Essence Chemistry Book

CHEMISTRY MADE EASY With Bright Edo
Chapter 1
Atoms, molecules, ions and radicals
Learning Outcome
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to:
 Understand the concepts of the following terms: atoms, molecules, ions and
radicals.
 Know the components of an atom; its subatomic particle
 Determine the number of protons, electrons and neutrons of an atom.
If you already feel confident about these chapter why not try the Quiz over the page?
1
Practice Questions
1. For the noble gases (The group 8A elements)
4 20 40 84 32
2 10 18 36 54
He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe
Determine the number of protons, electrons and neutrons for each atom
2. Indicate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in each of the following
species
15 32 63 84 130 186
7 16 29 38 56 74
N, S, Cu, Sr, Ba, W
3. Write the appropriate symbol for each of the following atoms
(a) Z =1 1, A = 23 (b) Z = 28, A = 64 (c) Z = 74, A = 186

24
12
4. Determine the number of electrons and neutron in Mg2+
5. An atom has atomic number 92 and contains 143 neutrons in its nucleus. What is
the atomic mass of the atom and how many proton does it contain in its nucleus?
2
1. Atom
What is an Atom: An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a
chemical reaction.
An atom is made up of three sub-atomic particle which I call P E N of an atom
P for proton [which is positively charged]

E for electron [which is negatively charged]
N for neutron [which is neutral]
Now let us understand the meaning of the word ATOM.
Example 1
The Symbol O: should be pronounced as Oxygen atom
The symbol O – O i.e. O2: should be pronounced as oxygen molecule.
This means that a molecule is made up of at least two atoms so two atoms of an element
can form a molecule, three atoms of an element can form a molecule, four atoms of an
element can form a molecule as the case may be.
Example 2
The Symbol N: should be pronounced as Nitrogen atom.
The Symbol N – N i.e. N2 should be pronounced as Nitrogen molecule.
Example 3
The Symbol P: should be pronounced as Phosphorus atom.
The symbol P – P – P – P i.e. P4: should be pronounced as Phosphorus molecule.
2. Determination of the Number of Protons, Electrons, Neutron of an atom
Let us examine an unknown atom X
Where X = unknown atom

A = Atomic mass or mass number or nucleon number
Z = Atomic number or proton number
To determine the number of proton, electrons and neutron of an atom, it will be in two
CASES.
3
CASE 1: For a NEUTRAL ATOM [Atom without a charge]
P = is same as atomic number

E = is same as proton number [i.e. same as atomic number]
N = is calculated by Mass Number – Atomic Number
Where A = mass number

Z = atomic number
N=A–Z
CASE 2: For a CHARGED ATOM [atom with a charged wither positive or negative
charge]
P = is same as atomic number
N.B: For a CHARGED ATOM, the Electron Number is not equal to the proton number
E = Proton Number – Charge

N = is calculated by Mass Number – Atomic Number
Where A = mass number

Z = atomic number
N=A–Z
Solved Questions with Detailed Explanation

23
11
1. Determine the number of proton, electron and neutron in Na
Soln:
Recall A
X = Unknown atom
23
11
So in this case the atom is Na [The atom is a neutral so I will apply the concept
of CASE1]
P = is same as atomic number = 11

E = is same as proton number = 11
N = Mass Number – Atomic Number
4
Where Mass number = A = 23

Atomic number = Z = 11
=A–Z
= 23 – 11
= 12
23
11
2. Determine the number of proton, electron and neutron in Na+1
Soln:
Recall A
X = Unknown atom
23
11
So in this case the atom is Na+1 [The atom is with a charge so I will apply the
concept of CASE2]
P = is same as atomic number = 11
Recall, for an atom with a charge Electron Number is not equal to the proton
number.
E = Proton Number – Charge
Where
Proton Number = 11
Charge = + 1
E = 11 – (+ 1)
E = 11 – 1
E = 10
N = Mass Number – Atomic Number
Where Mass number = A = 23

Atomic number = Z = 11
N=A–Z
N = 23 – 11
N = 12
5
3. Molecule
What is Molecule? A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can exist alone
or independently and still retain that same chemical identity of that same atom.
4. Ions
What is an Ion? An ion is a charged atom, when an ion is positively charged, it is called a
CATION. But when it is negatively charged, it is called an ANION.
Example: Na+1, K+1, Ca2+, Al3+. These are Cations
Example: Cl−1, I−1, O2−, S2−. These are Anions
5. Radicals
What are Radicals? Radicals are group of atoms behaving as a single charge unit i.e. a
particular charge is holding all the atoms together.
−1
3
Example: N : O : O : O−1 = NO [This is called the Nitrate radical]
2−
3
C : O : O : O2− = CO [This is called the carbonate radical]
2−
4
S : O : O : O2− = SO [This is called the sulphate radical]
6
Chapter 2
Isotopy and Relative Atomic Mass Calculations
Learning Outcome
 Understand the word called isotopy.

 Know how to calculate the relative atomic mass dealing with different cases and
other related calculations involved.
 Understand the meaning of some basic terms like ISOBAR, ISOTONES and ISO-
DIAPHERS.
If you already feel confident about this chapter, why not try the Quiz over the page.
7
Practice Questions
39 40
18 18
1. An element X exists in two isotopic form X and X in the ratio 3:2 respectively.
What is the relative atomic mass of X?
16
8
2. An element X with relative atomic mass 16.2 contains two isotopes. X with
m
8
relative abundance of 90% and X with relative abundance of 10%. What is the
value of m?
85
3. Rubidium has two naturally occurring isotope Rb with a mass of 84.9118 a.m.u
87
and Rb with a mass of 86.9092 amu. If the atomic mass of rubidium is 85.47.
85
What is the relative abundance of Rb?
[Hint: Percentage abundance is also called relative abundance or natural

abundance or geometric abundance].
6 7
3 3
4. Lithium exist as Li and Li in the ratio 2:25. Calculate the relative atomic mass of
Lithium.
5. Two isotopes of Z with mass number 18 and 20 are in the ratio 1:2. Determine the
relative atomic mass of Z.
8
1. ISOTOPY
What is Isotopy: Isotopy is a phenomenon where by atoms of same element have

DIFFERENT MASS NUMBER but same ATOMIC NUMBER. For Example:
35 37
17 17
Cl and Cl
where 35 and 37 for chlorine are the MASS NUMBER which is DIFFERENT and 17 for
both atoms are the ATOMIC NUMBER which is the SAME.
2. Relative Atomic Mass
What is relative atomic mass? The relative atomic mass of an element is the AVERAGE
MASS of its atoms, compared to 1/12th the mass of carbon-12.
3. Determination of relative atomic mass of an atom
To determine Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) of an element, it can be in different cases.
CASE 1: Relative atomic mass calculations dealing two isotopes.
Formula:
% 1 × M1 % × M2
+ 2
100 100
R.A.M =
Where %1 = Percentage abundance of the first isotope

M1 = Mass number of the first isotope
%2 = Percentage abundance of the second isotope
M2 = Mass number of the second isotope
Solved Questions with Detailed Explanations on CASE 1

16 18
8 8
1) Oxygen is a mixture of two isotope O and O with percentage abundance of
90% and 10% respectively. The relative atomic mass of oxygen is (a) 16 (b) 16.2 (c)
17 (d) 18
Soln
N.B: The relative atomic mass of element are not whole numbers. So with this hint, a
smart student might not solve this question before choosing the correct answer.
From the hint 1 just said, the answer to the question will be option (B) because it is
16.2 and the only option without a whole number
But let us solve together
9
Parameter
16
First isotope = 8 O = 90%
18
Second isotope = 8 O = 10% .
100%
[The percentage abundance in a question should be equal to 100%]
%1 = Percentage abundance of the first isotope = 90%

M1 = Mass number of the first isotope = 16
%2 = Percentage abundance of the second isotope = 10%
M2 = Mass number of the second isotope = 18
Let us input all the parameters into the formula I gave initially.
% 1 × M1 % × M2
+ 2
RAM = 100 100
90 × 16 10 × 18
+
RAM = 100 100
RAM = 14.4 + 1.8
RAM = 16.2
35
17
2) Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine which contains 75% Cl and 25%
37
17
Cl
Soln
35
First isotope = 17 Cl = 75%
37
Second isotope = 17 Cl = 25%
100%
%1 = Percentage abundance of the first isotope = 75%

M1 = Mass number of the first isotope = 35
%2 = Percentage abundance of the second isotope = 25%
M2 = Mass number of the second isotope = 37
% 1 × M1 % × M2
+ 2
RAM = 100 100
75 × 35 25 × 37
+
RAM = 100 100
10
RAM = 26.25 + 9.25

RAM = 35.5
11
CASE 2: Relative atomic mass calculations dealing with three isotopes
Formula:
% 1 × M1 % × M2 % × M3
+ 2 + 3
100 100 100
R.A.M =
Where %1 = Percentage abundance of the first isotope

M1 = Mass number of the first isotope
%2 = Percentage abundance of the second isotope
M2 = Mass number of the second isotope
%3 = Percentage abundance of the third isotope
M3 = Mass number of the third isotope
Solved Question with Detailed Explanations on CASE 2
1) Calculate the relative atomic mass of oxygen atom with the following percentage
16 17 18
abundances 8 O (99.757%), 8 O (0.037%) and 8 O (0.204%)
↓ ↓ ↓
15.995amu 16.999amu 17.9992
Soln
16
First isotope = 8 O = 99.757%
17
Second isotope = 8 O = 0.037%
18
Third isotope = 8 O = 0.204%
100%__
%1 = 99.757%
M1 = 16 [The exact value is 15.995]
%2 = 0.037%
%3 = 0.204%
% 1 × M1 % × M2 % × M3
+ 2 + 3
R.A.M = 100 100 100
99.757 × 15 .995 0.037 × 16 .9991 0.204 × 17 .9992
+ +
R.A.M = 100 100 100
R.A.M = 15.95613215 + 0.0063 + 0.037
R.A.M = 15.9994
12
One must be very careful when solving these kinds of calculations.
CASE 3: Relative atomic mass calculations dealing with Atoms
Formula:
No of atom 1 × M1 No of atom2 × M 2
+
100 100
R.A.M =
1) If two atoms of an element X contains 70 atoms of 9X and 30 atoms of X.

11
Calculate the relative atomic mass of X.
Soln
First isotope = 9X = 70 atoms

Second isotope = 11X = 30 atoms
100 atoms
No of atom1 = 70 atoms
M1 = 9
No of atom2 = 30 atoms
M2 = 11
Let us input all the parameters into the formula I gave initially
No of atom 1 × M1 No of atom2 × M 2
+
R.A.M = 100 100
70 atoms × 9 30 atoms × 11
+
R.A.M = 100 100
R.A.M = 6.3 + 3.3 = 9.6
CASE 4: Relative atomic mass calculations dealing with ratio
Solved Questions with Detailed Explanations

20 22
10 10
1) An atom has two isotopes X and X in the ratio 1:3 respectively. Calculate the
relative atomic mass of X
Soln
Now, you can see that this Question is on relative atomic mass calculations
dealing with ratio
Let us determine the percentage of both isotope with the ratio given in the
question.
13
20
First isotope = 10 X = 1
22
10
Second isotope = X=3
Percentage abundance of the first isotope becomes
1
20 × 100
10 1+3
%1 of X= = 25%
Percentage abundance of the second isotope becomes
3
22 × 100
10 1+3
%2 of X= = 75%
20
10
 First isotope = X = 25%
22
Second isotope = 10 X = 75%
100%
%1 = 25%
M1 = 20
%2 = 75%
M2 = 22
Formula
% 1 × M1 % × M2
+ 2
RAM = 100 100
25 × 20 75 × 22
+
RAM = 100 100
RAM = 5 + 16.5
RAM = 21.5
N.B: On questions on this case, the ratio helps the chemist calculate the percentage
abundance of the ISOTOPE before determining the RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS.
CASE 5: General calculations on relative atomic mass determination.
14
35 37
17 17
1) Chlorine has two isotopes Cl and Cl. If the relative atomic mass of chlorine is
35 37
17 17
35.5, what is the percentage abundance of both isotopes Cl and Cl?
Solution
In this question, chlorine has two isotope, so I will simply use the formula of
CASE 1 to solve this question.
% 1 × M1 % × M2
+ 2
100 100
RAM =
35
%1 = 17 Cl
37
%2 = 17 Cl
%1 = x
M1 = 35
%2 = 100 – x
M2 = 37
R.A.M = 35.5
Let us input all the parameters into the formual I gave initially
% 1 × M1 % × M2
+ 2
RAM = 100 100
x × 35 (100−x) × 37
+
35.5 = 100 100
35 x 3700−37 x
+
100 100
35.5 =
L.C.M
35 .5 35 x+3700−37 x
≠
1 100
35.5  100 = 35x + 3700 – 37x
Collect like term
3550 – 3700 = 35x – 37x

