Artisanal system ASRW 42 2 1 45 93.33
Total 52 40 43 135 68.15
Vitamin A
Improved system ISMWC 1 16 28 45 62.22
Artisanal system (ASMW) 7 26 12 45 57.78
Artisanal system ASRW 36 2 7 45 80.00
Total 44 44 47 135 66.67
Concatenation: AAA + NA, NADH, riboflavin, tryptophan, vitamin A
Improved system ISMWC 2 13 30 45 66.67
Artisanal system ASMW 2 30 13 45 66.67
Artisanal system ASRW 43 1 1 45 95.56
Total 47 44 44 135 76.30

AAA+NA aromatic amino acids and nucleic acids, NADH nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, ISMWC
improved system at FTT oven using mangrove wood and coconut husk, ASMW artisanal system using man-
grove wood, ASRW artisanal system using rubberwood

factors could accelerate the oxidation of fish lipids, leading
to an increase in PV, which is in agreement with the fluores-
cence spectra of vitamin A.
Due to the complexity of the samples, univariate analysis
could not differentiate between the samples studied. In this
case, multivariate analyses will be carried out to obtain more
information on the spectral data set.
Discrimination based on fluorescence spectra
on smoked sea herring under smoking conditions
To extract information from the spectral data sets, PCA was
applied separately, to each fluorescence data recorded on
the smoked sea herring samples under different smoking
conditions. The similarity map of the PCA does not allow
to effectively discriminate between the investigated smoked
samples. The FDA was therefore applied to the first 5 PCs
of: (i) each fluorophore, and (ii) 5 fluorophores using the
concatenation approach.
The best result of the FDA was obtained with AAA + NA
spectra with a correct classification rate of 78.52%. The
highest classification was obtained for the ASRW group,
since 97.78% of the samples were correctly classified. The
worst classification was noted for ASMW, since correct
classification varied from 42.22 to 64.44% for the 5 fluo-
rophores. Samples from ASRW showed better classifica-
tion compared to those from ISMW and ISMWC, with an

13

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overall correct classification of 97.78, 86.67, 88.89, 93.33,
and 80.00% for AAA + NA, NADH, riboflavin, tryptophan,
and vitamin A, respectively. However, the worst classifica-
tion was observed for the samples from ISMW for all fluo-
rophores, except the riboflavin. ISMWC samples exhibited
the worst classification for the riboflavin spectra where only
44.44% of correct classification was obtained. ISMW and
ISMWC samples presented some similarities due to the fact
both smoking conditions used the same combustibles, which
is mangrove wood. It should be concluded that the concat-
enation technique allowed to distinguish between smoked
sea herring samples as a function of smoking conditions.
The concatenated FDA similarity map, defined by DF1
and DF2 representing 81.18 and 18.82% of the total vari-
ance, respectively, separated herring samples into two
groups (Fig. 4). Indeed, according to the DF1 (81.18% of
the total variance), the majority of the smoked samples from
the ISMW and ISMWC had positive scores, while the other
samples from the ASRW presented negative scores accord-
ing to the DF2 (18.82% of the total variance).
The concatenation technique seemed not to improve the
correct classification rate, since an overall correct classifi-
cation of 76.3% was obtained, less than that observed with
the AAA + NA (Table 2). Again, only the smoked samples
from ASRW gave a good classification rate (95.56% cor-
rectly classified), while samples from ISMW and ISMWC
were 66.67% correctly classified.
Conclusions
The quality of smoked herring (Sardinella maderensis)
under improved FTT smoking conditions and artisanal
smoking conditions was assessed by physico-chemical and
fluorescence measurements. According to the TBARS, PV,
and TVB-N parameters, smoked samples treated with the
improved oven were within the acceptability limit, whereas
those produced under artisanal conditions were not accept-
able for human consumption. This difference between the
two types of oven could be explained by the fact that the
FTT improved kilns model was built on existing oven mod-
els while correcting shortcomings, notably with the addition
of new components specific to it, such as the ember furnace,
the grease collector, the indirect smoke generator system,
and the air distributor and also by the choice of fuel. The
application of the FDA to the AAA + NA resulted in the
highest classification rate of 78.52% for the ASRW group
(artisanal smoking using rubberwood). In addition, the best
discrimination between smoked samples was obtained with
the AAA + NA approach, with a correct classification rate
of 97.78%.
13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
European Food Research and Technology
Funding This work has been carried out in the framework of the
IDEAL project, which is financed by the French State, and the French
Region of Hauts-de-France. The authors gratefully acknowledge the
financial support from the Major Domain of Interest (DIM) “Eco-
Energy Efficiency” of Artois University. Mrs. CISSE is grateful to the
Embassy of France in Ivory Coast, for the financial support during her
stay at the University of Artois.
Data availability The authors confirm that data will be made available
upon request.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors have no conflicts of interest.
Compliance with ethics requirements This article does not contain
any studies with human or animal subjects.
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