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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Quarter 2 – Week 2
Electron Configuration (Core Method)

The electron configuration of elements higher than hydrogen and helium can be represented using the
noble gas core. In the periodic table, the noble gases are found in the last column named as Group 8A (or
Group 18 in the IUPAC convention). These are 2He, 10Ne, 18Ar, 36Kr, 54Xe, 86Rn.

Another method to represent electron configuration is by using the abbreviated electron

configuration or the core method. The noble gas immediately before the given atom is used
as the “core” atom. For example, [Kr] is used as the core for atom with atomic numbers 37-53.
[Ar] stands for the electron configurations of argon and it indicates the filling of all sublevels
through 4p6.

The outer sublevels are rearranged so that the sublevels of the highest principal level
are the outermost. The outer electrons are the one responsible for the chemical behavior of
the element. For example, we can write the electron configuration of Bromine atom as [Ar]
4s2 4p5.
Electron configurations of a few elements do not conform to the Aufbau principle.
These exceptions do not have any major chemical consequences although they are interesting
to know. The exceptions occur in the chromium and copper families. Using the Aufbau
principle, you would expect the following electron configurations for Cr and Cu:
Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4
Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9
But determined experimentally, the actual configurations are
Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10
These arrangements give chromium a half-filled d sublevel and copper a filled d
sublevel. Filled energy sublevels are more stable than partially filled sublevels. Half- filled
levels are not as stable as filled levels, but they are more stable than other
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configurations. Therefore, chromium and copper atoms are more stable with only one
electron in the 4s sublevel.
Important data that can be gathered from the shortened electronic configuration are
the following:
a. Valence configuration: The electronic configuration representing the outermost subshells.
b. Valence electrons: the number of electrons in the outermost subshells.

Determining the valence electrons is important to understand the behavior of the elements
especially in their bonding patterns to be discussed in the next sessions.

Orbital Diagram using Core Method

Orbital diagrams are pictorial descriptions of the electrons in an atom. Three rules are
useful in forming orbital diagrams. These are the Aufbau Principle, Pauli’s Exclusion
Principle and Hunds Rule. According to the Aufbau Principle, each electron occupies the
lowest energy orbital. The Pauli Exclusion Principle says that only two electrons can fit into a
single orbital. While Hund’s rule states that each orbital is filled with one electron with
parallel spins before any of them is filled with the opposite spin electrons. In this learning
activity, you will learn more about how to draw the orbital diagram of an element and identify
the number of paired and unpaired electrons. You will also be able to identify how many
electrons are present in each orbital and the spin of each electron.

Example:
Write the abbreviated electron configurations and determine the number of unpaired electrons of
the following elements: F, Nb, and Es
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Quarter 2 – Week 3

Octet Rule and Lewis Dot Structure

A chemist named Gilbert Lewis noticed something interesting about elements that were very
stable.

In 1916, Lewis proposed an explanation of bonding in molecular compounds. He reasoned out that
an atom might acquire a noble-gas electron configuration by sharing its valence electrons with
other atoms. A chemical bond formed by sharing a pair of electrons is called a covalent bond and
the molecules formed are called covalent molecules. Most substances with which we come in
daily contact, like water, kerosene, ethanol, and carbon dioxide are all examples of covalent
molecules. The Octet Rule states that when atoms of elements combine to form compounds, they
tend to lose, gain, or share electrons to achieve the same electron arrangement as the noble gas
nearest them in the periodic table.

In combining with other atoms, only outer electrons, the valence electrons, are involved. To keep
track of these valence electrons, the Lewis structure is used. The Lewis structure or electron dot
formula of a molecule shows how the valence electrons are arranged among atoms in the
molecule. The symbol of each element is used to represent the nucleus and all inner electrons. The
valence electrons
are then shown as dots around the symbol. The element’s group number indicates the number of
dots to be placed on each symbols. Group IA shows one dot, Group IIA has two , Group IIIA has
three, Group
IVA has four, Group VA has five, Group VIA has six, Group VIIA has seven, and Group VIIIA the
noble gases which are the stable elements has eight dots on the element symbol except for Helium
which has only two dots.

