Memory  He underwent brain surgery in 1953 to treat

The curios case of severe epilepsy, during which surgeons removed

Patient H.M. parts of his temporal lobes, including the
(The Hippocampus) hippocampus.
 Unfortunately, the surgery stopped his severe
Henry Gustav Molaison (H.M) epileptic seizures, but it resulted in profound and
 Was an American man who had a bilateral medial permanent amnesia. H.M. experienced
temporal lobectomy to surgically resect in an anterograde amnesia, which meant he couldn't
attempt to cure his epileptic seizure. It was an form new long-term memories after the surgery.
experimental procedure that he and his surgeons He also had some degree of retrograde amnesia,
hoped would help to lessen his seizures and it affecting memories before the surgery.
worked.
 The seizures gone but afterwards, H.M was left with
permanent amnesia. He could still remember some
things especially during his childhood but he was
unable to form new memories. The breakthrough of
this neurosurgery is that, the understanding that
complex functions such as learning and memory are
tied to discrete regions of the brain.

HIPPOCAMPUS

 He underwent brain surgery in 1953 to treat

severe epilepsy, during which surgeons removed
parts of his temporal lobes, including the
hippocampus.
 Unfortunately, the surgery stopped his severe
epileptic seizures, but it resulted in profound and
permanent amnesia. H.M. experienced
anterograde amnesia, which meant he couldn't
form new long-term memories after the surgery.
He also had some degree of retrograde amnesia,
affecting memories before the surgery.
 WAKEFULNESS AND SLEEP
ENDOGENOUS CYCLES
 Endogenous: generated by the body regardless of
environment circannual rhythm: prepares animals
for seasonal changes even when caged without
clues to the season endogenous circannual
rhythm. (Endogenous means “generated from
within.” Circannual comes from the Latin words
circum, for “about,” and annum, for “year.”)
 Animals also produce endogenous circadian
rhythms that last about a day. (Circadian comes
from the Latin circum, for “about,” and dies, for
“day.”) If you go without sleep all night—as most
college students do, sooner or later—you feel
sleepier and sleepier as the night goes on, but as
morning arrives, you feel more alert, not less. The
light from the sun helps you feel less sleepy, but
also your urge to sleep depends partly on the time
of day, not just how long you have been awake
 circadian rhythm: rhythms that last a day and are
synchronized
 wakefulness and sleep
 hormone secretion frequency of eating
 body temperature
SLEEP
Behaviorally the normal suspension of consciousness
and electrophysiologically by specific brain wave
criteria—consumes fully a third (1/3) of our lives.
It can be defined as well as loss of wakefulness, a
fundamental function for mental and physical and an
unconscious state which can be in part modified by
sensory stimulation
SLEEP-WAKE CYCLE controlled by TWO INTERNAL
INFLUENCES:
 HOMEOSTASIS
 CIRCADIAN RHYTMM
HOMEOSTASIS
As process by which the body maintains a “steady
state” of internal conditions such as blood pressure,
body temperature, and acid-base
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMM
Cyclical changes and environmental stimuli like
fluctuation in body temperature, hormone levels, and
presence of light known collectively as “zeitgebers” that
occur over 24 hours a day which refers as our biological
clock
 Our circadian rhythms generate a period close to 24
hours, but they are not perfect. We readjust our
internal workings daily to stay in phase with the
world. Although circadian rhythms persist without
light, light is critical for resetting them.
 Without something to reset your circadian rhythm,
it would gradually drift away from the correct time.
 The stimulus that resets the circadian rhythm is
referred to by the German term zeitgeber (TSITE-
gay-ber), meaning “time-giver.” Light is the
dominant zeitgeber for land animals (Rusak &
Zucker, 1979), whereas the tides are important for
some marine animals.
 In addition to light, include exercise
 arousal of any kind
 meals, and the temperature of the environment
(Refietti, 2000).
What about blind people, who need to set their
circadian rhythms by zeitgebers other than light?
Some do set their circadian rhythms by noise,
temperature, meals, and activity. However, others who
are not sufficiently sensitive to these secondary
zeitgebers produce circadian rhythms that are a little
longer than 24 hours. When their cycles are in phase
with the clock, all is well, but when they drift out of
phase, they experience insomnia at night and sleepiness
during the day (Sack & Lewy, 2001)
SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS (SCN)
SCN: area of the hypothalamus that sets circadian
rhythm if damaged, rhythms are less consistent, not
synchronized to light and dark patterns
 neurons produce circadian rhythm in tissue
cultures
 genes interact with proteins period (PER) and
timeless (TIM) to generate rhythm
  The concentration of these two proteins, which
promote sleep and inactivity, oscillates over a day,
based on feedback interactions among neurons.
Early in the morning, the messenger RNA levels
responsible for producing PER and TIM start at low
concentrations. As they increase during the day,
they increase synthesis of the proteins, but the
process takes time
 mutant per gene accelerates biological clock
 Pineal gland releases melatonin 2hrs before
bedtime
 Pill may help adjust to new time zone but effect of
long term use unknown
Figure 9.3 The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of rates
and humans. The SCN is located at the base of the
brain, just above the optic chiasm. The optic chiasm was
torn off when the brain was sliced to make the slides
shown in (a) and (b), which show coronal sections
through the plane of the anterior hypothalamus. Each
rat was injected with radioactive 2-deoxyglucose, which
is absorbed by the most active neurons. A high level of
absorption of this chemical produces a dark appearance
on the slide. Note that the level of activity in SCN
neurons is much higher in section (a), in which the rat
was injected during the day, than in section (b), in
which the rat received the injection at night.
SETTING AND RESETTING BIOLOGICAL CLOCK
JET LAG
 A disruption of circadian rhythms due to crossing
time zones is known as jet lag sleepiness during the
day, sleeplessness at night, depression, and
impaired concentration. All these problems stem
from the mismatch between internal circadian clock
and external time
 going west we stay up later and phase-delay our
circadian rhythm
 going east we sleep earlier and it is phase-advanced
flight attendants experience some memory
impairments
 Adjusting to jet lag is often stressful. Stress elevates
blood levels of the adrenal hormone cortisol, and
many studies have shown that prolonged elevations
of cortisol damage neurons in the hippocampus, a
brain area important for memory.
Figure 9.5 Jet lag. Eastern time is later than western
time. People who travel six time zones east must wake
up when their biological clocks say it is the middle of
the night, and will try to go to sleep when their
biological clocks say it is just late afternoon.
SHIFT WORK
 many people may not adjust completely to night
work, still feel groggy and do not sleep well during
day
 less light in night environment
 Working at night does not reliably change the
circadian rhythm because most buildings use
artificial lighting in the range of 150 to 180 lux,
which is only moderately effective in resetting the
rhythm
 People adjust best to night work if they sleep in a
very dark room during the day and work under very
bright lights at night, comparable to the noonday
sun (Czeisler et al., 1990). Short-wavelength (bluish)
light helps to reset the circadian rhythm better than
long-wavelength light does
 Morning people and evening people  Paradoxal/desynchronized sleep (REM- Rapid
 Circadian rhythms differ among individuals. Some Eye Movements)
people “morning people or “larks” awaken early,
reach their peak of productivity early, and become SLOW WAVE SLEEP (NREM)
less alert later in the day. ENTRANCE TO SLEEP
 Others “evening people or “owls” warm up more
slowly, both literally and figuratively, reaching their  Takes appr. 90 minutes with 5-20 minutes intervals
peak in the late afternoon or evening. They tolerate  Peripheral vessel tone and vegetative body
staying up all night better than morning people do functions decrease
 Muscle tone decreases
SCN reset by axons in retinohypothalamic pathway (a  10-30% decrease in blood pressure, respiration rate
small branch in the optic nerve) from retina to and basal metabolism
hypothalamus  Spinal reflexes can be elicited but strech (deep
tendon) reflexes are absent
 retinal ganglion cells do not contribute to vision and
respond to overall average amount of light DREAMS CANNOT BE REMEMBERED
 Retinohypothalamic path to the SCN comes from a
special population of retinal ganglion cells that have  Theta and delta waves in EEG
their own photopigment, called melanopsin, unlike  Duration and frequency decrease with age
the ones found in rods and cones  Has 4 different stages
 light still resets biological clock in mice with few
STAGES OF SLEEP
rods and cones
 light resets circadian rhythm in blind mole rats NON-RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP (N-REM)