− 150 = − 2x
Cancel minus sign
150 2 x
=
2 2
15
150
x=
2
x = 75%
Recall, x was %1
35
 x = 75% of 17 Cl
%2 = 100 – x
%2 = 100 – 75
37
17
%2 = 25%  Cl
35
The percentage abundance of 17 Cl = 75%
37
17
The percentage abundance of Cl = 25%
2) The relative atomic mass of antimony is 121.8. antimony exist as two isotopes.
antimony 121 and antimony 123. Calculate the percentage abundance of both
isotopes.
Solution
The chemical symbol of antimony is 5b
We are still to use the CASE 1 formula
% 1 × M1 % × M2
+ 2
100 100
RAM =
%1 = 121Sb
%2 = 123Sb
%1 = x
M1 = 121
%2 = 100 – x
M2 = 123
R.A.M = 121.8
Let us input all the parameters into the formual I gave initially
% 1 × M1 % × M2
+ 2
RAM = 100 100
x × 121 (100−x) × 123
+
121.8 = 100 100
16
121 x 12300−123 x
+
121.8 = 100 100
L.C.M
121 .8 121 x +12300−123 x

≠
1 100
121.8  100 = 121x + 12300 – 123x
12180 = 121x + 12300 – 123x
Collect like term
12180 – 12300 = 121x – 123x
− 120 = − 2x
Cancel minus sign
120 2 x
=
2 2
120
x=
2 = 60%
Recall, x was %1
 x = 60% of 121Sb
%2 = 100 – x
%2 = 100 – 60
%2 = 40%  123Sb
The percentage abundance of 121Sb = 60%
The percentage abundance of 123Sb = 40%

65
A 27
27 X
3) Two isotopes and X with 80% and 20% of the percentage abundance
respectively with relative atomic mass of 64.2. What is A?
Soln
%1 = 80%
M1 = A
%2 = 20%
M2 = 65
R.A.M = 64.2
Formula
% 1 × M1 % × M2
+ 2
RAM = 100 100
17
80 × A 20 × 65
+
64.2 = 100 100
80 A
+ 13
64.2 = 100
64.2 = 0.8A + 13
Collect like term
64.2 – 13 = 0.8A
51 .2 0. 8 A
=
0.8 0. 8
A = 64
4. Basic terms you must know
ISOBARS: are atoms with DIFFERENT ELEMENT which have SAME MASS NUMBER
but DIFFERENT ATOMIC NUMBER.
14 14
6 7
Example: C and N
You can see from the example above, the mass number of the two atoms are the same
“ISOBARIC EFFECT”.
ISOTONES are atoms with DIFFERENT ATOMIC NUMBER, DIFFERENT MASS

NUMBER but THE SAME NEUTRON NUMBER
14 15
7 8
Example N and O
Now let calculate the neutron number for each atom

14
For 7 N = Mass number – Atomic number = 14 – 7 = 7
15
For 8 O = Mass number – Atomic number = 15 – 8 = 7
Wow!!! They are truly isotones to each other.
24
12
ISO-ELECTRONIC SERIES: These are atoms with same number of electron. Example
20
10
Mg2+ and Neon ( Ne)
24
12
For Mg2+
Electron number = proton number – charge

Electron number = 12 – (+ 2)
18
Electron number = 12 – 2
Electron number = 10 electrons
20
10
For Ne
Neon atom has 10 electrons
ISO-DIAPHERS: They are nuclide (atoms) with the same number of neutron defect. For
example:
238 234
92 90
U and Th
Neutron defect = Neutron number – Proton number

238
92
For U (Uranium)
Neutron number = Mass number – Atomic number

Neutron number = 238 – 92 = 146
Neutron defect = neutron number – proton number
Where proton number = 92
Neutron defect = 146 – 92
Neutron defect = 54
234
90
For Th (Thorium)

Neutron number = 234 – 90
Neutron number = 144
Neutron defect = neutron number – proton number
Where proton number = 90
Neutron defect = 144 – 90
Neutron defect = 54
So you can see that both atoms have the same neutron defect (ISO-DIAPHER’S)
19
Chapter 3
Neil Bohr Theory of Hydrogen Spectrum and Quantum Number
Learning Outcome
 Understand the theory of Neil Bohr

 Solve calculations involved in hydrogen spectrum
 Solve calculation questions on De-Broglie wavelength
 Understand formulas relating energy, frequency, wavelength and emitted
photons.
 Understand the concept of Quantum number
 Solve calculations involved in Quantum number
If you already feel confident about this chapter, why not try the quiz over the page?
20
Practice Question
1. Calculate the wavelength and frequency of the first line in the Balmer series when
n = 3 and 5.
2. Calculate the frequency of the second line in the Balmer series.
3. How many electrons can exist with principal quantum number n = 4 and l = 3?
4. Calculate the De-broglie wavelength O ten electron with a velocity of 1.00 

107m/s mass of electron (kg) = 9.11  10−31kg h = 6.626  10−34kg m2/s
5. Write out the values for l when n = 3
21
1. Neil Bohr Theory of Hydrogen Spectrum
Neil Bohr in the year 1913 successfully accounted for the line seen in an hydrogen
spectrum.
WHAT IS AN HYDROGEN SPECTRUM?
Hydrogen spectrum is a series of line that is seen when light is emitted from a discharge
tube filled with hydrogen and it viewed with a SPECTROSCOPE.
2. Calculations involved in hydrogen spectrum
There are various line seen in the hydrogen spectrum. These lines are arranged serially
which are
Spectral line n1 n2
Lyman series 1 2, 3, 4
Balmer series 2 3, 4, 5
Paschen series 3 4, 5, 6
Bracket series 4 5, 6, 7
Pfund series 5 6, 7, 8
Humphrey series 6 7, 8, 9
N.B: The first line is gotten from the n2 first value

So for the Lyman series: The first line = 2
The second line = 3
The third line = 4
N.B: It also applies to all series
To calculate the wavelength of these spectral lines, it is done by an Equation which was
described by JOHANN BALMER EQUATION.
The Equation:
1
λ
=V = Rh
1
−
1
n2 n2 [ 1 2
]
1
Where: λ = inverse of wavelength
V = wave number
Rh = Rydberg constant for hydrogen atom
Rh = 109678cm−1
Where cm−1 is pronounced as per cm3

Most times in Question, we will be asked to convert the wavelength we are to get in a
particular question in nanometer so it is best to solve with the constant Rh = 109678cm −1.
At the end of the calculation you simply convert your answer to nanometer (nm) by
[Answer  10−2  109] = Answer will then be in nanometer (nm).
22
1) What is the wavelength in nanometers of a photon emitted during a transition

from n = 5 state to n = 2 state in the hydrogen atom?
Soln
Using Johann Balmer’s Equation
The equation is
1
λ
=V = Rh
1
1
−
n2 n2
1
2
[ ]
1
=V
Where λ [They are both same]

1
λ
= Rh
1
[
−
n2 n2
1
1 2
]
Parameter given
n1 = 2
n2= 5
N.B: The lesser value goes to n1 and the larger value goes to n2
You can see the question stated "What is the wavelength in nanometer?" So it
means that Rh should be in nanometer (Rh = 109678 x 107)

1
λ
=V = Rh
1
−
1
n2 n2 [ 1 2
]
1 1
λ = 109678cm-1 2 52
1
− 2
[ ]
1 1 1
−
λ = 109678cm-1 4 25 [ ]
1
λ = 109678cm-1 [0.21]
1 23032 .38 cm−1
λ = 1
1×1
−1
=4 . 342×10−5 cm
 = 23032 .38 cm
Let us convert to nanometer
Wavelength = 
 in nm =  in cm x 10-2 x 109
 in nm = 4.342 x 10-5cm x 10-2 x 109 = 434.2nm
23
2) Calculate the wavelength of the first and second line in the Balmerino series in
nanometer
Soln
Recall, from the table aforedrawed

For Balmer series
Spectral line n1 n2
Balmer series 2 3, 4, 5
Where 3 is the value for the first line, and 4 is the value for the second line
Remember I said: The first line is gotten from n2 first value so the first line value
for n2 is 3
The second line value for n2 is 4. So that's how it is gotten.
The third line value is _________. Try it.
Now let's solve together

For the first line
Remember the formula to use
The equation is:
1
λ
=V = Rh
[
1
−
n2 n2
1
1
2
]
1
λ
= 109678cm -1
Where n1 = 2
1
−
1
n2 n2 [ 1 2
]
n2= 3
1 1
λ = 109678cm-1 2 32
1
− 2
[ ]
1 1 1
λ = 109678cm-1 4 9
−
[ ]
1
λ = 109678cm-1 [0.13889]
1 15233 .177 cm−1
λ = 1
1×1
−1
=6 . 565×10−5 cm
 = 15233177 cm
Let us convert to nanometer
Wavelength = 
24
 in nm =  in cm x 10-2 x 109
 in nm = 6.565 x 10-5cm x 10-2 x 109 = 656.5nm
3. De-Broglie Wavelength
Calculations on De-Broglie Wavelength
To solve questions on this aspect, a formula must be noted.

De-Broglie Wavelength = ()
h
λ=
P
Where h = planks constant = 6.626 x 10-34kg.m2/s
kg.m2/s is pronounced as kilograms metre squared per seconds
P = momentum
P=mxV
h
De-Broglie wavelength () =mV
1) Calculate the De-Broglie wavelength of an electron with a velocity of 1.00 x

106m/s (electron mass = 9.11 x 10-31kg) [h = 6626 x 10-34kg.m2/s]
Soln
h
De-Broglie wavelength () = P
Where P is momentum = mass x velocity

h
De-Broglie wavelength () = m×V
Parameters given
h = 6.626 x 10-34kg.m2/s
m = 9.11 x 10-31kg
V = 1.00 x 106m/s
6. 626×10−34 kg . m2 / s
−31 6
De-Broglie wavelength () = 9 .11×10 kg×1. 00×10 m/ s
De-Broglie wavelength () = 7.27 x 10-10m
2) Proton can be accelerated to a speed of light in a particle accelerator. Estimate the

wavelength of such a proton moving with at 2.90 x 10 8m/s [mass of proton =
1.673 x 10-27kg]
Soln
25
h
Where P is momentum = mass x velocity

h
Parameters given
h = 6.626  10-34kg.m2/s
m = 1.673  10-27kg
V = 2.90  108m/s
6 . 626×10−34 kg . m2 /s
−27 8
De-Broglie wavelength () = 1. 673×10 kg×2. 90×10 m/s
De-Broglie wavelength () = 1.37  10-15m
3) What is the De-Broglie wavelength in (cm) of 13.24kg parrot flying at 1.93 x

102km/hr?
Soln
h
Where p is momentum = mass x velocity
h
Parameters given
h = 6.626 x 10-34kg.m2/s
m = 13.24kg
V = 1.93 x 102 km/hr  should be converted to m/s.
Let us convert km/hr to m/s
Velocity = V
Remember this conversion factor
1m/s = 3.6km/hr
 1m/s = 3.6km/hr
xm/s = 1.93 x 102km/hr
1m/ s×1. 93×102 km/hr

xm/s = 3. 6 km/hr
xm/s = 53.611m/s [we are good to proceed]
26
h
 = m×V
6 .626×10−34 kg . m2 /s
 = 13 .24×53 . 611m/s = 9.3349 x 10-37m
But remember the question says De-Broglie wavelength in (cm)
Recall, 1m = 100cm
9.3349 x 10 m = xcm
-37
9 .3349×10−37 m×100 cm
=9 .3347×10−35 cm
xcm = 1m
4) The Concept of Energy, Frequency and Wavelength of emitted photons
relationship
There is a formula that relate all of these parameter above which is
hC
E= λ
Where
h = planks constant
C = speed of light = 3 x 108m/s
 = wavelength
C
(F) Frequency = λ
E = h x Frequency
E = hF
5) Energy and Johann Balmer equation relationship
E = Rhch
[ 1
1
−
1
n 2 n 2
2
]
Where Rh = 109678 x 102
C = 3 x 108m/s
h = planks constant = 6.626 x 10-34kg.m2/s
Rhch = 109678 x 102 x 3 x 108 x 6.626 x 10-34
Rhch = 2.18 x 10-18]
E = 2.18 x 10-18
[ 1
1
−
1
n 2 n 2
2
]
1) In an hydrogen atom, an electron jumps from the third orbit to the first orbit.
What is the frequency of the Spectral line?
27
Soln
We are asked to determine frequency
Recall, E = hF
E
F= h
Where h = 6.626 x 10-34kgm2/s
E = ? (Unknown)
Let us calculate for energy first before coming back to the formula to input the
parameters
Using the formula below
E = 2.18 x 10-18
[ 1
1
−
1
n 2 n 2
2
]
I believe you can still remember how 2.18 x 10-18 is gotten
n1 = 1
n2= 3
E = 2.18 x 10-18
[ ]
1 1
−
12 32
E = 2.18 x 10-18
[ ]
1−
1
9
E = 2.18 x 10-18 [1 - 0.11]
E = 2.18 x 10-18 [0.889]
E = 1.93802 x 10-18]
Recall, E = hF
E
F= h
E = 1.93802 x 10-18]
h = 6.626 x 10-34kgm2/s
1. 93802×10−18
−34
F = 6 . 626×10 = 2.925  1015 herz
6) Energy associated with a mole of photon

To solve question of this type
E = nphF
Where
E = Energy
np = number of photons
h = planks constant = 6.626 x 10-34kgm2/s
28
F = Frequency
1) A laser emits light that has a frequency of 4.73 x 10 12 herz. Calculate the number of
photons in a pulse that emits 1.6 x 10-3]
Soln
Recall, when dealing with number of photon, we use
E = nphF
Making np subject of formula

E
np = hF
Where E = 1.6 x 10-3J

h = 6.626 x 10-34kgm2/sec
F = 4.73 x 1012herz
1. 6×10−3
−34 12
np = 6 .626×10 ×4 . 73×10 = 5.105 x 1017 photons
7. Quantum Numbers
There are four Quantum numbers, which are
 Principal Quantum number (n)

 Azimuthal Quantum number (l)
 Magnetic Quantum number (ml)
 Spin Quantum number (s)
Principal Quantum Number
Quick Note
 The principal Quantum number is denoted with n.
 The principal Quantum number describes MAIN ENERGY LEVEL of an atom
 The principal Quantum number describes the SIZE OF AN ORBITAL.
 It also describe shells.
What are Shells?