To write an element’s Lewis dot symbol, you place dots to represent its
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valence electrons one at a time, around the element’s chemical symbol. Up to four
dots are placed above, below, to the left, and to the right of the symbol (in any
order, as long as elements with four or fewer valence electrons have no more than
one dot in each position). The next dots, for elements with more than four valence
electrons, are again distributed one at a time, each paired with one of the first four.
Fluorine, for example, with the electron configuration [He] 2s2 2p5, has seven
valence electrons, so its Lewis dot symbol is constructed as follows:

Take the case of two atoms of hydrogen which share their electrons to form a hydrogen molecule.
Hydrogen is an exception to the octet rule. A hydrogen atom needs to have two electrons only to
become stable. For the hydrogen to become stable, it needs one more electron. If there are two
hydrogen atoms, the bond formation is shown below

The bond formed in the formation of molecules can be represented using the Lewis structure
below:

In the Lewis structure, the bond that is formed by shared electron is represented by a line or a pair
of dots. A single bond is represented by a bar (-) which means that there is one pair of electrons
being shared by the two atoms. When two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms, a
double bond is formed, and it is represented by a double bar (=).

Consider sulfur and oxygen which have 6 electrons in their valence shells. They can both share two
electrons each forming a double bond to attain the noble gas configuration as shown below. Some
of the valence electrons of sulfur and oxygen are not bonded. These nonbonding pairs are called
lone pairs. Both sulfur and oxygen have two lone pairs.

A triple bond is represented with three bars (=). As shown below, nitrogen can form a bond with
another nitrogen atom forming a triple bond.
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How to draw Lewis Structure?

For simple molecules and molecular ions, draw Lewis structures by merely pairing up the unpaired
electrons. For more complex molecules and ions, the following procedure can be used:

1. Determine the total number of valence electrons in the molecule (indicated by the position of the
element in the periodic table). For polyatomic ions, subtract electron for each positive charge and
add electron for each negative charge.
2. Arrange the atoms to show specific connection. Draw a skeleton structure. Arrange the atoms
around a central atom. Element which are less electronegative should be placed in the center. With
a single bond, connect each atom to the central atom.
3. Distribute the remaining electrons as lone pairs around the terminal atoms to give each atom an
octet.
4. Place all remaining electrons on the central atom.
5. To achieve an octet, rearrange the electrons of the terminal atoms to make multiple bonds
(double or triple) with the central atom.

Step-by-step procedure:
1. Determine the total valence electrons in each atom. (Use the periodic
table to help you determine the valence electrons in each atom).

Formula Valence Total Valence Tentative Lewis

Electron of each Electron Structure Structure
Atom/Element

HClO3 H = 1(1) 1(1) + 1(7) + 3(6) =

26
Cl = 1(7)

O = 3(6)

PO43- P = 1(5)

O = 4(6)

NH4+ N = 1(5)

H = 4(1)
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C = 1(4) 1(4) + 2(6) = 16

CO2
O = 2(6)

N = 1(5) 1(5) + 3(1) = 8

NH3
H = 3(1)

For an anion, add the negative charge to the total number of valence electron.

Formula Valence Total Valence Tentative Lewis

Electron of each Electron Structure Structure
Atom/Element

HClO3 H = 1(1) 1(1) + 1(7) + 3(6) =

26
Cl = 1(7)

O = 3(6)

PO43- P = 1(5) 1(5) + 4(6) + 3 = 32

O = 4(6)

Charge = -3

NH4+ N = 1(5)

H = 4(1)

CO2 C = 1(4) 1(4) + 2(6) = 16

O = 2(6)

NH3 N = 1(5) 1(5) + 3(1) = 8

H = 3(1)

For a cation, subtract the positive charge to each electron.

