Polymer Sem1 2022-23

Polymer Chemistry
Department of Applied Sciences

College of Engineering
Pune
College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

Forerunners in Technical Education 1
Contents
➢ Introduction ➢ Commercially important polymers with
➢ Polymer Terminologies synthesis and applications
➢ Classification of polymers • Plastics
• Origin • Fibres
• thermal properties • Adhesives
• Constituents • elastomers
• end use ➢ Conducting polymers-
• performance • Intrinsic and extrinsic conducting
➢ Properties of polymers polymers
• Solubility • Doping
• Molecular Weight • factors responsible for conduction
• Crystallinity • synthesis of a conducting polymer
• Glass transition temperature ➢ Biodegradable Polymers
• Role of additives in polymers. • Need, Factors responsible, Features
• Synthesis
• Applications

Introduction- Classification of polymers- based on origin, based on polymer type
Unit 2 polymerisation mechanism, based on popular forms-fibres, films, etc, based on
performance-commodity, speciality, engineering
Polymer
Introduction- Classification of polymers- based on origin, based on polymer type
Chemistry polymerization mechanism, based on popular forms-fibres,films etc. based on
performance-commodity, speciality, engineering
Polymer Terminologies
Properties of polymers- Solubility, Molecular Weight, Crystallinity
Properties of polymers- glass transition temperature, Role of additives in polymers
Properties of polymers- glass transition temperature, Role of additives in polymers
Commercially important polymers with synthesis and applications- plastics, fibres
Commercially important polymers with synthesis and applications- adhesives
elastomers
Conducting polymers- Intrinsic and extrinsic conducting polymers, doping, factor
responsible for conduction, synthesis of a conducting polymer
Biodegradable Polymers

Forerunners in Technical Education
Introduction
➢ Generally organic compounds
➢ Very large molecular structures.
➢ Have low density and not stable at high temperatures.
➢ Can be readily formed into complex shapes.
➢ strength, stiffness, and melting temperatures generally much lower
than metals and ceramics.
➢ Preferred material for many engineering applications due to light
weight , low cost and ease of forming

❑ Monomer
➢ A monomer is a molecule that forms the basic unit
for polymers. Eg. Amino Acids in Proteins; Nucleic
Acids in DNA/RNA
➢ Monomers bind to other monomers to form
repeating chain molecules through a process known
as polymerization

❑ Monomer

❑ Polymer
➢ A polymer is a substance or material consisting of
very large molecules, or macromolecules, composed
of many repeating subunits.
➢ Due to their broad spectrum of properties, both
synthetic and natural polymers play essential and
ubiquitous roles in everyday life.
Polyacetylene Polyethylene Terephthalate

❑ Polymerization
➢ Polymerization is a process through
which a large number of monomer
molecules react together to form
a polymer.
➢ The macromolecules produced from
a polymerization may have a linear
or a branched structure.
➢ They can also assume the shape of a
complex, three-dimensional
network.

❑ Functionality of Monomer
➢ In chemistry, functionality is the presence of functional groups
in a molecule.
➢ According to IUPAC, the functionality of a monomer is defined
as the number of bonds that a monomer's repeating unit
forms in a polymer with other monomers.
➢ Monomers with a functionality f ≥ 3 lead to a branching point,
which can lead to cross-linked polymers (a thermosetting
polymer).

❑ Classification based on composition
➢ Homopolymers
➢ A homopolymer is a polymer where
every monomer unit (mer) of the chain is the same.
➢ Polyvinylchloride (PVC) is a homopolymer consisting
of vinyl chloride units.
➢ Polypropylene consists of repeating propylene units.

➢ Copolymers
➢ A copolymer is a polymer derived from more than
one species of monomer.
➢ The polymerization of monomers into copolymers is
called copolymerization.
➢ Copolymers obtained by copolymerization of two
monomer species are sometimes called bipolymers.

➢ Copolymers
▪ Random Copolymer
▪ Alternate copolymer
▪ Block copolymer
▪ Graft copolymer

❑ Tacticity
➢ Tacticity is the relative stereochemistry of
adjacent chiral centers within a macromolecule.
➢ The practical significance of tacticity rests on the
effects on the physical properties of the polymer.
➢ Based on arrangement of their substituent groups
polymers are classified as ,
▪ Random (Atactic) polymer
▪ Alternating (Syndiotactic) polymer
▪ Isotactic polymer

❑ Tacticity Isotactic
▪ affects physical Same side
properties of the Eg. Polypropylene
polymer.
Relative
stereochemistry
of adjacent chiral
centers
Atactic
Syndiotactic Random arrangement
Alternating arrangement Eg. PVC, Polypropylene,
Eg. Natural Rubber polyethylene

Classification of Polymers
➢ Based on origin
➢ Based on thermal behaviour
➢ Based on constitution
➢ Based on end use
➢ Based on performance-commodity, speciality,
engineering
➢ Based on composition
➢ Based on Tacticity

❑ Based on Origin
➢ Natural Polymer
▪ Natural Polymers are those substances which are
obtained naturally.
▪ Polymers are extensively found in nature. Our
body too is made up of many natural
polymers like nucleic acids, proteins, etc.
▪ Eg. Cotton, Silk, wood, rubber, etc.
➢ Synthetic Polymer
▪ Synthetic polymers are human-made polymers.
▪ They are commonly found in a variety of
consumer products. Various main chains and
side chains are used to make
different synthetic organic polymers.
▪ Eg. Polyethylene, PVC, nylon, etc
❑ Based on Polymerization Mechanism

❑ Based on Thermal Behaviour
➢ Thermoplastic Polymer Thermoplastics
➢ A thermoplastic, or thermosoftening No links

plastic, is a polymer material that between
polymer
becomes soften on heating and stiffen chains
on cooling.
➢ Most thermoplastics have a high
molecular weight.
➢ Eg. Polystyrene, polyethylene,
polypropylene, etc.
Polystyrene foam PVC Pipes

❑ Based on Thermal Behavior
➢ Thermoset Polymer
Links between
➢ A thermosetting polymer, often polymer chains
called a thermoset, is a polymer stops
which have resistance to heat movement
between them
softening, creep and solvent
attack.
➢ Curing is induced by heat or
suitable radiation and may be
promoted by high pressure, or
mixing with a catalyst.
➢ Eg. Epoxy resin, phenol
formaldehyde resin, etc Bakelite Jewellery Tools made of
Thermoplastics