They are
K shell
L shell
M shell
M shell
O shell
NOTE: These shells have numbers which are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 respectively
29
SHELLS NUMBERS (n)

K 1
L 2
M 3
N 4
O 5
The table above will be very important when we start solving questions.
n=1 2 3 4 5
N.B: For principal Quantum number = K L M N O
Azimuthal Quantum number

Quick Note
 The Azimuthal Quantum number is denoted with L.
 The Azimuthal Quantum number is also called subsidiary Quantum number or
secondary Quantum number.
 The Azimuthal Quantum number describes the number of sub energy level.
 It also describes the shape of an orbital.
NOTE: These orbitals have numbers which are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively.
ORBITALS NUMBER (l)

s 0
p 1
d 2
f 3
g 4
The table above will be very important when we start solving questions.
N.B: These orbitals have names and respective shapes
Orbitals Name Shape

s spin Spherical
p principal Dumbbell
d diffuse Double dumbbell
f fundamental Complex
g gravitation Complex
h height Complex
N.B: The P orbital is three dimensional which are
Px Py Pz l=0 1 2 3 4
For Azimuthal Quantum number s p d f g
Magnetic Quantum number
QUICK NOTE
 The magnetic Quantum number is denoted with (ml)
30
 The magnetic Quantum number describes the number of orbitals in a given sub-
shell (Degree of degeneracy)
 It describes the orientation of orbitals in space.
 It ranges from - l to + l i.e. ml = - l to + l
Spin Quantum Number
QUICK NOTE:
 The spin Quantum number is denoted with (s)
 The spin Quantum number describes the direction of electron either clockwise or
anticlockwise
1
 The spin Quantum is S is + 2 and - ½
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER AND AZIMUTHAL

QUANTUM NUMBER
These two Quantum number are related by an equation which is l = n - 1
Where l = Azimuthal Quantum number

n = Principal Quantum number
Alert
The s, p, d, f, g, h orbitals occupies a maximum number of electron which are 2, 6, 10, 14,
18, 22 respectively.
The K, L, M, N, O shells occupies a maximum of electrons which are 2, 8, 18, 32, 50
electrons respectively.
QUICK FORMULAS TO NOTE FOR CALCULATIONS
 To determine the maximum number of electron in a given shell (which can be K,

L, M, N, O) with principle Quantum number (n) = 2n2
 To determine the maximum number of sub-shell in a given shell with principal
Quantum number (n) = n
 To determine the maximum number of orbitals in a given shell with principal
Quantum number (n) = n2.
 To determine the maximum number of orbitals in a given sub-shell with
azimuthal quantum number (l) = 2l + 1
When we start solving questions, you will understand the concept of quantum number
so well.
1) What value of angular momentum quantum are allowed for a principal Quantum
number n = 3.
Soln
31
Now you can see that the question is asking for the value of angular momentum
Quantum number, remember angular momentum Quantum number is also called
azimuthal Quantum number, subsidiary Quantum number, secondary Quantum
number.
Remember (n) = 1 2 [3] 4 5

For principal Quantum number = K L M N O
(l) = 0 1 [2] 3 4
For Azimuthal Quantum number = s p d f g
So according to the question, the value for principal quantum number which is 3
falls in the M shell.
Recall, the formula the Relate Principal Quantum number and Azimuthal
Quantum number
l=n–1
where n = Principal Quantum number = 3

l = Azimuthal Quantum number = ?
l=3–1
l=2
So the value of angular momentum Quantum number or Azimuthal Quantum

that 2 is allowed for Principal Quantum number n = 3 is 2.
N.B: If you are asked to determine the values for m (magnetic quantum number)
[N.B: The question said [values]. What will you do?
Remember: ml = − l to + l
Where l = 2
 ml = − 2 to + 2
There are values from – 2 to + 2 which are ml = − 2, − 1, 0, + 1, + 2.
Take Note.
2) Give the name, magnetic quantum number and number of orbital for the
substance with the following Quantum number n = 3, l = 2.
Soln
If n = 3
l=2
Let analyze
n=3
Recall, n= 1 2 [3]
For principal Quantum number = K L M N O
4 means that 4 is in the M shell
32
Now lets analyze

l=2
Recall, l= 0 1 [2] 3 4
For azimuthal Quantum number = s p d f g
It means that it is in the d orbital
N.B: The d orbital has degenerate orbitals, and recall it is determined by the
magnetic Quantum number.
Where l = 2
m = − l to + l
ml = − 2 to + 2
ml = − 2, − 1, 0, + 1, + 2
Counting the value of ml, it shows that they are five (5).
1 2 3 4 5
ml = − 2, − 1, 0, + 1, + 2
So it means that the d orbital have five degenerate orbital

d orbital
↓
Or
The value for the degenerate orbital for the d-orbital can also be determined by a
formula which is
d = 2l + 1
Where d = degeneracy
l = Azimuthal Quantum number
Where l from the Question is 2
d = 2l + 1
d = 2(2) + 1
d = 4 + 1 = 5 degenerate orbitals
ANSWERS BECOMES
 The name of the orbital is the 3rd orbital: This is because n = 3 and l = 2 (which
is under the orbital) as explained above.
 The magnetic Quantum number (ml) is
ml = − 2, − 1, 0, + 1, + 2
 The number of orbital for the substance is 5 orbitals
3) For the Azimuthal Quantum number l = 3, write out the values for ml
Soln
Since l = 3
ml = − l to + l
ml = − 3 to + 3
33
There are values from – 3 to + 3 which are ml = − 3, − 2, − 1, 0, + 1, + 2, + 3.
4) Consider the M – Shell

(i) What is the maximum number of election it can take?
(ii) How many sub-shell can it hold, name them?
(iii) How many orbitals are in the shell?
Soln
M – Shell
Principal Quantum number (n) for M shell = 3
Recall, n = 1 2 3 4 5
Principal Quantum number = K L M N O
 n = 3 for the M shell
(i) Maximum number of electron = 2n2

Maximum number of electron = 2(3)2
Maximum number of electron = 18 electrons
(ii) Number of subshell in a shell = n

n is this case is equal to 3 i.e. s p d
(iii) Number of orbitals in a shell = n2

Number of orbitals in a shell = 32 = 9 orbitals
s = 1 orbital
p = 3 orbital
d = 5 orbital
Total = 9 orbitals
34
Chapter 4
Relative Molecular Mass Calculations
Learning Outcome
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to
 know what relative molecular mass is

 determine the different compound and also compound with water of
crystallization (H2O)
 If you feel already confident about these chapter, why not try the Quiz over the
page?
35
Practice Questions
1. Calculate the relative molecular mass of sodium tetraoxosulphate (VI) salt Na 2SO4
[Na = 23, S = 32, O = 16].
2. Calculate the relative molecular mass of Ca3(PO4)2 [Ca = 40, P = 31, O = 16].
3. Calculate the relative molecular mass of washing soda. [Na = 23, C = 12, O = 16, H
= 1].
36
1. Relative Molecular Mass
What is Relative Molecular Mass?
The relative molecular mass is the ratio of the average mass of one molecule of an
element or compound to one – twelfth the mass of one atom of carbon – 12.
To be able to calculate the relative molecular mass of compound, the atomic mass of
atleast the first 20 elements must be known
Atomic Number Element Atomic Mass

1 Hydrogen 1.008
2 Helium 4.0026
3 Lithium 6.941
4 Beryllium 9.0122
5 Boron 10.81
6 Carbon 12.011
7 Nitrogen 14.0067
8 Oxygen 15.9994
9 Fluorine 18.9984
10 Neon 20.183
11 Sodium 22.9898
12 Magnesium 24.305
13 Aluminum 26.9815
14 Silicon 28.086
15 Phosphorus 30.9738
16 Sulphur 32.06
17 Chlorine 35.453
18 Argon 39.948
19 Potassium 39.102
20 calcium 40.008
1) Calculate the relative molecular mass of CaCO3 [Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16]
Soln
Atomic mass of Ca = 40
Atomic mass of C = 12
Atomic mass of O = 16
Ca C O3
Relative molecular mass = 40 + 12 + 16  3
Relative molecular mass = 40 + 12 + 48 = 100
2) Calculate the relative molecular mass of soda ash [Na 2CO3] [Na = 23, C = 12, O =
16]
37
Soln
Atomic mass of Na = 23
Atomic mass of C = 12
Na2 C O3
Relative molecular mass = 23  2 + 12 + 16  3
Relative molecular mass = 46 + 12 + 48
Relative molecular mass = 106
3) Calculate the relative molecular mass of H2SO4 [H = 1, S = 32, O = 16]
Soln
Atomic mass of H = 1
Atomic mass of S = 32
H2 S O4
Relative molecular mass = 1  2 + 32 + 16  4
4) Calculate the relative molecular mass of Lead (II) Trioxonitrate (IV) [Pb = 207, N =
14, O = 16]
Soln
First lead (II) trioxonitrate (IV) is a compound

Question: What is the chemical formula of the compound?
Lead (II) Trioxonitrate (V)
Pb2+ NO3−1
Pb1(NO3)2
or
Pb(NO3)2 This is the chemical formula of the compound
To easily calculate the relative molecular mass of the compound, we simply make
sure the compound is expressed so easily.
Pb(NO3)2 = PbN2O6
Atomic mass of Pb = 207
Atomic mass of N = 14
Pb N2 O6
Relative molecular mass = 207 + 14  2 + 16  6
38
5) Calculate the relative molecular mass of Al2O3.2H2O [Al = 27, O = 16, H = 1]
Soln
Atomic mass of Al = 27
+
Al2 O3  2 H2 O
Relative molecular mass = 27  2 + 16  3 + 2[1  2 + 16]
Relative molecular mass = 54 + 48 + 2[2 + 16]
Relative molecular mass = 102 + 2[18]
Relative molecular mass = 102 + 36
6) Calculate the relative molecular mass of potash alum [K = 39, Al = 27, S = 32, O =
16, H = 1]
Soln
Potash alum has the chemical formula to be
KAl(SO4)2 . 12H2O
To easily calculate the relative molecular mass of the compound, we simply make
sure the compound expressed so easily.
KAl(SO4)2 . 12H2O = KAlS2O8 . 12H2O
Atomic mass of k = 39
Atomic mass of Al = 27
Atomic mass of S = 32
+
K Al S2 O8  12H2 O
Relative molecular mass = 39 + 27 + 32  2 + 16  8 + 12[1  2 + 16]
Relative molecular mass = 39 + 27 + 64 + 128 + 12[2 + 16]
Relative molecular mass = 258 + 12[18]
Relative molecular mass = 258 + 216
39
Chapter 5
Percentage composition of each elements and water of crystallization in a compound
determination
Learning Outcome
 Determine the percentage of each elements in a compound.

 Determine the percentage of water of crystallization.
If you already feel confident about these chapters, why not try the quiz over the page?
40
Practice Questions
1. Calculate the percentage composition of Nitrogen in NH 4NO3 [H = 1, N = 14, O =

16]
2. What is the percentage composition of water (H2O) in CuSO4 . 5H2O?
3. What is the percentage composition of oxygen in Al 2(SO4)3 . 2H2O [Al = 27, S = 32,
H = 1, O = 16]?
4. Calculate the percentage composition of each elements in Na 2CO3 [Na = 23, C = 12,
O = 16].
5. What is the percentage composition of sodium in sodium hydroxide [Na = 23, O =

16, H = 1]?
41
Percentage Composition
In this chapter, solving questions on percentage composition will be made so easy.