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Formula Valence Total Valence Electron Tentativ Lewis

Electron of e Struct
each Structur e ure
Atom/Element
HClO3 H = 1(1) 1(1) + 1(7) + 3(6) = 26
Cl = 1(7)

O = 3(6)

PO43- P = 1(5) 1(5) + 4(6) + 3 = 32

O = 4(6)

NH4+ N = 1(5) 1(5) + 4(1) -1 = 8

H = 4(1)
Charge = +1

CO2 C = 1(4) 1(4) + 2(6) = 16

O = 2(6)

NH3 N = 1(5) 1(5) + 3(1) = 8

H = 3(1)

2. Find out the central atom or atoms. The atom with the highest number of
covalency is considered as the central atom. Among the most common central
atoms are boron, carbon, silicon, nitrogen, and sulfur. Hydrogen only forms one
bond, so it is never a central atom because it has only one electron to share with
another atom. In some binary compounds, oxygen is the central atom only when
it is bonded to H or halogen atoms like OF2. For oxyacids, hydrogen atoms are
connected to oxygen atoms, as in the structure of hypoclorous acid, HOCl.

3. Draw a tentative diagram for a molecule or ion. Use electron pair for single bond
linking each atom to each neighbor.

Formula Valence Total Tentative Structure Lewis

Electron of Valence Structure
each Electron
Atom/Element

HClO3 H = 1(1) 1(1) + 1(7)

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+ 3(6) = 26
Cl = 1(7)

O = 3(6)

PO43- P = 1(5) 1(5) + 4(6)

+ 3 = 32
O = 4(6)

NH4+
N = 1(5) 1(5) + 4(1)
-1 = 8

H = 4(1)

CO2 C = 1(4) 1(4) + 2(6)

= 16

O = 2(6)

NH3 N = 1(5) 1(5) + 3(1)

=8

H = 3(1)

4. Distribute the remaining valence electrons to the attached atoms first, and
then to the central atom last.

Formula Valence Total Tentative Structure Lewis

Electron of Valence Structure
each Electron
Atom/Element

HClO3 H = 1(1) 1(1) + 1(7)

+ 3(6) = 26
Cl = 1(7)

O = 3(6)

PO43- P = 1(5) 1(5) + 4(6)

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+ 3 = 32
O = 4(6)

NH4+ N = 1(5) 1(5) + 4(1)

-1 = 8
H = 4(1)

CO2 C = 1(4) 1(4) + 2(6)

= 16
O = 2(6)

NH3 N = 1(5) 1(5) + 3(1)

=8

H = 3(1)

5. Check if the Octet Rule is followed by counting the number of bonds between
atoms and lone pairs in the central atom and non-bonding pairs around the
terminal atoms, except for hydrogen, which obeys the duet rule.
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6. If there are inadequate electrons to complete the octet, move one or more
electron pair from an outer atom to form double or triple bond with the central
atom.
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Note: For ions, enclose them with a bracket and indicate the net charge
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Exceptions to the Octet Rule

The Octet rule fails in many situations involving covalent bonding. The three
main types on the exceptions to the Octet rule are discussed below:
1. Molecules with odd number of electrons. The number of valence
electrons is even, in vast majority of molecules, and complete pairing of
electrons occurs. However, the number of valence electrons is odd in a few
molecules such as ClO2, NO, and NO2. Odd-electron species are usually
very reactive and consequently short-lived.
2. Molecules in which an atom has less than an octet. Like beryllium and
boron atoms with fewer than four electrons, it form molecules with less
than eight electrons around each atom such as in the BeH2 and BH3.
3. Molecules in which an atom has more than an octet. Definite atoms like
phosphorus, sulfur and xenon form molecules with more than eight
electrons around them.

Examples:

Writing the Formula of Molecular Compounds Formed by

Nonmetallic Elements of the Representative Block

Nonmetals are type of elements which lack metallic

characteristics and are located at the far right of the periodic
table, on the right side of the “staircase” (Fig.1). Hydrogen
is also a nonmetal though it is in the top left of the periodic
table. When two nonmetals combine, they formed a
covalent compound.