❑ Based on Constitution
➢ Organic polymer
▪ The back bone chain of organic
polymer is essentially made up of
carbon atoms.
▪ Heteroatoms such as O, N, S usually
satisfy the side vacancies of carbon
atoms.
▪ Eg. Polythylene, polymethacrylate, Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)
etc.
➢ Inorganic polymer
▪ Back bone of inorganic polymers do
not contain carbon atoms.
▪ Eg. Polysiloxanes, polyphosphates,
etc. Polyphosphate

❑ Based on End use
➢ Fibres (eg. Nylon, polyester, etc.)
➢ Plastic (eg. Thermoplastics and thermosets)
➢ Elastomer (eg. Rubber, Buna-S, Buna-N, etc.)
➢ Films (eg. PP, LDPE, PVC, PET, etc.)
➢ Adhesive (eg. PVA, epoxy resin)
➢ Paints (eg. epoxy)
➢ Membranes (eg. Polyacetylene, polyaniline, etc.)

Addition Polymerization
➢ Monomer units are joined by Addition Reaction

➢ Identical Molecular formula for Repeat units and Monomers
➢ Molecular Weight of polymer chain is multiple of molecular weight of monomers
➢ Also referred as Vinyl Polymerization and Chain Polymerization
Vinyl Group
Ethylene Propylene Vinyl Chloride Allyl Acetate

Initiation Y Radical Anionic Cationic
COR + + -
Cationic COOR/COONR2 + +
Anionic CN + + -
Radical Ph + + +
CH=CHR + + +
Propagation OR - - +
X/OCOR + - -
Termination ➢ Mechanism consists of Three steps

➢ Requires an Initiator to kick start
polymerization
➢ Reactive species can be Radical, cationic
or anionic
Dead polymer chain(s) ➢ Polymer chain grows in propagation step


Initiators
Peroxides
Benzoyl peroxide
Hydroperoxides Peresters
t-Butyl phenyl benzoate

Cumyl hydroperoxide
Azo compounds
Redox
ROOR + Fe2+ → RO– + Fe3++ RO• Azobisisobutyronitrile
H2O2 + Fe2+ → RO– + Fe3++ HO• (AIBN)
S2O82 – + Fe2+ → Fe3+ + SO22– + SO2• –

Cationic Initiators Anionic
Protonic Acids: HClO4, H2SO4, H3PO4 Grignard reagents: (RMgX, R = alkyl, aryl and
(with less nucleophillic anion) X = halogen)
Lewis Acids: AlCl3, AlBr3, BF3, TiCl4, SnCl4 Organometallic compounds: (n-C4H9Li or
(To be effective, they need presence of Lewis base (C6H5)3CNa)
such as H2O, ROH, acetic acid as a cocatalyst)
Alkyl Amides: (NaNH2, LiN(C2H5)2)
Photoinitiation of Onium Salts: Ar2I+(PF6)–,
ArN2+(BF4)– Electron Transfer: Alkali metals
(Na/Naphthalene, K)
Electroinitiation: ClO4–

Propagation
H T H T
H T H T Head-Tail (favored)
H T T H
Tail-Tail
➢ Propagation can take place in three ways (Head-Tail, Head-Head, Random)

➢ Chain Propagation continues till it is stopped by some impurity or termination process

Termination
Coupling
Disproportionation
Chain Transfer
Can be another chain/impurity/Solvent/Inhibitor

➢ Chain can also be terminated by addition of Inhibitors like hydroquinone,
nitrobenzene, dinitrobenzene etc

Condensation Polymerization
➢ Polymerization proceeds step by step with release of small molecules

➢ M.W. of polymer chain is not multiple of repeating monomers
➢ Monomers should have atleast two reactive functional groups
➢ Polymer chain formed contains reactive functional groups at end
➢ Monomers containg more than one functional group can form crosslinks
➢ Also referred as Step Growth Polymerization
Monomer + Monomer Dimer
Dimer + Monomer Trimer

No
Dimer + Dimer Tetramer
Trimer + Monomer Tetramer
Dimer + Trimer Pentamer

: : :
: : :
N ➢ Initially, large no. of small polymers are formed

➢ Long polymer chains are formed towards the end

Polycondensation
PolyAddition
Both follow step-growth mechanism


Addition Polymerization Condensation Polymerization
1 Generally vinyl monomers Generally monomers with atleast two active
functional groups
2 Reaction initiates with help of initiator No need of initiator
3 Chain Initiation, propagation and termination Stepwise reaction occurs between functional
steps involved. groups
4 Reaction is fast Reaction is usually slower than addition
polymerization
5 No byproduct is formed Small molecules byproducts like HCl, H2O etc are
formed (generally)
6 Monomers react with polymer radical/ion Monomer reacts another monomer or polymer unit
7 A Homochain polymer is generally formed Heterochain polymers are formed
8 Generally growth of chain at one active Growth of chain at minimum two centers
center only
9 Polyethylene, Polystyrene, Teflon, PVC, etc Nylon, Terylene, Polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
etc.

Properties of Polymers
Chain entanglement
• Length of chains
• Interaction between chains

❑ Mechanical Properties
Stress: physical quantity that expresses the internal forces that
neighboring particles of a continuous material exert on each other
Strain: is a description of deformation in terms of relative displacement of

particles in the body that excludes rigid-body motions.