Percentage composition = %
In this chapter, determination of percentage composition will be in two CASES.
CASE 1: Determination of percentage composition of each element in a compound.
Atomic mass of element × No of atoms
× 100
% = Molar mass of compound

1) Calculate the percentage composition of each element in H2SO4
Soln
The compound = H2SO4
Elements present Atomic mass No of atom

H (Hydrogen) = 1 2 atoms
S (Sulphur) = 32 1 atom
O (Oxygen) = 16 4 atoms
Now to get the no of atoms of each elements present in a compound
H2SO4
2 atoms 1 4 atoms
Believe it is clear now

Molar mass of the compound H2SO4
H2SO4
Molar mass = 1  2 + 32 + 16  4
Molar mass = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98g/mol
Now lets determine the percentage composition of each element in H2SO4
Recall, the formula

Atomic mass of element × No of atoms
× 100
1× 2
× 100
%H = 98 = 2.041%
32 × 1
× 100
%S = 98 = 32.65%
42
16 × 4
× 100
%O = 98 = 65.31%
100%
The percentage composition of all the elements in the compound when added
together must give 100%.
2) Calculate the percentage of each element of Iron (III) oxide
Soln
The compound is Iron (III) oxide
Iron (III) oxide
Fe3+ O2−
The chemical formula = Fe2O3

Fe (Iron) = 56 2 atoms
Now to get the no of atoms of each elements present in a compound is
Fe2O3
2 3 atoms

Molar mass of the compound Fe2O3
Fe2O3
Molar mass = 56  2 + 16  3
Molar mass = 112 + 48 = 160g/mol
Now lets determine the percentage composition of each element in Fe2O3
Recall, the formula

Atomic mass of element × Number of atoms
× 100
%= Molar mass of the compound
56 × 2
× 100
%Fe = 160 = 70%
16 × 3
× 100
%O = 160 = 30%
100%
43
The percentage composition of all the elements in the compound when added
together must give 100%.
3) Calculate the percentage composition of Oxygen is Sulphur (IV) oxide
Soln
The compound is Sulphur (IV) oxide
The chemical formula = SO2

S (Sulphur) = 32 1 atoms
Now to get the number of atoms of each elements present in a compound is
SO2
2 atom

Molar mass of the compound SO2
SO2
Molar mass = 32 + 16  2
In this question, we were asked to calculate the percentage composition of just

oxygen in the compound.
Recall, the formula

Atomic mass of element × Number of atoms
× 100
%= Molar mass of the compound
16 × 2
× 100
%O = 64 = 50%
CASE 2: Determination of Percentage Composition of Water of Crystallization (H2O)
Now to solve question of this such the initial formula will be altered.
The part of the formula that has:

Atomic mass of element  Number of atom will be changed to molar mass of water of
crystallization.
So with this change it becomes,

44
Molar mass of water of Crystallization

× 100
%= Molar mass of compound
So, when question on this CASE is asked the formula above should be used.

1) Calculate the percentage composition of water of crystallization in the compound
Na2CO3 . 10H2O [Na = 23, C = 12, O = 16, H = 1]
Soln
The formula to apply is the formula under CASE 2

× 100
The compound is Na2CO3 . [10H2O]
↓
The water of crystallization part
Let us determine the molar mass of the compound
Molar mass of Na2CO3 . 10H2O
23  2 + 12 + 16  3 . 10[1  2 + 16]
46 + 12 + 48 . 10[2 + 16]
46 + 12 + 48 . 10[18]
106 + 180 = 286g/mol
The molar mass of water of crystallization
Molar mass of IO0H2O
10[1  2 + 16]
10[2 + 16]
10[18]
Molar mass of water of crystallization = 180g/mol
× 100
180
× 100
% = 286 = 62.94%
2) Calculate the percentage composition of all element in Na2CO3 . 10H2O]
Soln
The compound is Na2CO3 . IOH2O

Na (Sodium) = 23 2 atom
C (Carbon) = 12 1 atom
O (Oxygen) = 16 13 atom
45
H (Hydrogen) = 1 20 atom
Now to get the number of atoms of each element present in a compound is
Na2CO3 . IOH2O
2 1
13 20 atoms

Molar mass of the compound [Na2CO3 . IOH2O]
Molar mass of Na2CO3 . IOH2O

23  2 + 12 + 16  8 . 10[1  2 + 16]
46 + 12 + 48 . 10[2 + 16]
106 + 10[18]
Molar mass = 106 + 180 = 286g/mol
Now let solve the percentage composition of each element in Na2CO3 . IOH2O
From the formula, I gave for CASE 1.
Atomic mass of element × Number of atom

× 100
23 × 2
× 100
%Na = 286 = 16.1%
12 × 1
× 100
%C = 286 = 4.2%
16 × 13
× 100
%O = 286 = 72.7%
1 × 20
× 100
%H = 286 = 7%
100%
46
Chapter 6
Empirical and Molecular Formula
Learning Outcome
 Know the meaning of empirical and molecular formula of a compound.
 Solve calculations on empirical formula
 Solve calculations on molecular formula
If you already feel confident about these chapter, why not try the Quiz over the page?
47
Practice Questions
1. An organic compound contains 72%, 12% H and 16% O by mass. What is the
empirical formula of the compound [H = 1, C = 12, O = 16].
2. Find the empirical formula of the following compounds from their percentage
composition by mass
(a) Ca = 71.43% O = 28.57%
(b) Ag = 63.53%, N = 8.23%, O = 28.24%
3. 6g of metal M react completely with 23.66g of chlorine to form 29.66g of metallic

chloride. Determine the empirical formula of the metallic chloride [M = 27, Cl =
35.5].
4. If 0.5 mole of a monoalkanoic acid weighs 44g, determine the molecular formula
and name the acid [H = 1, C = 12, O = 16].
5. An organic compound has the empirical formula CH 2. If its molecular mass is

42g/mol, what is the molecular formula [H = 1, C = 12].
6. A 4.25g sample of a compound that contains only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
was burnt in an atmosphere of pure O 2. This produced 9.34g CO2 and 5.09g H2O.
What is the empirical formula of the compound?
48
1. Empirical Formula
What is empirical formula? Is the sample of formula of a compound that tell which
elements are present and the simplest whole number ratio of their atoms but not
necessarily the actual number of atom in a given molecules.
2. Molecular Formula
What is Molecular Formula? Is the true formula of a compound which expresses the
actual number of atoms of each elements present in a molecules in the compound.
Let us take an example to understand this concept better,
Example of compound Molecular formula Empirical formula

Benzene C6H6 CH
divide through by 6
Ethane C2H6 CH3
divide through by 2
Ethyne C2H2 CH
divide through by 2
3. Calculations in Empirical Formula

To solve questions on this aspect, it will be in 3 CASES.
CASE 1: Empirical formula determination percentage given

1) A compound contains 92.31% carbon and 7.69% hydrogen. Find the empirical
formula of the compound [C = 12, H = 1]
Soln
Elements Carbon Hydrogen
Element symbol C H
Percentage of element 92.31% 7.69%
Divide by atomic mass 12 1
7.69 7.69
Divide by the smallest value 7
Mole ratio 1 1
 The empirical formula of the compound is CH.
2) Analysis of a sample of an organic compound showed H to contain 39.9%, 6.9%

hydrogen and 53.2% oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula
[C = 12, H = 1, O = 16]
Element Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
Element symbol C H O
Percentage of element 39.9% 6.9% 53.2%
Divide by atomic mass 12 1 16
3.33 6.9 3.33
49
Divide by the smallest 3.33

Mole ratio 1 2.10 1
To the nearest integer 2.10  2
Mole ratio 1 2 1
The empirical formula of the compound = C1H2O1
or
CH2O
3) What is the empirical formula of cyrolite if it contains 32.85% Na, 12.85% Al and
54.30% F by mass? [Na = 23, Al = 27, F = 19]
Soln
Element Sodium Aluminium Fluorine
Element symbol Na Al F
1.428 0.476 2.858
Mole ratio 3 1 6
The empirical formula of the compound is Na3AlF6
CASE 2: Empirical formula determination with masses given

1) An organic compound is made up of 0.72g of carbon, 0.16g of hydrogen and 0.32g
of oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula of the organic compound [C = 12, H =
1, O = 12]
Soln
0.06 0.16 0.02
Mole ratio 3 8 1
The empirical formula of the compound is
C3H8O
2) If 6.75g of an oxide of lead was reduced to 6.12g of metal. Calculate the empirical
formula of the oxide [Pb = 207, O = 12].
Soln
50
The compound is an oxide of Lead. So the compound consist of Lead (Pb) and
Oxygen (O).
Mass of the Oxide [Pb, O] = 6.75g

Mass of Lead [Pb] = 6.12g
To get the mass of oxygen, subtract the mass of the oxide from the mass of Lead
(Pb).
Pb + O = Mass of Lead Oxide
Pb + O = 6.75g
Mass of Lead = 6.12g
6.12g + O = 6.75g
O = 6.75g – 6.12g
O = 0.63g of Oxygen [Mass of Oxygen]
Element Lead Oxygen

Element symbol Pb O
Percentage of element 6.12% 0.63%
Divide by atomic mass 207 16
0.02957 0.03938
Mole ratio 1 1.33
N.B: You are not to approximate 1.33 to 1, rather multiply through by an

appropriate factor which will make all the ratios to be whole numbers in this
question 3 is appropriate.
Mole ratio = [1 : 1.33]  3 = 3 : 4
The empirical formula of the compound becomes

Pb3O4
3) A 0.10g sample of alcohol containing C, H, and O was burnt completely in

Oxygen to form CO2 and H2O. These were trapped and weight to give 0.1919g
and 0.1172g of CO2 and H2O respectively. What is the empirical formula? [C = 12,
H = 1]
Soln
Mass of sample = 0.10g
Mass of CO2 = 0.1919g
Mass of H2O = 0.1172g
There is a step that must be followed when solving question of this such.
Step: Extract the mass of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) from CO2 and H2O
respectively.
For Carbon [from CO2]
51
Molar mass of Carbon

× Mass of CO 2
Mass of Carbon = Molar mass of CO 2
Molar mass of Carbon (C) = 12g/mol

Molar mass of CO2 = 12 + 16  2 = 44g/mol
12g/mol
× 0 .1919g
Mass of Carbon = 44g/mol
Mass of Carbon = 0.05234g of Carbon
For Hydrogen [from H2O]
Molar mass of Hydrogen
× Mass of H2 O
Mass of Carbon = Molar mass of H 2 O
Molar mass of Hydrogen (H2) = 1  2 = 2g/mol

Molar mass of H2O = 1  2 + 16 = 18g/mol
2
× 0 .1172g
Mass of Hydrogen = 18
Mass of Hydrogen = 0.01302g of Hydrogen
Let us add the mass of C and H together.
Mass of Carbon + Mass of Hydrogen
0.05234g + 0.01302g = 0.06536g

Now, you can see that the mass is not up to that of the original mass (0.10g)
sample. This means that Oxygen mass is not yet gotten.
So let us calculate for it.
Mass of Sample = Mass of C + Mass of H + Mass of O

0.10g = 0.05234g + 0.01302g + Mass of O
0.10g = 0.06536g + Mass of O
Mass of O = 0.10g – 0.06536g
Mass of O = 0.03464g of Oxygen
 The mass of each element in the compound is determined
Mass of Carbon = 0.05234g
Mass of Hydrogen = 0.01302g
Mass of Oxygen = 0.03464g
So let determine the empirical formula of the sample.

52

0.004362 0.01302 0.002165
Mole ratio 2 6 1
The empirical formula of the sample is C2H6O
CASE 3: Empirical formula determination with volume is given
Solved Question with Detailed Explanations
1) 20cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon were mixed with 10cm 3 of oxygen, and the
mixture exploded. At room temperature, 60cm3 of the gas were left, 40cm3 of the
gas [Carbon (IV) Oxide] were absorbed by sodium hydroxide, leaving 20cm 3 of
oxygen. Find the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon.
Soln
N.B: Since they are asking for the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon, what will
be in your mind is carbon and hydrogen.
CxHy + O2  CO2 + H2O
Equation of combustion
Volume of hydrocarbon = 20cm3
Volume of oxygen left = 20cm3
Volume of carbon (IV) oxide = 40cm3
Volume of H2O = 60cm3
From mole concept
n = No of mole
mass
n = molar mass
volume
n = 22 . 4dm at standard temperature and pressure (S.T.P)
mass volume
=
 so molar mass 22 . 4dm 3
1 Step: is to calculate the mass of CO2. So that the mass of carbon can be extracted.
2 Step: is to calculate the mass of H2O, so that the mass of Hydrogen can be gotten.
From the formula aforementioned
mass volume
=
molar mass 22 . 4dm 3
53
Remember that the volume must be in the same S.I units.
ALERT: 1dm3 = 1000cm3
 For 40cm3 of CO2

1 dm3 = 1000cm3
x = 40cm3
40cm 3 × 1dm3
3
x = 1000 cm = 0.04dm3
molar mass × volume

3
Then mass = 22 . 4dm
Where CO2 = 12 + (16  2) = 44gmol−1
44gmol−1 × 0 .04dm 3
3
Mass = 22 . 4 dm
Mass = 0.07857g of CO2
Mass of Carbon is
C
Then, CO 2  Mass of CO2
12
44  0.07857 = 0.02143g of carbon
For H2O (Water)
Alert: Water is also referred to as OXIDANE
mass volume
=
Recall: molar mass 22 . 4dm 3
volume × molar mass

3
Mass = 22 . 4dm
For 60cm3 of H2O
1 dm3 = 1000cm3
x = 40cm3
60cm 3 × 1dm 3
3
x = 1000 cm
x = 0.06dm3
molar mass × volume