Figure 1. Periodic Table

Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom and are involved in
bonding. Elements need to have a full valence shell of eight valence electrons. In order
to achieve a full valence shell, atoms will lose, gain or share electrons (Octet Rule).
Hydrogen is an exception to the rule because it only needs two electrons to have a full
valence shell (Table 1).
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Element Number of Valence Number of Electrons needed to

Electrons achieve a stable noble gas
electron arrangement

Group 7A 7 1
Group 6A 6 2
Group 5A 5 3
Carbon and Silicon
in 4 4
Group 4A
Hydrogen 1 1
Table 1. The number of electrons needed by an atom of a nonmetal to achieve a stable noble gas electron
arrangement.

The term molecular compound refers to elements that are covalently bonded. There
are some pure elements that exists as diatomic “two atoms” molecules (Fig.2). A few
pure elements exist as polyatomic “many atoms” molecules (Fig.3).

Figure 3. Elements that exists as polyatomic molecules

Figure 2. Elements that exist as diatomic molecules

The chemical formula for covalent compounds is referred to as molecular

formula. It shows the actual number of atoms that have combined to form a molecule.
Some examples are:

CO – carbon monoxide H₂O₂ - hydrogen peroxide

C₄H₁₀ - butane C₄H₆ - benzene

A molecular formula begins with the

nonmetal that is closest to the lower left
corner of the periodic table, except
hydrogen. Then the other nonmetal
symbols are listed. The order is based on
the nonmetallic element’s location in the
periodic table (Fig.4). Numerical subscripts
are used if there is more than one atom.
Figure 4. Order based on nonmetal element’s location
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In writing formula of covalent compound:

1. identify the valence electrons of each element.

2. determine the number of electrons needed to achieve a stable noble gas electron
arrangement.
3. Apply the crisscross method and use the simplest whole number ratio of the number of
atoms that combine.

Example 1. Carbon sulfide

1. Identify the elements Carbon Sulfur

2. Write the chemical symbol C S
3. Indicate the valence electron +4 -2
4.Apply crisscross (disregard the sign) 2 4
4.Simplify into whole number ratio 1 2
5. Write the molecular formula (when the subscript CS2
to be is 1,

do not write it anymore)

Therefore, two (2) carbon atoms combine with four (4) sulfur atoms or using the simplest
ratio, one (1) carbon atom combines with two (2) sulfur atoms. The molecular formula
when carbon and sulfur is combined is CS₂.

Example 2. Calcium oxide

1. Identify the elements Calcium Oxygen

2. Write the chemical symbol Ca O
3. Indicate the valence electron -2 +2
4.Apply crisscross (disregard the sign) 2 2
4.Simplify into whole number ratio 1 1
5. Write the molecular formula (when the CaO
subscript to be is 1, do not write it anymore)

Example 3. Aluminum oxide

1. Identify the elements Aluminum Oxygen

2. Write the chemical symbol Al O
3. Indicate the valence electron +3 -2
4.Apply crisscross (disregard the sign) 2 3
4.Simplify into whole number ratio 2 3
5. Write the molecular formula (when the Al2O3
subscript to be is 1, do not write it anymore)
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Quarter 2 – Week 4

Writing the Lewis Structure of Covalent Molecules:

1. Draw a skeletal structure of the molecule putting bonded atoms next to each other. In
general, the least electronegative atom occupies the central position. H and F usually
occupy terminal (end) positions.
2. Count the total number of valence electrons from all the atoms in the structure. Add
electrons corresponding to the charge for negative ions; subtract electrons
corresponding to the charge for positive ions.
3. Distribute the valence electrons to the non-central atoms such that these atoms fulfill the
octet rule. Remaining electrons are assigned to the central atom. Remember that bonds
are equivalent to 2 electrons.
4. If the valence electrons are not enough, multiple bonds may be formed

Try to apply the procedure in determining the Lewis structure for CH₂O and NO+:

1. C: 4 valence electrons/atom x 1 atom = 4 H: 1

valence electron/atom x 2 atoms = 2
O: 6 valence electrons/atom x 1 atom = 6
12 valence electrons
For positive ion, add the number of valence electrons on the atoms in the ion and
subtract the number of positive charges on the ion from the total number of valence
electrons:
N: 5 valence electrons/atom x 1 atom = 5
O: 6 valence electrons/atom x 1 atom = 6
+ -1 electron (positive charge = -1

10 valence electrons
2. Because carbon is less electronegative than oxygen and hydrogen is normally terminal
therefore C is the central atom.