➢ It is of great importance to be familiar with some basic
mechanical properties of the material before its application
in any field, such as:
▪ how much it can be stretched?
▪ how much it can be bent?
▪ how hard or soft it is?
▪ how it behaves on the application of repeated load etc.
➢ Mechanical properties of polymer depend on the following
factor:
▪ Strength
▪ Plastic deformation
▪ Abrasion resistance
➢ Strength
➢ In simple words, the strength is the stress required to break
the sample.
➢ Individual polymer chains are held together by weak
intermolecular forces of attraction.
➢ Low molecular wt polymers are soft and gum like, while
high mol wt polymers are tougher and more resistant to
heat.
➢ The polymers follow the following order of increasing
strength:
linear < branched
linear < cross-linked
< branched < network <
< cross-linked network

➢ Strength
➢ Strength of polymer also depends on presence of polar group like
OH, COOH, Cl, F, etc along the chain length.
➢ Intermolecular forces increases greatly due to presence of polar
group.
➢ Strength of polymer also depends on slipping power of molecule
over other.
➢ More the slipping power less is the strength of polymer.
➢ Hence PVC is tougher and stronger polymer than PE

Chain slipping

Chain slipping

➢ Strength
Degree of polymerization
PE PVC PS
➢ Molecular weight
➢ Chain length
➢ Intermolecular forces (H-bonding)
➢ Branching
➢ Cross-links Tensile strength

Properties of Polymers Strong
❑ Mechanical Properties NOT tough
Strong &
tough
➢ Plastic Deformation Stress
Not strong
➢ If a plastic material is loaded Not tough
beyond its elastic limit, it does not
return to its original shape and size,
ie., a permanent deformation Strain
occurs.
Hard, brittle polymers
➢ If the temperature is increased, a
polymeric material changes from Rigid and high
Stress
Impact polymers
brittle (crazing) to ductile (yielding)
Polymer fibres
behavior in deformation and
fracture. Rubbery Polymers
Strain

➢ Plastic Deformation
➢ Thermoplastics undergo plastic deformation on heating
➢ On cooling they retain their hardness
➢ Repeated heating and cooling has little effect
▪ Chains are held together by weak Vander Waal forces.

▪ Upon heating molecules can overcome these forces and chains can
slip past each other
➢ Thermosets or cross-linked polymers don’t show such

deformation and sometimes can become hard on heating
▪ Chains are held together by covalent linkages hence cannot slip even on heating
▪ Sometimes upon heating new cross links may be formed resulting in more hardness

➢ Abrasion Resistance
➢ Abrasion resistance refers to the ability of an
adhesive to resist wearing due to contact with
another surface.
➢ Wearing occurs when a hard rough surface slides
across a softer surface, usually the adhesive
material, causing the undesired removal of
material from the surface.

❑ Polymer dissolution
➢ Polymer dissolution is a slow process
➢ Low M.W. polymer dissolve easily
➢ “Like dissolves Like”
Dissolution of Polymer
Solid polymer just added Swollen polymer in Solvated polymer

to solvent solvent (Diffusion of molecules diffusing out
solvent inside polymer) of the swollen mass

❑ Physical Properties
Physical State
of Polymer
Crystalline
Semicrystalline Amorphous
Ordered

❑ Physical Properties (Crystallinity)
➢ Relative arrangement of molecules w.r.t. each other decides crystallinity
➢ In polymers both highly ordered regions (crystallite) and highly disordered regions
can be present
➢ Crystallites provide hardness, amorphous regions provide flexibility/elasticity
➢ Crystalline polymer have higher density
A 2D representation of A 3D representation of Spherulite formed by

lamellar structure formed by lamellar structure formed by crystalline polymers
polymers polymers

❑ Physical Properties
Factors affecting Crystallinity Effects of Crystallinity
➢ Molecular Weight* ➢ Stiffness, strength increases
Crystallinity increases as M.W. increases ➢ Brittleness increases
*Narrow distribution of M.W., linear polymer ➢ Solubility and permeability decrease
chains ➢ Density and Melting point increases
➢ Symmetry of repeating unit ➢ Opacity increases
symmetrical repeat units facilitate
formation of crystallites
tacticity
➢ Chain branching
Crystallinity decreases as chain branching
decreases
➢ Cross-linking
Highly cross-linked polymers are devoid of
crystallinity

❑ Thermal Properties
Glassy State (Tg) is defined as the temperature below which an
amorphous polymer becomes hard, brittle and breaks
like glass. Above this temperature it is soft, flexible
Hard Rigid and rubbery.
Solid
Stiffness/Modulus
Glass
Transition
Tg
(Mpa)
Rubbery
Iso viscous Flow
Viscoelastic
Soft
flexible
Viscous Rubbery State Viscous
Rubbery Flow
Extendable
Leathery Liquid
solid
Temperature (K)

Glass transition Temperature:
Amorphous Semi-crystalline Crystalline
During Glass Transition

➢ the amorphous region
undergoes changes
Specific volume
➢ onset of large molecular

motions
➢ chain mobility increases
➢ Free volume increases
Tg ➢ Bulk material becomes soft
Rubbery State Temperature
➢ Crystallites remain intact

➢ In amorphous polymers there is no sharp melting point as of crystalline
polymers
➢ Crystalline polymers have large value for Tg as intermolecular forces
which held the polymer chains are very strong compared to amorphous
polymers
High Crystalline
Stiffness Amorphous
Modulus
Tg Moderate
Tg Stiffness
Tm No Useful
Stiffness
Temperature
Amorphous Polymer Semi-Crystalline Polymer
Heated from low T region, volume expands Changes at Tg less drastic since changes are
at constant rate restricted to amorphous regions and
crystalline regions are mostly unaffected
▪ At Tg, rate of expansion changes abruptly. Between Tg and Tm semicrystalline polymer
▪ Physical behaviour changes from is composed of rigid crystallites in rubbery
hard/brittle/glassy solid to soft rubbery amorphous matrix
region
Further heating polymer changes from At Tm crystallites melt, leading to viscous
rubbery to viscous liquid state

➢ Effect of Intermolecular Forces
▪ Presence of polar side groups leads to strong
intermolecular attractive interactions between chains
▪ This hinders molecular motion and increases Tg
▪ For example consider –[CH2–CHX]–
X Tg (K)
–CH3 253
–Cl 354
–OH 358

Tm = 265 ̊C Tm = 135 ̊C

Restricted
Cross Links: Tg is directly proportional to Chain Mobility
degree of cross links