3
Then mass becomes = 22 . 4dm
54
Where H2O = (1  2) + 16 = 18gmol−1

18gmol−1 × 0 . 06dm 3
3
Mass = 22 . 4 dm
Mass = 0.0482143g of H2O
Mass of Hydrogen is
H2
Then, H 2 O  Mass of H2O
(1 × 2 )
18  0.04821439 = 0.0053571g of Hydrogen
Application of the concept of empirical formula we get
Element Carbon Oxygen

Element symbol C H
0.021430g 0.0053571g
Divide by the molar mass 0.021430 0.0053571g

0.021430 0.0053571
12 1
Divide by the smallest 0.0017900 0.0053571

0.0017900 0.0053571
0.01790
Mole ratio 1 3
The empirical formula is CH3
2) On heating under suitable conditions, 1 litre of amono atomic gas  combines

with 1½ litre of oxygen to form an oxide. What is the formula of the oxide?
Soln
X O
Volume that reacted 1L 1½ litres
Mole of molecules that reacted 2 3
Since X is monoatomic and oxygen is diatomic
The atoms of X and O combine in the ratio 2 to 6 i.e.
X O
Mole of atoms 2 6
Mole ratio 1 3
The formula of the oxide is XO3
Molecular Formula Determination
55

1) Analysis of a sample of an organic compound showed it to contain 39.9% carbon,
6.9% hydrogen and 53.2% oxygen.
(a) Calculate the empirical formula
(b) If the relative molecular formula is 60, what is the molecular formula of the
compound [C = 12, H = 1, O = 16]?
Soln

3.3 6.9 3.33
Mole ratio 1 2 1
The empirical formula of the sample is CH2O
(b) The molecular formula:

Since the relative molecular mass was given to be 60
Simply use the formula below
[Empirical Formula]n = [Molecular Formula]
[CH2O]n = [Molecular Formula]
 [Empirical Mass]n = [Molecular mass]
Empirical mass of CH2O is 12 + 1  2 + 16 = 30
Molecular mass = 60
[30]n = [60]
60
=2
n = 30
 Recall;
[Empirical formula]n = [Molecular formula]
[CH2O]2 = C2H4O2
 The molecular formula of the sample is C2H4O2
56
Chapter 7
Gas Law
Learning Outcome
 Understand the variables used to describe Gases

 Solve calculation questions on the Gas Laws which include Boyle’s law, Charles’s
law, Amonton’s law, General gas law, Dalton’s law of partial pressure, Avogatro’s
Hypothesis, Ideal gas law, Graham’s law of diffusion and Gray-Lussac’s law of
combining volume.
57
Practice Questions
1. The partial pressure of oxygen in a sample of air is 425mmHg and the total
pressure is 780mmHg. What is the molefraction of oxygen gas?
2. A given amount of gas occupies 10dm3 at 4atm and 273oC, the number of mole of
gas present is ________
3. If 30cm3 of oxygen gas diffuses through porous plug in 7 secs, how long will it
take 60cm3 of chlorine to diffuse through the same plug?
4. If 60cm3 of a gas is heated from 27 oC to 50oC, what is the new volume of the gas at
constant pressure?
5. If 11g of a gas occupies 5.6dm3 at stp, calculate its vapour density.
6. The mass of 800cm3 of a gas x at stp is 1g. What is the molar mass of X?
7. 1500cm3 of carbon dioxide escaped through a porous pot in 6 minutes if 800cm 3 of

propane is put in the same porous pot, how long will it take to escape from the
pot?
8. The densities of two gases X and Y are 0.5g/dm 3 and 2.0g/dm3 respectively. What
is the rate of diffusion of X relative to Y [Hint i.e. Rx : Ry or Rx/Ry].
9. What volume was previously occupied by a given amount of chlorine in gas jar
that occupied 85cm3 when heated from room temperature to 45oC?
10. Calculate the volume that will be occupied by 208cm 3 of propane if its pressure
changes from 24atm to 48atm.
58
1. Variables for Describing Gas Behaviour

The behaviour of a gas is usually described in terms of four major variables which are
Volume (V)
Pressure (P)
Temperature (T)
Number of mole (n)
Now before we learn all the Gas Laws properly, we need to be familiar with all these
aforementioned variables.
VARIABLES FOR DESCRIBING GAS BEHAVIOUR

1) Volume (V)
Now volume can be expressed in various S.I units
N.B: The volume of an gas is the volume of the container in which it is placed or put.
The units of volume are
L, mL, cm3, dm3, m3
Where
L = litres
mL = milliliters
cm3 = centimeter cube
dm3 = decimeter cube
m3 = metre cube
All these volume metrics (units) have their respective relationships when it comes to
conversion.
N.B: 1L = 1000mL = 1000cm3 = 1dm3 = 1  10−3m3
So the volume of a particular gas can be expressed in any of these S.I. units. It solely
depends on which is used in the calculation question.
2) Pressure (P)
Pressure can be expressed in various S.I. units
N.B: The pressure of a gas is the total force exerted by a gas per unit on the wall of its
container.
The units of pressure are

Atm, mmHg, torr, N/m2, pascal
Where
atm = atmosphere
mmHg = millimeter mercury
torr = torriceli
59
N/m2 = Newton per metre squared

Pascal = pascal
All these units of pressure have their respective relationship when it comes to
conversion.
N.B.: 1 atm = 760mmHg = 760 torr = 101325N/m2 = 101325 pascal
So the pressure of a particular gas can be expressed in any of these S.I. units, it solely
depends on which is used in the calculation question.
3) Temperature (T)
In Gas Law calculations, Temperature is usually expressed in Kelvin.
N.B: But most times the temperature will be in degree Celsius.

So how do you convert to kelvin; it is very easy to do so.
Simply use the formula below
o
C + 273 = Kelvin
4) Number of Mole (n)

Number of mole is expressed with a symbol which is “n” (small letter n not capital letter)
The number of mole of a substance is the quantity of a gas that contains 6.02  1023
molecules.
Ok let us stop here for now.
The fourth variable will be explained exhaustively in the next chapter.
2. The Gas Law

BOYLE’S LAW
The Boyle’s law is also called Manotte law.
This law was discovered by a man called Robert Boyle’s.
The law states that the volume of a forced mass of gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure provided temperature is kept constant.
N.B: Since this law works when temperature is kept constant, it means that when solving
calculation question on GAS LAW, we often hear in most question “temperature is held
constant”. Our mind should just go to the Boyle’s law equation.
Mathematically,
60
1
¿
V P [This expression means that volume is inversely proportional to pressure]
 We introduce a constant k
k V k
= ≠
V P ; 1 P
Making k subject of formula
k = PV
this is why the Boyle’s law equation is
P1V1 =P2V2
Where
P1 = Initial pressure
V1 = Initial volume
P2 = Final pressure
V2 = Final volume
Note this below

For instance, we are solving a question on Boyle’s law and the first volume (V 1) is 200cm3
and second volume (V2) is 0.8dm3.
What do we do?
We are to simply make sure that both volumes (V 1 and V2) in the question should be in
the same S.I units.
This also applies to pressure and also when solving questions on other laws to be
discussed as we proceed.
N.B: Boyle’s law is not only represented mathematically but it is also represented
graphically.
GRAPHICALLY REPRESENTATION OF BOYLE’S LAW
1
(a) P (b) PV
(c) P (d) V
61
1
V P
(e) P
All the graphs above represent Boyle’s law. In each case Pressure (P) is inversely
proportional to Volume (V).
N.B: As Pressure (P) increases, Volume (V) decrease which is inverse proportion.
To calculate questions on Boyle’s Law, it will be in two cases.
CASE 1: When the parameters of volume and pressure are in same S.I unit.

(1) A given mass of gas occupies a volume of 400cm 3 at 950mmHg. Calculate the
volume occupied by the same gas at 750mmHg if the temperature is held
constant.
Solution
Step 1: Check for what is kept constant as you can see in the question above temperature
is held constant then it involves using the Boyle’s law equation.
Step 2: Bring out the parameters involved in the question with their S.I units.
Step 3: Calculate with the formula
P1V1 = P2V2
Where
P1 = 950mmHg V1 = 400cm3
P2 = 750mmHg V2 = ?cm3
Now you can see that the two pressure provided in the question are of same S.I units
which is mmHg.
Applying the formula

62
P1V1 = P2V2
From the question we are to make V2 subject of formula
P1V1 = P2V2
Divide both sides by the coefficient of V2 which is P2.
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
=
P2 P2
P1 V 1
V2 = P2
950 mmHg × 400cm3

V2 = 750 mmHg
V2 = 506.67cm3
(2) Calculate the volume that will be occupied by 210cm3 of propane if its pressure
changes from 25atm to 50atm.
Soln
N.B: Propane is an hydrocarbon and in this question the chemical formula of
propane is not needed but for the sake of knowledge sake, the chemical formula
of propane is C3H8.
From the previous steps showed in the first question solved.
Let us outline the parameters provided.
P1 = 25atm V1 = 210cm3
P2 = 50atm V2 = ?cm3
Recall; P1V1 = P2V2
P1 V 1
V2 = P2
25 atm × 210cm3
V2 = 50 atm
V2 = 105cm3
CASE 2: When the parameters of volume and pressure are not in same S.I units
63
1) 290cm3 of a gas in a gas jar was observed to exert a pressure of 700mmHg. The
volume occupied by the gas was increased to 420cm 3. Determine the new pressure
it will exert [in atmosphere [atm]]
Soln
From the question, it started the new pressure which is P 2, we are to calculate for
should be in atmosphere i.e. atm.
Do not make this mistake to solve the question like that without checking the
instructions given by the examiner.
Parameters provided
P1 = 700mmHg V1 = 290cm3
P2 = ?atm V2 = 420cm3
Very easy question. First of all let us convert 700mmHg which is the P1 to atm.
To do this, we simply go back to the conversions as stated in the beginning of this

chapter.
Now we are to relate mmHg to atm
It becomes;
760mmHg = 1atm
So from these conversion factor, we can convert 700mmHg to atm!!!
760mmHg = 1atm
700mmHg = xatm
700mmHg × 1atm
xatm = 760mmHg = 0.921atm
Now we can proceed to solve the question
Parameters rewritten
P1 = 0.921atmV1 = 290cm3
P2 = xatm V2 = 420cm3
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 V 1
P2 = V 2
64
0 .921 atm × 290cm 3

3
P2 = 420 cm = 0.64atm
The question can still be solved in another way.
Here we simply solve with the P1 to be 700mmHg and at the of the question, we
then convert the answer to atm
P1 = 700mmHg V1 = 290cm3
P2 = xatm V2 = 420cm3
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 V 1
P = V2
2
700 mmHg × 290cm 3

3
P2 = 420 cm = 483.33mmHg
Now the P2 value we just got is 483.33mmHg. Let us convert it to atm.
Recall the conversion factor to use
760mmHg = 1atm
483.33mmHg = xatm
1atm × 483 . 33mmHg
xatm = 760mmHg
xatm = 0.64atm
Now you can see that both ways can be used to solve the question under this
aspect.
So use the one that suits you.
CHARLES’ LAW
This law discovered by a man called Jacques Charles. This law states that the volume of
a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its temperature provided pressure is kept
constant.
Mathematically,
V  T [This expression means that volume is directly proportional to temperature]
We introduce a constant k
V kT
=
V = kT ; T T
Making k subject of formula
65
V kT
=
k=T T
This is why the Charles’ law equation is
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
Where
V1 = Initial volume
T1 = Initial temperature
V2 = Final volume
T2 = Final temperature
N.B: Charles’ law is not only presented mathematically, it is also represented graphically.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF CHARLES’ LAW
(a) V (b) V
-273 0 T (oc) T(k)
1 V
(c) V (d) T
T(k) V or T
(e) V
VT(k−1)
All the graphs above represent Charles’ law. In each cases, temperature is directly
proportional to Volume (V)
66
N.B: As volume (V) increase, temperature (T) increases which is direct proportion.
1) Convert 180oC to Kelvin temperature
Soln
Recall; oC + 273 = Kelvin
o
C = 180oC
180oC + 273 = 453 kelvin (k)
The temperature of a gas is 45oC. At what temperature would its volume change
from 300cm3 to 500cm3?
Soln
From the equation for solving questions on Charles’ law which is
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
Parameter provided
V1 = 300cm3 T1 = 45oC = 318k
V2 = 500cm3 T2 = x Kelvin
First we should convert the temperature in the question from oC to Kelvin
o
C + 273 = Kelvin
o
C = 45oC
45oC + 273 = 318K
From the Charles’ law equation, let us make T2 subject of formula
T1 × V2
T2 = V1
318 kelvin × 500cm3
3
T2 = 300cm
T2 = 530 Kelvin
So as I earlier said as volume increases, temperature increase
V1 = 300cm3 T1 = 318k
V2 = 500cm3 T2 = 530k
The volume increased in the question from 300cm 3 to 500cm3 while the
temperature increase from 318k to 530k.
67
3) 600cm3 of a certain gas at constant pressure had a temperature of 49 oC. At what

temperature in Kelvin will it occupy 800cm3?
Soln
Parameters provided
V1 = 600cm3
V2 = 800cm3
T1 = 49oC [N.B: The temperature should be converted to Kelvin before applying
the formula].
To convert oC to Kelvin temperature