O N O
H C H

Put a bonding pair of electrons between each pair of bonded atoms

O
H C H

Six electrons are shared and six remain unshared.

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N O
Note that brackets are placed around the structure, indicating the charge
outside the brackets. Two electrons are used and eight unshared.

3. Place all 6 unshared to oxygen as three lone pairs as shown below.

O
H C H

Oxygen now has an octet and hydrogen has 2 electrons, carbon has only 6 electrons.

All eight unshared electrons are distributed to nitrogen and oxygen as two lone pairs.
Both has only 6 electrons. Neither atom has an octet.

4. All remaining electrons have been distributed to the terminal atom so there are no electrons
left unshared on the central atom.

5. Carbon has only 6 electrons. To give carbon 8 electrons (octet), share one of the lone pairs
of electrons on oxygen to form a double bond:

O O

H C H H C H

This is the Lewis electron structure of CH₂O. Carbon and oxygen now have an octet of
electrons. O has two lone pairs and two bonding pairs, and C has four bonding pairs.

O O

In the case of O and N, octet is not yet formed thus you need to move another pair to form a
triple bond:

N O

Nitrogen and oxygen now have 8 electrons, hence octet rule is followed.
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MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
What is molecular geometry? Why do we need to know about the geometry of molecules?
Molecular geometry pertains to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule.
Geometry affects the physical and chemical properties of molecules and their reactivity towards
other molecules.

How can we know the geometry of a molecule?

Molecular geometry can be determined by experiment such as x-ray diffraction. However, the
geometry of simple molecules can be predicted even without experimentation. While the results of
the prediction is only qualitative and not as accurate as experiment, they still help in explaining the
properties of chemical substances.

What is the basis of the prediction?

The prediction rests on the assumption that all electron pairs in the valence shell around a
central atom repel one another. They want to be as far apart from one another as possible. These
valence shell electron pairs are the ones involved in bonding. They assume a geometry or
orientation that will minimize the repulsions. This is the stable orientation and the one with lowest
energy. This approach in predicting molecular geometry is called the Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion Theory (VSEPR).

How do we apply the VSEPR theory to predict molecular geometry?

The key ideas of the VSEPR theory are:
1. Electron pairs stay as far apart from each other as possible to minimize repulsions.
2. Molecular shape is determined by the number of bond pairs and lone pairs around the central
atom.
3. Treat multiple bonds as if they were single bonds (in making the prediction).
4. Lone pairs occupy more volume than bond pairs. Lone pair-lone pair repulsions are greater than
lone pair-bond pair repulsions which in turn are greater than bond pair-bond pair repulsions
5. Molecular geometry is a very important concept.

What are the common orientations of electrons pairs (bond pairs and lone pairs) that minimize
repulsions?

Is the orientation of the electron pair the same as molecular geometry?

They are not necessarily the same. The molecular geometry is determined by the position of the
nuclei of the atoms. We do not “see” lone pairs.

MOLECULAR GEOMETRY OF SAMPLE MOLECULES

For this lesson, the following notation is adopted: A refers to the central atom and X refers to
another atom bonded to it. If there are lone pairs attached to the central atom, this is indicated by
the letter E. Hence, AX2E2 means that A has two atoms of X bonded to it and A also has two lone
pairs of electrons.
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1. Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule BeCl2. This is of the type AX2.

a. The first thing to do before we can predict the molecular geometry is to draw the Lewis
structure of the molecule. This is shown below:

b. How many bond pairs surround the central atom of Be? Two bond pairs surround Be.

c. How will two electron pairs orient themselves such that they will be as far apart from one
another as possible? Remember VSEPR Theory says they repel one another. To minimize
repulsion, the two electron pairs will be arranged in a linear arrangement as shown above.

d. What is the molecular geometry? The molecular geometry is determined by the arrangement
of the nuclei of the atoms in the molecule. The molecular geometry of BeCl2 is linear.

e. What is the Cl-Be-Cl bond angle? It will be 180o.