▪ Molecular Weight: Tg is directly proportional to M.W. of Polymer
Shorter chains have more free volume, Tg for shorter chains will be
lower than Tg for long chains
▪ Plasticizer: Tg is inversely proportional to plasticization
Weaken intermolecular force between polymer chains reduces Tg
▪ Flexibility: Tg is inversely proportional to flexibility
Tg = −70 °C Tg = 69 °C
Presence of phenyl group increases rigidity
Presence of stiffening groups (such as amide, sulfone, carbonyl, p-phenylene etc.) in

polymer chain reduces flexibility

Properties of Polymers 1
for Symmetrical polymers
2
❑ Thermal Properties 𝑇𝑔
𝑇𝑚
=
2
for Asymmetrical polymers
Molecular Weight 3
Directly Degree of Cross-links Directly

proportional proportional
to Intermolecular Forces to Intermolecular Forces
𝑇𝑔 no. of side groups 𝑇𝑚 Size of side groups
Inversely Inversely flexibility

flexibility
proportional proportional
to to
Plasticization Degree of Branching

❑ Molecular Weight of Polymers
➢ Bulk polymer contains polymers chains of varying length 𝑛𝑖 chains of Molecular weight 𝑀𝑖
Number of polymer chains

𝑛𝑖
➢ The chain length of polymers is determined by random events
• Condensation polymerization → reactivity and availability of
functional groups 𝑛2
• Addition polymerization → life-time of chain carriers 𝑛1
➢ Molecular weight of polymers are averages

𝑀1 𝑀2 𝑀𝑖
➢ Molecular weight are not useful for cross-linked polymers Molecular weight
Primary methods Secondary methods

Or Or
Absolute methods Relative methods
▪ Determination from first principles ▪ Requires calibration with samples

▪ Colligative properties, light of known molar mass
▪ viscosity measurements
scattering experiments etc.

Number average molecular weight
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
Determined by measurement of colligative properties

➢ Osmometry
➢ Ebulliometry 𝑀𝑛
Weight fraction, Wx
➢ Cryoscopy
➢ Chemical analysis of end groups 𝑁2
𝑀𝑣
𝑤 σ 𝑁𝑖 𝑀𝑖
𝑀𝑛 = = = ෍ 𝑋𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑁1 𝑀𝑤
σ 𝑁𝑖 σ 𝑁𝑖
𝑀2
𝑋𝑖 =Mole fraction of polymer chains with molecular weight 𝑀𝑖
𝑀1 Molecular weight, Mx

Weighted average molecular weight Z-average molecular weight
Determined by Determined by
➢ Light scattering measurements ➢ Radial distribution of refractive
➢ Sediment-equilibrium methods index in sedimentation
equilibrium
σ 𝑁𝑖 𝑀𝑖2 σ 𝑤𝑖 𝑀𝑖 σ 𝑁𝑖 𝑀𝑖3
𝑀𝑤 = = 𝑀𝑧 =
σ 𝑁𝑖 𝑀𝑖 σ 𝑤𝑖 σ 𝑁𝑖 𝑀𝑖2

Viscosity-average Molecular weight
Determined by viscosity measurements When α = 1 : 𝑀𝑣 = 𝑀𝑤
Intrinsic viscosity
(1+𝛼) 1Τ𝛼
σ 𝑁𝑖 𝑀𝑖
𝑀𝑣 = 𝑀𝑤 > 𝑀𝑣 > 𝑀𝑛
σ 𝑁𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝜂 = 𝐾𝑀𝛼
α is the exponent in the Mark-Howinsk-Sakurada equation 𝑀𝑛
Weight fraction, Wx
➢ Generally, 0.5 < α < 0.9
𝑛2
➢ Value of α varies with polymer, solvent and 𝑀𝑣
temperature
𝑛1 𝑀𝑤
➢ In poor solvents size of polymer molecule
shrinks reducing the “drag” and hence
lower viscosity 𝑀2
𝑀1 Molecular weight, Mx
Degree of polymerization
Represents average number of “mer” units in polymer chains

Represents average chain size of a polymer
Number average DP Weight average DP
𝑀𝑛 𝑀𝑤
𝐷𝑃𝑛 = 𝐷𝑃𝑤 =
𝑀𝑜 𝑀𝑜
Mo is the molecular weight of the monomer

❑ Molecular Weight of Polymers Integral Mol. Wt.
weight percent
distribution
Cumulative
curve
Molecular weight distribution
Polydispersity Index (PDI) Molecular weight
Measure of molecular weight distribution

Differentiate Integrate
𝑀𝑤 Usually, PDI > 1 Differential Mol.
𝑃𝐷𝐼 =
𝑀𝑛 𝑀𝑛 Wt. distribution
curve
𝑀𝑣
Monodisperse polymers:
Relative amount
𝑛2
➢ PDI = 1
of polymer
➢ 𝑀𝑛 = 𝑀𝑤 𝑀𝑤
➢ eg., Natural polymers, synthetic 𝑛1 𝑀𝑧
polymers made by anionic
𝑀1 𝑀2
polymerization
Molecular weight

1) A polymer sample consists of 10% by weight of macromolecules of molecular weight 10,000 and
90% by weight of macromolecules with molecular weight 100,000. Calculate 𝑀𝑛 and 𝑀𝑤 .
𝑀𝑛 = 5.26 × 104 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑤 = 9.1 × 104
2) A polymeric mixture is prepared by mixing three polymers: A, B, C having 𝑀𝑛 , 𝑀𝑤 and weights in
the mixture as given below
Polymer 𝑀𝑛 𝑀𝑤 Weight in
Mixture
A 1.2 x 105 4.5 x 105 200
B 5.6 x 105 8.9 x 105 200
C 10 x 105 10 x 105 100
Find 𝑀𝑛 and 𝑀𝑤 . 𝑀𝑛 = 2.35 × 105 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑤 = 7.36 × 105
3) In a polymer, there are 100 molecules of molecular weight 100, 200 molecules of molecular weight
1000 and 300 molecules of molecular weight 10,000. Find 𝑀𝑛 , 𝑀𝑤 and PDI.
𝑀𝑛 = 5350; 𝑀𝑤 = 9408; 𝑃𝐷𝐼 = 1.76
4) The 𝑀𝑛 of polystyrene is 105 gm/mol. Find it 𝐷𝑃𝑛 .
𝐷𝑃𝑛 = 961

Applications of Polymers
❑ Fibres
Nylon Rope
Water resistant
Polybenzimidazole (PBI) Modacrylic fibre
Polyester Fibre Fire fighter suit
Nylon Kevlar fibre