o
C + 273 = Kelvin temperature
49oC + 273 = 322 Kelvin
T2 = ?
Now let us calculate using the formula
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
Making T2 subject of formula
V 2 × T2
T2 = V1
800cm3 × 322 kelvin
3
T2 = 600cm
T2 = 429.33 kelvin
4) The temperature of a gas is 37oC. At what temperature would its original volume
by halved if the pressure is kept constant?
Soln
Parameters provided
T1 = 37oC [cause that is the first temperature mentioned]
Remember the temperature should be converted to Kelvin temperature before

applying the formula.
o
C + 273 = Kelvin
37oC + 273 = 310 Kelvin
T2 = x
V1 = x [V1 is the original volume and also it is unknown]
x
V2 = 2 [Now the V1 was halved to form V2]
68
Formula to apply
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
Making T2 subject of formula
V 2 × T1
T2 = V1
Now let us input the parameters into the formula
¿ × 310 kelvin
2
T2 = x
Now let us re-structure the equation above
x 310 kelvin x
× ÷
T2 = 2 1 1
x 310 kelvin 1
× ×
T2 = 2 1 x
310 x kelvin
T2 = 2x
T2 = 155 kelvin
AMONTON’S LAW
Amonton’s law is also called pressure law. This law was discovered by a man called
Guillaume Amontons.
We have previously discussed that for Boyle’s law temperature is the parameter that is
kept constant, while for Charles’ law pressure is the parameter that is kept constant.
Now for the pressure law or Amonton’s law volume is kept constant; so here we relate
pressure and temperature.
The pressure law states that the pressure of a fixed volume of a gas is directly
proportional to its temperature.
N.B: Since this law works when volume is kept constant, it means that when solving
calculations questions. On this law, we will most times hear in the question “if volume is
held constant” our mind should just tell us to pressure law equation.
Mathematically,
P  T [This expression means that pressure is directly proportional to temperature]
 We introduce constant k
69
P KT
=
P = KT ; T T
Making K subject of formula
P
K= T
This is why the pressure law equation is
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
Where
P1 = Initial pressure
T1 = Initial temperature
P2 = Final pressure
T2 = Final temperature
1) At 40oC, a given quantity of a gas was found to exhibit a pressure of 480mmHg.

What pressure will it exact at 74oC?
Soln
Parameters provided
T1 = 40oC [This is the first temperature mentioned]
P1 = 480mmHg [This is the first pressure mentioned]
P2 = x [This is what we are to calculate for]
T2 = 74oC [This is the second temperature mentioned]
As I earlier said in Charles’ law, before solving any equation on the gas law that
requires temperature as a parameter, do well to check the S.I unit of the
temperature. Most time it is given in oC. Simply convert it to Kelvin.
Recall, the formula

o
C + 273 = Kelvin
For T1 = 40oC
40oC + 273 = 313 Kelvin
For T2
74oC + 273 = 347 Kelvin
T1 = 40oC = 313K
P1 = 480mmHg
P2 = x
T2 = 74oC = 347K
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
70
Making P2 subject of formula
P 1 × T2
P2 = T1
480mmHg × 347 Kelvin

P2 = 313 Kelvin
P2 = 532.141mmHg
GENERAL GAS LAW
The general gas law is deduced from two very important laws discussed previously.
The laws are the Boyle’s law and Charles’ law.

Recall, the mathematically expression for both law
1
¿
Boyle’s law= V P
Charles’ law = V  T
Bringing both laws expression together, we get
1
¿
V P T
Introducing a constant K
K
× T
V= P
V KT
=
1 P
Make K subject of formula
PV
K= T
This is why the general gas law equation is
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
=
T1 T2
Where
P1 = Initial pressure P2 = Final pressure
V1 = Initial volume V2 = Final volume
T1 = Initial temperature T2 = Final temperature
71
1) A gas occupies a volume of 5cm 3 at 180oC and 0.9atm. Calculate the final volume
of the gas if it occupies 1.0atm at 4oC.
Soln
Parameters provided
V1 = 5cm3 [This is the first volume mentioned in the question]
T1 = 18oC [This is the first temperature mentioned in the question]
o
C + 273 = Kelvin
18oC + 273 = 291 Kelvin
P1 = 0.9atm [This is the first pressure mentioned in the question]
V2 = x [This is what we are to calculate for]
T2 = 4oC [This is the second temperature mentioned in the question]
o
C + 273 = Kelvin
18oC + 273 = 277 Kelvin
P2 = 1atm [This is the second pressure mentioned in the question]
Applying the formula
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
=
T1 T2
Making V2 subject of formula
P1 V 1 T2
V2 = P2 × T 1
0.9 × 5 × 277
V2 = 291 × 1 = 4.3cm3
2) 300cm3 of a gas X excerceted a pressure of 700mmHg at 33 oC. What volume will

the gas occupy at stp?
Soln
Parameters provided
V1 = 300cm3 [This is the first volume mentioned in the question]
T1 = 33oC [This is the first temperature mentioned in the question]
o
C + 273 = Kelvin
33oC + 273 = 306 Kelvin
P1 = 700mmHg [This is the first pressure mentioned in the question]
Final condition
This condition was at stp [standard temperature and pressure]
V2 = xcm3
72
T2 = standard temperature = 273K

P2 = standard pressure = 760mmHg
Applying with the formula
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
=
T1 T2
Making V2 subject of formula
P 1 V 1 T2
V2 = P 2 T1
700 × 300 × 273

V2 = 760 × 306 = 246.52cm3
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
This law states that the total pressure of a mixture of gas is equal to the sum of their
partial pressure provided the gases do not react with each other.
Now from the law stated above
Let me explain!!!
Let us assume we have a container that contains three different gases.
A
B
C
This container above has a total pressure which is called PT and each gases inside the
containers have their specific partial pressures.
N.B: The sum of the partial pressure of the gases forms the total partial pressure.
Mathematically,
PT = P A + P B + P C
Where,
PT = Total pressure of the Gas mixture
PA = Partial pressure of Gas A
PB = Partial pressure of Gas B
PC = Partial pressure of Gas C
N.B: It can have PD, PE and above dependent on how many gases were present in the
container.
73
Question
What is the partial pressure of a gas? This is the pressure which that gas in a mixture
would exact if it were alone in the container.
Another Question
How do we calculate the partial pressure of the gases in the container (PA, PB and PC).
For partial pressure of gas A (PA)
PA = mole fraction A  PT
nA
Where mole fraction A = n A + n B + n C
nA
PA = n A + n B + n C  PT
Where,
nA = Number of mole of Gas A
nB = Number of mole of Gas B
nC = Number of mole of Gas C
For partial pressure of gas B (PB)
PB = mole fraction B  PT
nB
Where mole fraction B = n A + n B + n C
nB
PB = n A + n B + n C  PT
For partial pressure of gas C (PC)
PC = mole fraction C  PT
nC
Where mole fraction C = n A + n B + n C
nC
PC = n A + n B + n C  PT
1) A gases mixture is made up of 3 moles of Neon, 2 moles of Argon and 1 mole of

Helium. If the gas mixture exerts a pressure of 18 atm
i) What is the partial pressure of each gas?
ii) Show that PT = PNe + PAr + PHe
Soln
Total pressure of the gas mixture (PT) = 18atm
74
For Neon
The partial pressure of Neon (PNe) is
PNe = mole fraction Ne  PT
nNe
PNe = nNe + n Ar + n He  PT
nNe = 3 mole
nAr = 2 mole
nHe = 1 mole
PT = 18atm
3
PNe = 3+2+1  18atm
PNe = 0.5  18atm
PNe = 9 atm
For Argon
The partial pressure of Argon (PAr) is
PAr = mole fraction Ar  PT
n Ar
PAr = nNe + n Ar + n He  PT
2
PAr = 3+2+1  18atm
PAr = 0.33  18atm
PAr = 6 atm
For Helium
The partial pressure of Argon (PHe) is
PHe = mole fraction He  PT
nNe
PHe = nNe + n Ar + n He  PT
1
PHe = 3+2+1  18atm
PHe = 0.167  18atm
PHe = 3 atm
75
ii) Show that PT = PHe + PAr + PHe

Where PT = 18atm
PHe = 9atm
PAr = 6atm
PHe = 3atm
PT = 9atm + 6atm + 3atm

PT = 18atm
There are other aspect we have to take note of under the Dalton’s law of partial pressure;
it is called COLLECTION OF A GAS OVER WATER.
When a gas is collected over water, the total pressure (P T) exerted by the gas is actually
the sum of the partial pressure of the gas (P gas) and the partial pressure of the water
vapour (P H2 O ).
From this words above, a mathematical expression will be deduced.
PT = Pgas + P H2 O

1) What is the partial pressure of oxygen gas collected over water at standard
atmospheric pressure and 25oC. If the saturation vapour pressure of water is
23mmHg at 25oC.
Soln
So this is what the question says.
“What is the partial pressure of oxygen gas that means they are asking us to get
the partial pressure of gas (Pgas).
Parameters provided
PT = 760mmHg [The standard atmospheric pressure]

Pgas = ?
P H2 O = 23mmHg
Recall;
PT = Pgas + P H2 O
Pgas = PT - P H2 O
Pgas = 760mmHg – 23mmHg
Pgas = 737mmHg
AVOGADRO’S HYPOTHESIS
76
This hypothesis was brought by a man called Amedeo Avogadro. He explained that:
1 mole of any Gas at stp contains a volume of 22.4dm3 and 6.02  1023 molecules.
From this Explanation
(i) 1 mole of N2 gas has a volume of 22.4dm3 at stp and also contains 6.02  1023
molecules.
(ii) 1 mole C2H6 [Ethane gas] has a volume of 22.4dm 3 at stp and contains 6.02  1023
molecules.
(iii) 40cm3 of O2 contains same number of molecules as 40cm3 of Cl2 (or any other gas).
Solved Question with Detailed Explanation

1) Which of the following contain the same number of molecule as 25cm 3 of Cl2 [Cl =
35.5]
(a) 20cm3 of HCl(g)
(b) 22.4dm3 of H2(g)
(c) 21cm3 of N2(g)
(d) 25cm3 of CH4 gas
(e) 25cm3 of HCl (aq)
ANS: Option D
Option e is wrong because HCl is not in gaseous state but rather in aqueous state.
IDEAL GAS LAW

The ideal gas law is a combination of three laws which are Boyle’s law, Charles’s law
and Avogadro’s Law.
1
Recall; Boyle’s Law = V  P
Charles’ Law = V  T
Avogadro’s Law = V  n
Bringing these laws together, we get
1
V P Tn
Introducing a constant
k
V= P  Tn
V kTn
=
1 P
77
PV = nkT
Change k to R
PV = nRT
Where
P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Temperature
n = Number of mole
k = molar mass gas constant or ideal gas constant
For O, level examinations and A Level Examination like 100 level and 200 level
chemistry exams.
Two important constants for R must be noted.

R = 0.0821atm . L/mol/k
The S.I unit is pronounced as atmosphere. Litre per mole per Kelvin temperature.
The / mean per
R = 8.314J/deg/mol/k
The S.I unit is pronounced as Joules per mole per Kelvin temperature.
We use 0.0821 atm . L/deg/mol/k

When pressure = atm and when volume = dm3 or L
We use 8.314J/deg/mol/k
When pressure = N/m2 or Pascal and volume = m3
How to determine the constant?