2. Predict the molecular geometry of CO2. This is also of the type AX2 but with double bonds.

a. In determining molecular geometry, always start with the Lewis structure.

b. How many electron pairs are around the central atom of carbon? We have indicated
earlier that in applying the VSEPR theory, we will treat multiple bonds to be like single bonds.
Therefore, there will be two pairs around carbon.
c. What will be the orientation of the electron pairs: Answer: Linear
d. What will be the molecular geometry of CO2? Answer: Linear
e. What will be the O – C – O bond angle? Answer: 180o.

3. Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule BCl3. This is of the type AX3.
a. Again, the first step is to get the Lewis structure

b. How many bond pairs surround the central atom of boron? Three bond pairs surround B.

c. How will three electron pairs orient themselves such that they will be as far apart from one
another as possible? To minimize repulsion, the two electron pairs will be arranged in a
trigonal planar arrangement as shown above.

d. What is the molecular geometry? The molecular geometry of BCl3 is trigonal planar. This is a
flat molecule as shown in the figure on the right above.

e. What is the Cl – B – Cl bond angle? The bond angle is 120o.

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4. Predict the molecular geometry of ozone, O3. This molecule is of the type AX2E.
a. Lewis structure

For predicting geometry, we may use only one of the resonance structures.
b. Number of electron pairs around central oxygen atom (treat multiple bonds as single bonds):
three electron pairs

c. Orientation of three electron pairs: trigonal planar

d. Molecular geometry: bent

We only use the positions of the nuclei of the atoms. We are unable to “see” the lone pair.
Therefore, the molecular geometry is bent.

The lone pair occupies more volume and pushes the bond pair closer. Therefore, the bond
angle is slightly less than 120o.

5. Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule methane, CH4. This is of the type AX4.
a. Draw the Lewis structure of methane.
b. Methane has four bonding pairs of electrons around C.
c. The four bonding pairs will arrange themselves to be as far apart from one another as
possible. This is achieved through a tetrahedral arrangement where the four H atoms are at
the corners of a tetrahedron.
d. The molecular geometry is tetrahedral

e. The H-C-H bond angle is 109.5o.

6. Predict the geometry and bond angles in ammonia, NH3. This molecule is of the type AX3E.
a. Draw the Lewis structure.
b. NH3 has three bond pairs and one lone pair around nitrogen.
c. The electron pairs are arranged in a tetrahedral orientation.
d. Since the lone pair is not considered, the molecular geometry is pyramid.
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e. Again, since the lone pair occupies more volume, it will push the bond pair in and the
resulting H-N-H bond angle is slightly less than 109.5. Experimental results show it is 107o.

7. Predict the molecular geometry of water, H2O. This is of the type AX2E2.

a. Draw the Lewis structure of water.

b. There are four electron pairs around the central atom: two bond pairs and two lone pairs.
c. The electron pairs are tetrahedrally oriented.
d. The molecular geometry is bent.

e. Because there are two lone pairs occupying more volume and pushing in the bond pairs,
the H-O-H bond angle is less than 1200. Experiment shows this to be 104.5o. This is
smaller than the bond angle in NH3. Remember that lone pair-lone pair repulsions > lone
pair-bond pair repulsions > bond pair-bond pair repulsions.

8. Predict the molecular geometry of PF5. This is of the type AX5.

a. Draw the Lewis structure of PF5.

b. There are five electron pairs around phosphorus.
c. The orientation of the five electron pairs is trigonal bipyramidal.
d. The molecular geometry is trigonal bipyramidal.

e. The bond angles are 90o and 120o

9. Predict the molecular geometry of SF6. This is of the type AX6.

a. Draw the Lewis structure of SF6.

b. There are six electron pairs around S.
c. The electrons pairs are oriented in an octahedral manner.
d. The molecular geometry is octahedral.

e. The bond angles are 90o and 180o.