Spandex

Application of Polymers
❑ Fibres Polyesters
➢ High resistance to deformation

➢ Low elongations
Polyamides (Eg., Nylons, Kevlar)
➢ High moduli, High tensile strength
➢ Highly degree of crystallinity
▪ Mechanical stretching used to impart
crystallinity
➢ Polar groups
Polyacrylonitriles
Cellulose
Polybenzimidazole (PBI)
Polypropylene

❑ Fibres
▪ Tg should have intermediate value

▪ Melt spinning: 200oC < Tm < 300oC
▪ Solution spinning: soluble in solvents

❑ Elastomers
➢ Undergo relatively large,
reversible elongations at
relatively low stresses
➢ Almost or completely
amorphous Thermoplastic elastomer
➢ Low force of attraction
between chains
➢ Some degree of
crosslinking depending on
end use
➢ Crystallite formation on Thermosetting elastomer
stretching
➢ Tm < or ≳ Use
temperature

❑ Furniture
Polycarbonate chair
PVC stools
PVC Kitchen Furniture
PMMA chair
(Plexiglass) Polypropylene furniture
❑ Crockery
PET Bottles and jars
Melamine formaldehyde
Polystyrene Crockery (melamine) crockery
Polypropylene
HDPE containers Microwave containers Polypropylene Crockery
❑ Mattress
PU based memory foam
Polyurethane based Mattress

❑ Electronic Appliances
Silicones, PU, PC, PVC,

Polyesters used in making Acrylonitrile Butadiene styrene (ABS), PC, PP etc.
headphones
ABS (casing), glass reinforced Alkyd Resins, PF, UF etc. Ethylene vinyl acetate,
epoxy resin (Motherboard) polyphenylene oxide,
poly amides etc.

❑ Plastics Applications in Automobiles
Interior Trim
Glass Interlayer (PP, ABS, PVC, PET) Panoramic Roof
(PVB) (PC)
Upholstery
Dashboard (PP, PVC, PUR)
(PP, ABS, PC)
Body
(reinforced epoxy,
PPO/PPE Alloys)
Lighting
(PC, PMMA, Wheel House
ABS, PBT) Radiator Support
(Phthalic Acid
resins)
Instrumental Bumper
Panel (PP, ABS, Under the Hood Fuel System Seating Door Handles
(PC/ABS,ABS) PC/PBT) (PA,PP, PBT) (HDPE, PA, PBT, (PUR, PP, ABS, (PA, ABS, PC/ABS)
POM) PA)

❑Biomedical Applications
Silicone Rubber, PU
rubber, Dacron
Polyester, Teflon, PC, PMMA, other acrylics
PMMA, pliable
hydrophilic plastics PVC, PMMA etc
(hydrogels)
Eye Implants Artificial teeth
Poly(α-cyanoacrylate)
based polymers Heart pumps Hip Joints
.
Silicone rubber, PE,
nylon, PET etc.
Tissue adhesives Artificial ligaments
Poly amino acids

Artificial Skin
❑ Biomedical Applications

❑ Water Purification
Ion-exchange resins are

insoluble polymers containing a
backbone of cross-linked
polystyrene and side chains of ion-
active groups
❑ Coating
Acrylic emulsion cement
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE/Teflon)
coating for Automobiles
❑ Insulating material
Polypropylene thermal Polyethylene insulation for PVC insulated power cables

insulation sheets and pipes
panels
Acrylate polymers and Polyimide coated wire PVC insulation tape

polyimides used to coat
optical fibres
❑ Other Materials

Commercially Important Polymers
❑ Polyester Resins
▪ Unsaturated synthetic resins
▪ PolyEster = Dibasic organics acids + polyhydric alchohols (polyols)
▪ Thermoset or Thermoplastics depending on chemical structure
▪ Cutins are natural occurring Polyesters
➢ Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

➢ Alkyd Resins or Glyptal Resins

➢ Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Resin Identification Code
(RIC)
▪ Commercial names Terene, Terylene, Dacron
▪ Ethylene glycol + dimethyl terephthalate in basic medium
▪ Reaction temperature 200-250 °C
▪ Prepared in two steps
Purification
Terephthalic Acid Dimethyl Dimethyl
+ Terephthalate Terephthalate
Methyl Alchohol +
Ethylene Glycol

Preparation
1)
Terephthalic Acid Methanol Dimethyl terephthalate
Purification of Dimethylterephthalate
2)
Dimethyl terephthalate Ethylene glycol

Properties
➢ Good fibre forming material
➢ Tg = 80 °C Tm = 265 °C due to relatively symmetrical structure with
numerous polar groups
➢ High stretch resistance, High crease resistance, wrinkle resistance
➢ Highly resistant to mineral acids and organic acids
➢ Better feel when blended with cotton and other cellulosic fibres

Applications
➢ Mostly used for making synthetic fibres like terylene

➢ Blended with wool to provide wrinkle and crease resistance
➢ Glass reinforcing material in helmets and aircraft battery boxes
➢ Films of PET used in making magnetic tapes and transparency
of overhead projectors
➢ Wearing apparel, curtain, thread, tire cord, fabrics for
industrial filtration
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rLOUxxwaXuA

❑ Epoxy Resins
➢ Also known as polyepoxides, class of reactive prepolymers and
polymers which contain epoxide group
➢ Both monomer and the polymer(before cross-linking) contain
epoxide group.
➢ Can form cross-links either with themselves or with wide range
of co-reactants (hardeners/curatives) including polyfunctional
amines, acids. Acid anhydrides, phenols, alcohols, thiols etc.
➢ Reaction with hardeners/curatives forms thermosetting
polymer

❑ Epoxy Resins Preparation
➢ Epichlorohydrin is used in excess to ensure epoxide groups at chain
terminal
➢ Many other compounds instead of Bisphenol-A are also used eg.,
glycols, glycerols, resorcinols etc.
Bisphenol-A Epichloro hydrin

❑ Epoxy Resins Properties & Applications
Surface coatings, skid resistant
Tough and excellent
surfaces for highways, road
resistance to heat and wear
junctions and round about
Low water adsorption tendency, Electronic applications

dimensional stability, good heat and (mouldings containing inserts
electrical resistance and encapsulations)
Polar hence excellent adhesive