For R = 0.0821
As earlier said pressure should be in atm and volume should be in dm3 or L.
Recall the Formula

DV = nRT
Lets make R (molar gas constant)
PV
R = nT
Where
P = 1atm [This is a standard value]
V = 22.4dm3 [This is a constant for volume at standard condition]
n = 1mol
T = 273 kelvin
78
1 atm × 22 . 4L
R = 1mol × 273 kelvin
R = 0.0821 atm.L/mol/k
or
atm.dm3/mol/k
for R = 8.314
As I earlier said, pressure should be in N/m2 or Pascal and volume should be in m3.
Do not forget the formula
PV = nRT
Let make R (molar mass constant) subject of formula
PV
R = nT
P = 101325N/m2 or 101325 Pascal [This is a standard value]
V = 22.4dm3 or 22.4L but now, the volume should be expressed in m3.
So we simply convert dm3 to m3
Very Easy!!!
1dm3 = 1  10−3m3
22.4dm3 = xm3
22 . 4 dm3 × 1 × 10−3 m3
3
xm3 = 1dm
xm3 = 0.0224dm3 or 2.4  10−3m3
So this value just gotten is what is to be written in the formula above.
n = 1 mole
T = 273 kelvin
101325 N/m2 × 0 . 0224m 3

R = 1mol × 273 kelvin
R = 8.314N/m2 . m3/mol/Kelvin
or
simply put as
R = 8.314J/mol/Kelvin

79
1) A sample of an ideal gas consists of 0.0176 mole and occupies 8.64L at a pressure
of 0.432 atm. What is the temperature of the gas in oC?
Soln
Formula to use PV = ∩RT
Parameters provided
Pressure = 0.432atm
Volume = 8.64L or 8.64dm3
Number of mole (n) = 0.176mole
R = 0.0821atm . dm3/mol/Kelvin
Temperature = ?
Quick note: I can decide to use any of the constant; I prefer using this one (0.0821)
but if the question specified the one to use, then I will use the specified one as
started by the question.
NOTE: You can see that the molar gas constant (R) S.I unit is atm.L/mol/Kelvin.
So you can see Kelvin there, it simply means that the temperature we are to solve
for will be in Kelvin scale but at the end of the question, it was specified we
should convert the answer to temperature in degree Celsius scale ( oC) which is
very easy!!!
So let us solve
PV = nRT
Making T subject of formula
PV
T = nR
0 . 432 atm × 8. 64L
T = 0 .176 mole × 0 . 0821 atm . L/mol/kelvin
T = 258.5 Kelvin
Let us convert to Celsius scale
To do it, we simply use a formula which is
o
C + 273 = Kelvin
o
C = Kelvin – 273
o
C = 258.5 kelvin – 273 = − 14.5oC
2) 350cm3 of an ideal gas exert a pressure of 1.05 atm at 37 oC. What amount in mole
(n) of gas is present?
80
Soln
Formula to use PV = nRT
Parameter provided
Pressure = 1.05atm
Volume = 350cm3 [It must be converted to dm3 or L]
Recall;
1dm3 = 1000cm3
xdm3 = 350cm3
1dm 3 × 350cm 3
3
xdm3 = 1000cm
xdm3 = 0.35dm3
Temperature = 37oC [It must be converted to Kelvin]

o
C + 273 = Kelvin
37 C + 273 = 310 kelvin
o
R = 0.0821 atm.dm3/mole/Kelvin
PV = nRT
Make number of mole (n) subject of formula
PV
n = RT
1 .05 atm × 0 . 35dm 3
3
n = 0 .0821atm .dm /mole/kelvin × 310 kelvin = 0.01445 mole
GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION
Graham’s law of diffusion state the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to
the square root of its density or molecular mass.
Mathematically,
1
R  √d
Or
1
R  √M
So from this expressions above, it means that when rate of diffusion (R) increases,
density (d) or molecular mass (m) decreases and vice versa.
81
From deduction, the basic formulas involved in the grahams law of diffusion are
R1
R2
=
√ d2
d1
Where
R1 = rate of diffusion 1
d2 = Density of gas 2
d1 = Density of gas 1
R1
R2
=
√ M2
M1
Where
M2 = molecular mass of gas 2
M1 = molecular mass of gas 1
This two formula above are the basic formulas that must be noted on the Graham’s law
of diffusion.
So first of all “what is rate of diffusion”?
This is a term that must be noted.
Mathematically, it is
Volume of Gas (V )
Rate of diffusion = Time taken to diffuse (t )
The unit of volume can be expressed as cm 3, dm3, L or mL or even m 3 as seen in a

particular question.
The unit of time is simply expressed majorly in seconds.

The sole aim of saying this above is to deduce the S.I unit of rate of diffusion. Because it
can be asked in exam condition.
For example,
I wan to use cm3 as the unit for volume and seconds as the unit for time.
Recall;
Volume of Gas (V )
82
cm3
Now, you can see how it works so this expression above seconds which can also be
expressed as cm3/seconds.
How is it pronounced?
cm3/seconds is pronounced as cm3 per seconds.
Let get back to the rate of diffusion formulas which is
Volume of Gas (V )
From the formula above, it means that rate of diffusion is directly proportional to
volume of gas (V) and inversely proportional to time taken (t) to diffuse.
Mathematically,
Rate of diffusion (R)  Volume of gas (V)
RV
Mathematically
1
Rate of diffusion (R)  Time taken to diffuse (t )
1
R T
Formulas to note on this aspect
1)
R1
R2
=
√ d2
d1
This formula relate rate of diffusion and density
2)
R1
R2
=
√ M2
M1
This formula relate rate of diffusion and molecular mass of gas.
Volume of Gas (V )
3) Rate of diffusion = Time taken to diffuse (t )
4)
R1 × V 1
R 2× V2
=
√ M2
M1
This formula relate rate of diffusion, volume and molecular mass

83
5)
R1 × V 1
R 2× V2
=
√ d2
d1
This formula relate rate of diffusion, volume and density of gas.
6)
R 1× t 2
R 2× t 1
=
√ M2
M1
This formula relate rate of diffusion, time and molecular mass.
7)
R 1× t 2
R 1× t 1
=
√ d2
d1
This formula relate rate of diffusion, time and density.
8)
V1
V2
=
√ M2
M1
This formula relate volume and molecular mass of gas.
9)
V1
V2
=
√ d2
d1
This formula relate volume and density
10)
t2
t1
=
√ M2
M1
This formula relate time and molecular mass of gas
11)
t2
t1
=
√ d2
d1
This formula relate time and density
12)
V 1× t 2
V 2× t 1
=
√ M2
M1
This formula relate volume, time and molecular mass
13)
V 1× t 2
V 2× t 1
=
√ d2
d1
This formula relate volume, time and density
So looking at the formula above, you should not be scared cause it is very easy to
understand.
84
Meanwhile knowing the formula will be very helpful to solve various on this law which
we are to see below.

1) Given that the rate of diffusion of a gas X is 200cm 3/seconds. What volume of X
will take 1440 min to diffuse through an orifice?
Soln
Parameters provided
Rate of diffusion of the gas = 200cm3/seconds
Time taken = 1440 min
Volume of X = ?
Remember time should be in seconds
Let us convert 1440 min to seconds
Recall;
60 seconds = 1 min
x seconds = 1440 min
60 seconds × 1440min
x seconds = 1 min = 86,400 seconds
Recall; the formula
Volume of Gas (V )
In the question, we are asked to calculate volume of gas X so let us make volume
subject of formula.
Volume of gas = Rate of diffusion  Time taken to diffuse

Volume of gas = 200cm3/seconds  86,400 seconds
Volume of gas = 17280000cm3
For instance, the question specified provide the answer in dm 3 or m3, you simply
convert
How do you convert from cm3 to dm3
N.B: 1000cm3 = 1dm3

17280000cm3 = xdm3
17280000cm 3 × 1dm 3
3
xdm3 = 1000cm = 17280dm3
How do you convert from cm3 to m3
1000cm3 = 1  10−3m3
85
17280000cm3 = xm3
17280000cm 3 × 1 × 10−3 m3
3
xdm3 = 1000cm
xdm3 = 17.28m3
Believe it is very clear!!!
2) If 465cm3 of sulphur (IV) oxide, can diffuse through a partition in 30 seconds, how
long will an equal volume of hydrogen sulphide diffuse through same partition [S
= 32, O = 16, H = 1]
Soln
Parameters provided
V1 = 465cm3 of SO2
T1 = 30 seconds of SO2
V2 = 465cm3 of H2S
T2 = x seconds
M1 = SO2
32 + 16  2
32 + 32 = 64g/mol
M2 = H2S
K2 + 32
2 + 32 = 34g/mol
Remember the question said equal volume of the gas, so if SO 2 volume is 465cm3,
H2S volume is still same (465cm3).
Now in this question, you can see what we have deduced, the relationship
volume, time and molar mass.
Go back to the formula given in the explanation I gave on this law.
If you are done with that the formula you will get is
V 1× t 2
V 2× t 1
=
√ M2
M1
Let us input the value for the parameters in the question to the formula
√
3
465 cm × x seconds 34g/mol
3
=
465cm × 30 seconds 64g/mol
465 cm 3 × x seconds 0 .73

=
465cm 3 × 30 seconds 1
Let make x seconds subject of formula
86
465 cm 3 × 30 seconds × 0. 73
3
x seconds = 465cm × 1 = 21.9 seconds of H2S
3) If SO2(g) and CH4 are released at the same time at the opposite end of a tube, the
rate of diffusion of SO2 and CH4 will be in the ratio [S = 32, O = 16, C = 12]
(a) 2:1 (b) 4:1 (c) 1:4 (d) 1:2
Soln
Now for this question first let us calculate the molecular mass of both compound
SO2 and CH4
Molecular mass of SO2

32 + 16 x 2 = 64g/mol
Molecular mass of CH4
12 + 1 x 4 = 16g/mol
From the question SO2 was mentioned first so it becomes M 1 and CH4 becomes
M2.
From the question, we are to relate rate of diffusion and molecular mass of the
gas. We simply use one of the formula in the explanation previously.
The formula to use is
R1
R2
=
√ M2
M1
Where M1 = 64g/mol  SO2

M2 = 16g/mol  CH4
√
R1 64g/mol
=
R2 16g/mol
√
R1 1
=
R2 2
Option D
GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW OF COMBINING VOLUME
Gay-Lussac’s law state that when gases react, they do so in volume which are in simple
ratios to one another and to the volume of the product if gaseous provided temperature
and pressure remains constant.
For example
When hydrogen gas and oxygen are combined together to form gaseous water.
The volume of the reactant and products are related to each other in a simple way if they
are all measured to the same temperature and pressure.
87
Using a reaction to explain this phrase above
2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(g)

2 mole of hydrogen + 1 mole of oxygen  2 mole of gaseous water
Since we are on the Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volume
2 volumes of hydrogen + 1 volume of oxygen  2 volume of water
N.B: 1 volume of oxygen is better still called a volume of oxygen.
Another Example
When Nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas are combined to form Ammonia.
Equation to explain better
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)

1 mole of Nitrogen gas + 3 mole of hydrogen  2 mole of Ammonia
On Gay-Lussac’s law
A volume of Nitrogen gas + 3 volumes of hydrogen gas  2 volume of Ammonia
88
Chapter 8
Mole Concept
Learning Outcome
 Understand strongly the Basic concept of solving questions on mole concept.

 Understand formulas on mole concept.
 Solve questions on stoichiometry
89
Practice Questions
1. What volume will 0.5g H2 occupy at stp? [H = 1, 1 mole of a gas occupy 22.4dm 3 at
stp].
2. What volume of hydrogen gas would be produced from 6.0g of the magnesium
[H = 1, 1 mole of a gas occupy 22.4dm3 at stp]?
3. Determine the volume of carbon (IV) oxide measured at stp that would be
produced by the thermal decomposition of 10g of calcium trioxoxide carbonate
(iv) (CaCO3)
4. It is known that carbon has an allotropic force called fullerence, containing

molecules of formular C66. Calculate the mass of one mole of these molecules (C =
12)
5. Calculate the mass of chlorine gas which occupies a volume of 1.12dm 3 at stp [Cl
= 35.5, 1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4dm3 at stp].
6. Determine the mass of Sulphur (IV) oxide obtained when 91g of oxygen reacts
completely with Sulphur according to the following equation [S = 32, O = 16]
S + O2  SO2
7. Calculate the mass of ZnSO4 produced when excess of ZnCO3 is added to 50cm3 of
4.00mol/dm3 H2SO4. The equation for the reaction
ZnCO2 + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + CO2 + H2O
90
1. Mole
What is a mole: A mole is the amount of a pure substance containing the same number of
chemical units as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of C-12 (i.e. 6.02  1023). The
concept of mole is all about stoichiometry and stiochiometry is mole.
FORMULAS TO NOTE ON MOLE CONCEPT

n = Number of mole
Mass Concenetration × Volume (cm 3 ) P × V Volume at stp ( dm 3 )
= = =
n = Molar mass 1000 RT 22 . 4dm 3
Number of atoms
6 . 02 × 10 23
Knowing all these formulas above starts to build your knowledge about the mole
concept.
N.B: n = Concentration  Volume (dm3)

You can see that the volume in the question is in dm 3 so don’t divide by 1000 but if the
volume in the question is in cm3, you can divide by 1000.
Volume at stp ( cm 3 )
3
N.B: n = 22400cm
Quick Note: Number of atoms can also be called number of molecules or number of ions
or number of particles.
Common parameters on mole concept
Mass = g (grams)
Molar mass = g/mol (grams per mole)
Concentration = mol/dm3 (mole per dm3)
Volume = cm3, dm3, L, mL, m3
Pressure = atm, mmHg, torr, N/m2, Pascal
T = temperature = oC, Kelvin
To solve questions on the mole concept, it will be in different CASES.
CASE 1: Question dealing with number of mole, mass and molar mass
1) How many mole of calcium trioxocarbonate (IV) are there in 2.5g of calcium
trioxocarbonate (IV) [Ca = 40, O = 16, C = 12]
Soln
Parameters provided
91
Mass = 2.5g
Compound = CaCO3
Molar mass = 40 + 12 + 16  3
Molar mass = 40 + 12 + 48 = 100g/mol
Number of mole (n) = ?
Mass
Recall; n = Molar mass
2.5g
n = 100 g/mol
n = 0.025 mole
2) What is the mass of 2.3 mole of sodium [Na = 23]
Soln
Parameter provided
Number of mole = 2.3 mole
Molar mass of Sodium (Na) = 23
Mass = ?
n Mass
=
Recall; 1 Molar mass
Making mass subject of formula
Mass = n  Molar mass
Mass = 2.3 mole x 2.3g/mol
Mass = 52.9g
3) How many mole of Iron (III) oxide are contained in 1kg of the compound [Fe = 56,
O = 16]
Soln
The chemical formula of Iron (III) oxide
Fe3+ O2− = Fe2O3
Parameters Provided
Mass = 1kg [Mass should be in g]