THREE FUNDAMENTAL MEASURES OF SLEEP  STAGE 1 – Theta waves “light sleep”

 STAGE 2 – Sleep spindles and K complexes
1. electroencephalogram (EEG) - study the changes in
 STAGES 3 and 4 – Delta waves “deep sleep”
brain activity
2. electromyogram (EMG) machine - body positions, RAPID EYE MOVEMENT – Dreaming stage “vivid
reflexes of our body while sleeping dreaming”
3. electro-oculogram (EOG) – eye movement
 a polysomnograph, a combination of EEG and eye-
movement records,

WAKEFULNESS

We exhibit two brain waves:

 Beta waves are those associated to our day to day

wakefulness. These waves are highest in frequency
and lowest in amplitude.
 Alpha waves when we are still awake and having a
state of relaxation, meditation or biofeedback Alpha

PHASES OF SLEEP

Slow-wave sleep (NonREM):

 Phase 1-4
NREM is dreamless sleep it is characterized by a
reduction of physiological activity where as we fall
asleep the brain waves as measured by EEG gets slower,
breathing and heart rate slow down and blood pressure
drops
DREAMING STAGE
REM SLEEP
gets its name from the darting eye movement that
accompany it (rapid eye movement) as indicated by
EOG active period of sleep marked by intense brain
activity, brain waves are fast and desynchronized just
like the brain waves in waking state, also, breathing
becomes more rapid and irregular and shallow
ISOLATED SLEEP PARALYSIS

- If Sleep Paralysis occurs independently from

narcolepsy or any medical conditions, it is termed
“isolated” sleep paralysis

-International Classification of Sleep Disorders

1) complaint of inability to move the trunks and limbs

upon awakening;

2) presence of brief episodes of partial or complete

skeletal muscle paralysis;

3) with wakefulness to sleep (hypnagogic) hallucinations

or sleep to wakefulness (hypnopompic) hallucinations.

During ISP, the vivid—and sometimes terrifying—

dreams of REM sleep (REM mentation) can spill over
into emerging wakefulness (Jalal and Hinton, 2015).
Hypnogogic or hypnopompic hallucinations occur in all
sensory modalities, and include out-of-body
experiences (OBE), and sensing and seeing the presence
of menacing intruders in one’s bedroom

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

Narcolepsy - Excessive sleepiness, sleep paralysis,

hallucinations, and in some cases episodes of cataplexy
(partial or total loss of muscle control), “REM Sleep
attacks

Sleep paralysis is a common symptom of narcolepsy

accompanied with cataplexy, thus, sleep paralysis may
not occur independently of narcolepsy

Sudden Unexplained Death Syndrome (SUDS) or

“bangungot” is a colloquially and culturally popular
Filipino term to describe the combination of nightmares
and immobility during sleep .

Sleep terrors is the repeated occurrence of precipitous

awakening from sleep, usually beginning of panicky and
screams and usually happen during first 3 stages of
sleep or the NREM

Nightmare and ISP both happen during REM Sleep, the

difference Nightmare happens while we are sleeping
while ISP is when you are half awake.