Adhesives for glass, metals etc.
characteristics
• Carried out quickly

• More economic than welding, screwing, rivetting etc.
• Joined surfaces free from corrosion
• Joins heterogeneous materials

❑ Epoxy Resins Cross-linking
Epoxy
polymer Heat + H2O
Chains +
Succinic Anhydride

❑ Epoxy Resins Cross-linking

֎ Adhesives
Natural Synthetic
▪ Gum, Glue, Starch, casein etc. ▪ Epoxy resins, Urea
▪ Low strength Formaldehyde, Phenol
▪ Cannot bond different materials formaldehyde, Silicones etc.
▪ Become hard on curing
▪ Better holding capacity for
heterogeneous materials

❑ Elastomers or Rubber
➢ Natural Rubber
Discovers Vulcanization
Search for
Discovers
Synthetic
Natural Rubber
Rubber
Invents Pneumatic Tyres
cis 1,4-polyisoprene World War I & II

Increase demand for Rubber

➢ Natural Rubber
➢ Elastic properties in excess of 300%
➢ Long Flexible chains
➢ Weak inter-molecular forces
▪ Absence of highly polar groups or sites of H-Bonding
▪ Chains do not fit together
➢ Occasional crosslinks for ready extension and recovery
Natural Rubber (cis 1,4 poly isoprene)

➢ Natural Rubber (Drawbacks)
➢ Soft and sticky in hot summer and har and brittle in cold
weather
➢ Low tensile strength (200Kg/cm2)
➢ Attacked by oxidizing agents eg., HNO2, conc H2SO4 etc.
➢ non-resistant to organic solvents
➢ Tackiness: Two raw rubber surfaces coalesce together
under pressure
➢ Permanent deformation under extreme stretch
➢ Not durable due to oxidation by air

➢ Vulcanization
➢ Heating of rubber with sulphur at ~100-140°C is known as
Vulcanization
➢ Sulphur combines chemically at double bonds and forms cross-links
➢ Sulphur content may vary (~3-5% for tyre 32% for tougher varieties
like ebonite)

➢ Vulcanization (Advantages)
➢ Increase in tensile strength
➢ Excellent resilience
➢ Broader useful temperature (-40 to 100 °C) compared
to raw rubber (10 to 60 °C)
➢ Better resistance to moisture oxidation
➢ Resistant to organic solvents like CCl4, benzene, petrol
but swells in them
➢ Only slight tackiness
➢ Low elasticity

➢ Raw vs Vulcanized Rubber
Sr. No. Property Raw Rubber Vulcanized Rubber
1 Tensile strength 200 kg/cm2 2000 kg/cm2
2 Resilience Good Very Good
3 Useful Temperature range 10 – 60 °C −40 – 110 °C
4 Resistance to moisture, oxidation Poor Good
and abrasion
5 Resistance to organic solvents Poor Large but limited
6 Tackiness Marked Slight
7 Elasticity Very high Low
8 Percent elongation at break 1200 800
9 Manipulability to desired shape Not easy Easy

➢ Synthetic Rubber (Polyurethanes) Preparation
➢ Characterized by presence of urethane linkages

➢ Prepared by Addition growth polymerization
➢ Di-iso cyanide + diol
➢ Perlon-U 1,6-hexamethyl diisocyanate + 1,4-butane diol
1,6 – hexamethyl diisocyanate

+
Polyurethane (Perlon-U)
1,4 – butane diol

➢ Synthetic Rubber (Polyurethanes) Properties
➢ Low M.P. than polyamides due to increased flexibility

because of additional Oxygen atom
➢ High strength, Good resistance to Gas, Oil, and
aromatic Hydrocarbons
➢ High abrasion resistance, excellent resistance to O2 and
O3
➢ Susceptible to microbial attack
➢ Susceptible to attack by concentrated and hot acids
and alkalis

➢ Synthetic Rubber (Polyurethanes) Properties
With water in rxn mixture
Coatings Elastomers Fibres Foams

▪ Resistant to ▪ Excellent • Popular
impact, abrasion as
abrasion, resistance spandex ▪ Flexible and rigid can be
greases, oils ▪ Good elasticity prepared.
etc. and hardness ▪ Light and tough.
▪ Resistance to oils, ▪ Good resistance to
greases and weathering, abrasion
solvents heat and chemicals

❑ Polyethylenes
Polyethylenes
UHMWPE HDPE MDPE PEX or XLPE LDPE LLDPE VLDPE
Branching
Density
Ethylene Gas monomer obtained from:

▪ Cracking of Petroleum fractions
▪ Dehydrogenation of ethane

❑ Polyethylenes
Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
180 – 250°C
Initiator
Pressure > 1000 atm
Preparation:
➢ At High pressure (> 1000 atm) and High Temperature (180 –250°C). Initiators like O2,
azo compounds, peroxides etc.
➢ Formation of branched polyethylene due to chain transfer reactions
➢ Branched structure leads to inefficient packing leading to low density

❑ Polyethylenes
Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
Properties:
➢ Low crystallinity (<40%)
➢ Low density (0.91–0.925 gm/cc)
▪ Weak intermolecular forces of attraction
▪ Branched structure Uses:
▪ Loose packing of polymers ➢ Films for packaging, carrybags
➢ Softening temperature 110–120°C ➢ Lamination of papers
➢ Electrical insulator ➢ Squeeze bottles
➢ Waxy ➢ Flexible pipes
➢ Soft weak ➢ Insulation on wires
➢ Packing sheets
➢ Tubes
➢ Water bottles
➢ Various utility articles

❑ Polyethylenes
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
Preparation:
➢ Using Zieglar–Natta (TiCl4+AlEt3) Catalyst at 4–10 atm pressure and 50–70°C

➢ CrO3 catalyst at 35 atm pressure and 60–180°C
➢ Low pressure produces negligible branching

