PHYSICAL PHARMACY LABORATORY
(REVIEWER – THEORETICAL)
MODULE 1: HOMEGENEOUS SYSTEMS
In aqueous solution,
- an ACID increases the
concentration of hydronium ions
[H3O+], sometimes represented as
hydrogen ions [H+]
- a BASE increases the
concentration of hydroxide ions
[OH-].
- BUFFERS are included in the
dosage form to impart sufficient
stability to enable the
formulation.
- BUFFERS are substances or a
combination of substances that,
by their presence in solution, resist
changes in pH upon the addition
of small quantities of acid or alkali.
Body fluids (blood and lacrimal fluid)
have an osmotic pressure corresponding
to that of 0.9% (w/v) sodium chloride.
hydronium and hydroxide ions are
present both in pure water and in all
aqueous solutions, and their
concentrations are inversely
proportional as determined by the ion
product of water.
B. Methods of Adjusting Tonicity
The methods for adjusting tonicity
subdivided into two classes:
→ Class I methods, which employ
sodium chloride or some other
substance to the drug solution to
lower the freezing point of the
solution to – 0.52° and thus make
it isotonic with body fluids.
1. Cryoscopic method
2. Sodium chloride equivalent
method
→ Class II methods – use water that
is added to the drug in a
sufficient amount to form an
isotonic solution. The preparation
is then made up to its final
volume with an isotonic or a
buffered isotonic dilution solution.
These include;
1. White–Vincent method
2. Sprowls method.
Sodium chloride equivalent method
- This method is based on
calculating the E-value.
- the sodium chloride equivalent or
tonicity equivalent of a drug. It is
the amount of sodium chloride
that has the same osmotic effect
(is equivalent to) as 1 g of the
drug.
White–Vincent method
- This method involves the addition
of water to the drugs to prepare
an isotonic solution, followed by
the addition of an isotonic or
isotonic-buffered diluting vehicle
to make up the solution up to the
final volume.
Application of Tonicity
- It is generally accepted that for
ophthalmic and parenteral
administration, isotonic solutions
are better tolerated by the
patient than those at the
extremes of hypo- or
hypertonicity.
- Isotonic solutions cause no
swelling or contraction of the
tissues with which they come in
contact and produce no
discomfort when instilled in the
eye, nasal tract, blood or other
body tissues.
Ophthalmic medication
- It is generally accepted that
ophthalmic preparations
intended for instillation into the
 PHYSICAL PHARMACY LABORATORY
(REVIEWER – THEORETICAL)
cul-desac of the eye should, if
possible, be approximately
isotonic to avoid irritation. The
isotonic preparation duplicates
ophthalmic tears for the comfort
of the patient.
Parenteral medication
- Injections that are not isotonic
should be administered slowly
and in small quantities to
minimize tissue irritation, pain and
cell fluid imbalance.
- When parenteral solutions are
formulated, the tonicity of
hypotonic solutions is adjusted by
the addition of dextrose or
sodium chloride. This is true for
parenterally administered
medicines and total parenteral
nutrition (TPN), which is an
integral part of therapeutic
options available to hospitalized
patients.
A. SOLUBILITY OF SOLIDS IN WATER
- Solubility is defined
in quantitative terms as
the concentration of solute in a
saturated solution at a certain
temperature, and in a qualitative
way, it can be defined as
the spontaneous interaction of
two or more substances to form a
homogeneous molecular
dispersion.
The boiling point of liquids and the melting
point of solids both reflect the strengths of
interactions between the molecules in the
pure liquid or the solid state.
The influence of substituents on the solubility
of molecules in water can be due to their
effect on the properties of the solid or
liquid or to the effect of the substituent on its
interaction with water molecules.
• Polar groups such as –OH capable of
hydrogen bonding with water
molecules impart high solubility.
• Non-polar groups such as –CH3 and –
Cl are hydrophobic and impart low
solubility.
OTHER NOTES FOR LECTURE:
SOLIDS – Amorphous powder (ionic,
covalent)
LIQUIDS – Water bonds
GASES – Free to move around
- Inhaler (high kinetic energy)
Polyphasic – adjusting phases
Eutexia – absorb heat (liquefy)
SUBLIMATION – solid to gas
MELTING – solid to liquid
FREEZING – liquid to solid
Liquid crystalline state – in between
liquid
Solvates – pseudomolymorphs
Enantiotropic – reverse direction
Monotropic – one direction only

- In general, aqueous
solubility decreases with increasing
boiling point and melting point.