❑ Polyethylenes

❑ Polyethylenes
Properties:
➢ High crystallinity (~90%)
➢ High density (0.94–0.965 gm/cc)
▪ Weak intermolecular forces of attraction
▪ Linear structure
▪ Better packing of polymers
➢ Softening temperature 130–145°C Uses:
➢ Electrical insulator ➢ Crates, tubs, troughs
➢ Less Waxy ➢ Containers, water tanks, Drums
➢ Hard, stronger ➢ Medicine bottles
➢ Pipes
➢ Sheets
➢ Utility articles

LDPE HDPE
1 Density 0.92 gm/cc Density 0.96 gm/cc
2 Crystallinity upto 40% Crystallinity about 90%
3 Softening Temp. 110–120°C Softening Temp. 130–145°C
4 Lower Tensile strength Higher Tensile strength
5 Lower Chemical, solvent resistant Better chemical, solvent resistance
6 Obtained by free-radical catalyst, High Obtained by coordination catalyst, lower
Temp. High Pressure Temp. and Pressure
7 Soft, weak, waxy in properties Stronger, Hard, Less waxy in properties
8 Branched polymer molecules Linear polymer molecules
9 Mostly used for film based applications Used for moulded utility articles
HDPE
LLDPE LDPE
Additives for Polymers
Compounding of Plastics:
▪ Mixing of different materials/chemicals like plasticizers, fillers, extenders, lubricants etc. to
thermoplastics or thermosetting resins to increase their useful properties like strength, toughness,
colour etc.
▪ Pure Polymeric material is not used to make finished articles
▪ It is mixed with compounding constituents to enhance its useful properties
Why are Additives used ?

Improve Physical Properties Improve Chemical Properties Facilitate processing
And And
Increase Durability Reduce cost
• Obtain better impact resistance • Increase flame resistance • Improve processing conditions
• Increase or decrease hardness • Increase polymer stability to oxidation • Facilitate extrusion moulding
• Increase UV resistance etc. • Reduce cost etc.
• Control surface tension etc.
Additives
Resins Accelerators
or Pigments Lubricants Stabilizers or
Plasticizers Fillers
Binders catalysts

Resins or Binders
➢ Acts as binder to hold different constituents of the mould together
➢ Thermosetting resins in form of linear polymers (Low M.W.) are used
➢ Cross-links are formed and material becomes hard
Catalysts or Accelerators
➢ For thermosetting polymers, for making cross links
faster (curing)
➢ Benzoyl peroxide, transition metal oxides, Cu, Pb, Ag,
ZnO, acetyl Sulphuric acid, oxalic acid
Lubricants
Colour or Pigments
➢ Added to avoid the sticking of
➢ Impart color plastic materials to fabricating
➢ Resistance to UV equipment
➢ Organic dyes, carbon black, inorganic oxides ➢ Article is easily removed,
➢ No leaching eg., Iron oxide, Benzidine Yellow etc. glossy finish
Waxes, oils, stearates, oleates,
vaselines and soaps

Plasticizers
➢ Increase plasticity and flexibility
➢ Decrease T & P for moulding
▪ Plasticizer molecules occupy positions between
macromolecules and separate them
▪ Weakens intermolecular forces of attraction
➢ Adverse effect on Tensile strength and solvent/chemical
resistance Di-alkyl phthalate m-cresol
➢ Make polymer more amorphous
➢ Reduces Tg
Esters of higher acids

Stearic acid, Oleic acid or phthalic acids
di-octyl phthalate
tri-butyl phosphate
Dioctyl phthalate (D.O.P.) Di butyl phthalate (DBP)
Phosphates like tributyl phosphate, isophenyl phosphate,
tricresyl phosphate PVC– di-n-butyl/octyl phthalate
Dialkyl phthalates
Cresyl phthalates

Fillers
➢ Materials added to plastics during moulding to impart special properties and to

reduce cost of finished product. Mainly for Thermoplastics
➢ Amount of filler depends on article to be fabricated, upto 50% of total moulding
material
Increase Mechanical Strength Carbon Black to Natural Rubber
Increases impact strength Cellulosic Fiber (rags,cotton, paper pulpwood etc.) to PF(bakelite)
Increase hardness Carborundum, quartz, Mica
Impervious to X-Rays Barium Salts

Reduce cost Talc, Clay
Air is a filler in Foamed plastics
Gypsum, saw dust, talc, asbestos, carbon black, mica, pumic powder, cork, husk, paper
pulp, wood flour, cotton fiber, china clay, metallic powders (Al, Cu, Pb) and metallic
oxide powders (ZnO, PbO)

Stabilizers
➢ Added to protect plastics/stabilize plastics in an environment
Eg., Thermoplastics decompose and discolour at moulding
temperature (PVC and polyvinylidene)
Flame Retardants Zinc Borate, Aluminium trihydrate(ATH)

UV absorbers Carbon Black, TiO2
Thermal Stabilizers Salts of Pb, Ca, Ba
Antioxidants acryl amines, phenolics etc.
Opaque moulding materials White lead, lead chromate, lead naphthenate

Transparent moulding materials Stearates of Pb, Cd, Ba

▪ hold different constituents
Resins
▪ Increase plasticity and flexibility ▪ impart special properties
or ▪ reduce cost of finished product
Plasticizers Binders Fillers
▪ easily removal from
fabricating equipment ▪ increase thermal stability
▪ glossy finish
Lubricants Stabilizers
Additives
Colour Catalysts ▪ for making cross links
▪ Impart colour
faster
or or
Pigments Accelerators

Light
Heat Stability
Stability Antistaticity
Process
Stability Flame
Plastics = Retardants
Polymers
+
Additives Recycling
Fungicide
Copper
Biocide Scratch Contact
Resistance

Conducting Polymers

Conducting Polymers
➢ Organic polymers are in general are bad conductors of electricity due to
absence of free electrons.
➢ 1977 Heeger, MacDiarmid and Shirakawa reported that oxidation of
polyacetylene by Iodine increased its conductivity 108 fold (103 S/cm
approaching one of the best conductors)
I3−
• 2000
Insulators Semiconductors Conductors

(Polymers) (Undoped conducting (Doped conducting
Polymers) Polymers)
10−8 102 Siemens/cm

Conducting Polymers
Conducting Polymers
Intrinsically Conducting Polymers Extrinsically Conducting Polymer

Can conduct electricity on its own Filled with metal powder/filaments,
graphite powder to make it conducting
Polymers with Doped Conductive element Blended conducting

conjugated π conducting filled polymers polymers
electrons Polymers •Polymer filled with •Conducting
•Delocalized π •Doped with carbon black, metallic polymers blended
electrons either electron fibres, metal oxides with conventional
•In Electric field π donors or •Polymer acts as polymers
electrons get acceptors binder •Better
excited and •Affects tensile physical/chemical/
transported strength mechanical props.
p-type n-type
Lewis Acid Lewis Base
Conducting Polymers
❑ Intrinsically conducting polymers
Structural requirements
➢ Presence of conjugation (alternating σ and π bonds)
➢ Presence of aromatic rings
➢ Polymer should have Linear chains
➢ Such polymers have high crystallinity and planarity in structure
Aromatic with Heteroatoms

Conjugated π
Polyacetylene
X= NH Polypyrole
Aromatic + Heteroatoms
X=S Polythiophene
Conjugated π + Aromatic
X=NH Polyaniline
Polyphenylene vinylene X=S Polyphenylene sulfide
Conducting Polymers
❑ Intrinsically conducting polymers
➢ Doping
p-type or Oxidative n-type or Reductive
3/2 I2 Na
(CH)n (CH)n+ I3− (CH)n (CH)n− Na+
Polyacetylene Polyacetylene chain Polyacetylene Polyacetylene chain
with positive charge with negative charge
▪ I2 in CCl4, FeCl3, Br2, AsF5,
▪ Li, Na, naphthylamine, etc.
HBF4, HClO4 etc.
Protonic doping

Conducting Polymers
Antistatic
material
Rechargeable
Electrolytes
batteries
Molecular
Wires
Applications
Electronics
Optical
Filters Sensors Photovoltaic
Cells

❑ Need for biodegradable polymers
• Polymers -essential part of our daily life.
• Numerous advantages-use in every field.
• 150 million tons of non biodegradable waste
every year
• Reduce solid waste disposal problem

• Reduce dependence on petroleum fractions
for polymers synthesis
• Problems to the environment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N3m_NtQTnfc

❑ Biodegradation
➢ Process of converting polymers into harmless simple products by action of
enzymes, microorganisms and water.
➢ Naturally-occurring breakdown of materials by microorganisms such as bacteria
and fungi or other biological activity.
Process is slow
➢ Enzymes either polymer linkages or from end to convert polymers into smaller
fragments
➢ Microorganisms consume these fragments and produce CO2, N2, CH4 etc.
❑ Biodegradable polymers
➢ Biodegradable polymers are defined as the materials whose chemical and
physical characteristics undergo deterioration and completely degrade
when exposed to microorganisms, aerobic and anaerobic processes.
➢ Biodegradable polymers degrade as a result of natural biological processes,
eliminating the need to create a disposal system which can cause harm to
our environment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yis-pw0gxfU
❑ Factors Responsible
1. Microorganisms
Naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae are responsible for
biodegradation of polymers. Very slow process
pseudomonas, bacillus, cereshia, protozoa, azetobactor, fungi
2. Environment
For the survival, action by the microorganisms and for biodegradation process to
function, suitable conditions like temperature, pH, moisture, oxygen, salts, pressure,
light, etc are important
3. Nature of Polymer
Polymer should contain bonds which can be hydrolysed, oxidised by the enzyme action.
So the atoms like N, O, S should be present in the polymeric chain.

❑ Features
➢ Naturally occurring polymers more susceptible to biodegradation
Chemical features
▪ Synthetic addition polymers with only carbon atom main chain not biodegradable -
molecular weight above 500
▪ Synthetic condensation polymers are biodegradable depending on attached functional
groups (ester>ether>amide)
▪ Depends on attached functional groups
Physical features
▪ Amorphous polymers >crystalline polymers
▪ Lower MW> Higher molecular weight
▪ Hydrophilic polymers> Hydrophobic polymers

Natural Biopolymers Biosynthetic Polymers Synthetic Biopolymers

Eg., Cellulose, Starch, Eg., Polyhydroxy Eg., Polycaprolactone,
Protein etc. alkanoates Polylactic acid etc.
Polymers obtained from nature Materials that combine Synthetic biopolymers are
synthetic components with human-made copies of
biopolymers or moieties biopolymers obtained
prepared as mimics of those by abiotic chemical route
found in nature
ε-caprolactone Poly caprolactone

poly-3-hydroxy poly-3-hydroxy
valerate (PHV) butyrate (P3HB)
Lactic acid Poly Lactic acid (PLA)

❑ Synthesis
➢ BIOPOL (PHBV)
Acaligenes
eutrophus
+
Glucose 3-hydroxy butyric acid 3-hydroxy valeric acid
Polymerization
Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate- PHBV (BIOPOL)

co-3-hydroxyvalerate)
❑ Applications
➢ Medical Applications

❑ Applications
➢ Packaging Materials

❑ Applications
➢ Agricultural applications

|| इति बहुलक रसायन शास्त्र अध्याय सपं र्ू मण ||


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Polymer Chemistry

Department of Applied Sciences

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

Polyacetylene Polyethylene Terephthalate

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College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

➢ A thermoplastic, or thermosoftening No links

Polystyrene foam PVC Pipes

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College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

➢ Monomer units are joined by Addition Reaction

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Termination ➢ Mechanism consists of Three steps

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t-Butyl phenyl benzoate

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College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

➢ Propagation can take place in three ways (Head-Tail, Head-Head, Random)

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Can be another chain/impurity/Solvent/Inhibitor

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➢ Polymerization proceeds step by step with release of small molecules

Dimer + Monomer Trimer

Trimer + Monomer Tetramer

Dimer + Trimer Pentamer

N ➢ Initially, large no. of small polymers are formed

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

Both follow step-growth mechanism

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College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

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Strain: is a description of deformation in terms of relative displacement of

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College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

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▪ Chains are held together by weak Vander Waal forces.

➢ Thermosets or cross-linked polymers don’t show such

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College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

Solid polymer just added Swollen polymer in Solvated polymer

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College of Engineering Pune (COEP)

A 2D representation of A 3D representation of Spherulite formed by