N.B: 1kg = 1000g
Mass = 1000g
Compound = Fe2O3
Molar mass = 56  2 + 16  3
Number of mole (n) = ?
92
Mass
1000 g
n = 160 g/mol
n = 6.25 mole of Fe2O3
4) One mole of a compound MHCO 3 has a mass of 84g. Calculate the relative atomic
mass of M [H = 1, C = 12, O =10]
Soln
Parameters provided
Number of mole = 1 mole
Mass = 84g
Molar mass = MHCO3
Recall;
Mass
n = Molar mass
Molar mass = n  Mass
MHCO3 = 1 mole  84g
M + 1 + 12 + 16  3 = 1 mole  84g
M + 1 + 12 + 48 = 1 mole  84g
M + 1 + 12 + 48 = 84g/mol
M + 61 = 84g/mol
M = 84g/mol – 61
M = 23g/mol
23
The element is likely to be sodium 11 Na
CASE 2: Questions dealing with number of mole, concentration and volume

1) Calculate the number of mole of element present in 200cm 3 of a 0.2mol/dm3
H2SO4 solution.
Soln
Parameters provided
Volume (cm3) = 200cm3
Concentration = 0.2mol/dm3
Number of mole = ?
Concentration × Volume (cm3 )
Recall; n = 1000
0 .2mol/dm 3 × 200cm3
n = 1000
93
n = 0.04mole
CASE 3: Questions dealing with number of mole, pressure, volume, temperature and
molar gas constant

1) Calculate the number of mole of element present in 250cm 3 of an ideal gas
exerting a pressure of 700mmHg at 27oC
Soln
Parameter provided
Pressure = 700mmHg
Convert to atm
1atm = 760mmHg
xatm = 700mmHg
700 mmHg × 1atm
xatm = 760mmHg = 0.9211atm
Volume = 250cm3
Convert to dm3
1dm3 = 1000cm3
xdm3 = 250cm3
1dm 3 × 250cm3
3
xdm3 = 100cm
xdm3 = 0.25dm3
Temperature = 27oC
Convert to Kelvin
o
C + 273 = Kelvin
27oC + 273 = 300 kelvin
R = molar gas constant = 0.0821
Remember to use this constant
Pressure must be in atm
Volume must be in dm3 or L
PV
Recall; n = RT
0 .9211 atm × 0 .25dm 3

n= 0 . 0821 × 300
n = 0.009354 mole
94
CASE 4: Questions dealing with number of mole, volume at stp [standard,

temperature and pressure]

1) What is the number of mole of 5.6dm3 of SO2 gas at stp [S = 32, O = 16]
Soln
Parameters provided
Volume (dm3) = 5.6dm3 at stp
Number of mole = n = ?
Standard volume = 22.4dm3
Volume ( dm 3 )
3
Recall; n = 22 . 4dm
5. 6dm 3
3
n = 22 . 4dm
n = 0.25 mole
CASE 5: Question dealing with number of mole, number of atoms and Avogadro’s
constant

1) Calculate the number of moles present in 2.06  1023 atm of Cl2.
Number of mole = ?
Number of atoms = 2.06  1023
Avogadro’s constant = 6.02  1023
Number of atoms
23
Recall; n = 6 . 02 × 10
2. 06 × 10 23
23
n = 6 .02 × 10
n = 0.3422 mole
CASE 6: Question dealing with relationship between two formulas from the formulas
on mole concept
1) What is the mass of potassium hydroxide present in 500cm 3 of 2mol/dm3 solution of

the compound? [H = 39, O = 16, H = 1]
Soln
Parameter provided
Mass = ?
Volume = 500cm3
Concentration = 2mol/dm3
95
Potassium hydroxide
KOH
39 + 16 + 1 = 56g/mol
Formulas that relate all the parameters
Mass Concentration × Volume (cm 3 )

=
Molar mass 1000
Making Mass subject of formula
Molar mass × Concentration × Volume (cm 3 )
Mass = 1000
56g/mol × 2mol/dm 3 × 500cm3
Mass = 1000
Mass = 56g
2) What is the mass of 2.6dm3 of SO2 gas at stp?
Soln
Parameter provided
Mass = ?
Volume = 2.6dm3 at stp
SO2
32 + 16 x 2 = 64g/mol
3) Upon heating 1.25g of a solid 280cm3 of a gas measured at stp were evolved and a
residue of 0.7g was left. Calculate the molar mass of the gas [molar volume of a gas at stp
= 22.4dm3]
Soln
Mass of gas = 1.25g – 0.7g
Mass of gas = 0.55g
Volume at stp = 280cm3
Mass
Molar mass = Molar mass
Volume (cm3 ) at stp
3
n = 22400cm
Mass Volume ( cm 3 )
=
Molar mass 22400cm 3
Making molar mass subject of formula
Mass × 22400cm3
3
Molar mass = Volume (cm )
96
0 .55g × 22400cm3
3
Molar mass = 280cm
Molar mass = 44g/mol
CASE 7: General calculations in stoichiometry

1) Calculate the number of mole of oxygen provided from the decomposition of 2 mole
of KClO3
Soln
Equation of reaction = 2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2(g)
Mole ratio 2 mole 2 mole 3 mole
2KClO3  3O2
From the balanced equation 2 mole  3 mole
From question 2 mole  x mole
2 mole × 3 mole
x mole = 2 mole
x mole = 3 mole of oxygen gas
2) How many mole of HCl will be required to react with 5g of NaOH [Na = 23, O = 16,
H = 1, Cl = 35.5]
Soln
Equation of reaction: HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
Mole ratio 1 mole 1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
HCl  NaOH
Let us convert 5g of NaOH to mole
Mass
Mass = 5g
Molar mass = NaOH
23 + 16 + 1 = 40g/mol
5g
n = 40g/mol = 0.125.mole of NaOH
HCl  NaOH
From balanced equation 1 mole  1 mole
From question x mole  0.125 mole
1 mole × 0 . 125 mole
x mole = 1 mole
x mole = 0.125.mole of HCl
97
3) Fe(s) + 2HCl  FeCl2(aq) + H2

What is the mass of iron that would be required to react with 250cm 3 of 0.1mol/dm3
HCl?
Soln
Equation of Reaction: Fe(s) + 2HCl  FeCl2(aq) + H2
Fe  2HCl
Let us covert 250cm3 of 0.1mol/dm3 HCl to mole
Recall; n = 1000
Volume = 250cm3
0 .1mol/dm 3 × 250cm3
n = 1000
n = 0.025 mole of HCl
Fe  2HCl
From question x mole  0.025mole
1 mole × 0 . 025 mole
x mole = 2 mole = 0.0125 mole of Fe
Mass
Mass = n x molar mass
n = 0.0125.mole of Fe
Mass = 0.0125 mole x 56g/mol
Mass = 0.7g of Iron (Fe)
4) 2C4H10 + 13O2 --> 8CO2 + 10H2O

From the equation above, what volume of oxygen at stp is required to burn 100cm 3 of
butane [molar volume of a gas at stp = 22.4dm3]
Soln
Equation of reaction 2C4H10 + 13O2  8CO2 + 10H2O
2C4H10  13O2
Let us convert 100cm3 of butane at stp to mole
98
Volume ( cm 3 )
3
Recall; n = 22400cm
Volume = 100cm3
100cm3
3
n = 22400cm = 0.0045mole of butane [C4H10]
2C4H10  13O2
From question 0.0045mole  x mole
0 .0045 mole × 13 mole
x mole = 2 mole
x mole = 0.02925 mole of oxygen (O2)
Let us convert the answer (mole) to volume
Volume (cm 3 )
3
Recall: n = 22400cm
Making volume (cm3) subject of formula
Volume (cm3) = n  22400cm3
Volume (cm3) = 0.02925 mole x 22400cm3
Volume (cm3) = 655.2cm3
5) 5.00g of a mixture of CaCO3 and CaO liberated 1.32g of carbon (IV) oxide (CO2) on
strong heating. What is the percentage of CaO in the mixture [Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16]
Soln
N.B: Only CaCO3 portion of the mixture will decompose upon heating.
Equation of reaction: CaCO3  CaO + CO2
Let us convert 1.32g of CO2 to mole
Mass
Mass = 1.32g
Molar mass = CO2
12 + 16 x 3 = 44g/mol
1. 32 g
n = 44g/mol = 0.03 mole of CO2
CaCO3  CO2
1 mole × 0 . 03 mole
x mole = 1 mole = 0.03 mole of CaCO3
Let us convert the answer (mole) to grams
99
Mass
n = 0.03 mole
Molar mass = CaCO3
Making Mass subject of formula
Mass = n  Molar mass
Mass = 0.03 mole  100g/mol
Mass = 3g
Mass of mixture = 5g [CaCO3 and CaO]
Mass of CaCO3 = 3g
Mass of CaO
Mass of mixture = Mass of CaCO3 + Mass of mixture
Mass of mixture = 3g – xg
5g = 3g – xg
xg = 5g – 3g = 2g of CaO
Mass of CaO
× 100
Percentage of CaO in the mixture = Total mass of mixture
2g
× 100
Percentage of CaO in the mixture = 5g
Percentage of CaO in the mixture = 40%
6) 2g of limestone was treated with excess 0.5mol/dm 3 HCl. The acid left at the end of
the reaction required 32cm3 of 0.02mol/dm3 Na2CO3 solution for neutralisation. What is
the original volume of the acid? [Na = 23, Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16, Cl = 35.5]
Soln
Equation of reaction: CaCO3 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Let us convert 2g of Limestone (CaCO3) to mole

Mass
Mass = 2g
Molar mass = CaCO3
40 + 12 + 16  3 = 100g/mol
2g
n = 100g/mol = 0.02 mole
We are to relate CaCO3 and 2HCl
CaCO3  2HCl
From balanced equation 1mole  2 mole
From question 0.02mol  x mole
0 .02 mole × 2 mole
x mole = 1 mole
100
x mole = 0.04 mole of HCl
We were told at the end of the reaction the acid left reacted with Na2CO3 solution.
Equation of reaction becomes: 2HCl + Na2CO3  2NaCl + H2O + CO2
Let us convert 32cm3 of 0.02mol/dm3 of Na2CO3 to mole
Recall; n = 1000
0 .02 mol/dm 3 × 32cm3

n = 1000
n = 0.00064 mole of Na2CO3
We are to relate HCl and Na2CO3
2HCl  Na2CO3
From the balanced equation 2 mole  1 mole
2 mole × 0 . 00064 mole
x mole = 1 mole
x mole = 0.00128 mole of HCl
Total number of mole of HCl in the two reactions
Reaction 1 + Reaction 2
nHCl Reaction 1 + nHCl Reaction 2
0.04 mole + 0.00128 mole = 0.04128 mole
To calculate the original volume of the acid [HCl]

Recall; nT = 1000
n T × 1000
Volume (cm3) = Concentration
nT = 0.04128 mole
Concentration = 0.5mol/dm3 of HCl [This is gotten from the question]
nT = Total number of mole
0 .04128 mole × 1000
Volume = 0 . 5mol/dm3
101
Volume = 82.56dm3 = 80dm3
7) The volume of 0.20mol/dm3 H2SO4 that will exactly neutralization 25cm3 of

0.05mol/dm3 NaOH solution.
Soln
From the word “neutralize”. The neutralization reaction must be written.
Equation of Reaction: H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 + 2H2O
From the question, we are asked to find the volume of acid [H2SO4]
From the titration equation
CA VA NA
=
C B VB NB
Where
CA = Concentration in mol/dm3 of Acid
VA = Volume in mol/dm3 of Acid
CB = Concentration in mol/dm3 of Base
VB = Volume in mol/dm3 of Base
NA = Number of mole of Acid
NB = Number of mole of Base
Making VA subject of formula

C B × VB × N A
VA = N B CA
Where
CB = 0.05mol/dm3
VB = 25cm3
NA = 1 mole [1H2SO4]
NB = 2 mole [2NaOH]
CA = 0.2mol/dm3
0.05 × 25 × 1
VA = 2 × 0.2
8) How many atoms of carbon are in 4.0  105g propane [C3H8] [C = 12, H = 1]
Soln
The number of atoms of carbon in C 3H8 is first let us calculate the mass of carbon
in C3H8
Mass of Carbon =
Molar mass of C3 = 12  3 = 36g/mol
C H
Molar mass of 3 8 = 12  3 + 1  8 = 36 + 8 = 44g/mol
Mass of C3H8 = 4.0  105g
102
36g/mol
× 4.0 × 105 g
Mass of Carbon = 44g/mol
Mass of Carbon = 327272.73g
N.B: The question asked for number of atom of carbon
Mass Number of atoms
=
Recall; Molar mass 6 .02 × 10 23
Let us make number of atoms subject of formula
Mass × 6 . 02 × 1023
Number of atom = Molar mass
Mass = 327272.73g
Molar mass of Carbon = 12
327272 .73g × 6 . 02 × 10 23
Number of atom = 12
Number of atoms = 1.7  108 atoms
9) Calculate the Density of NH3 [Molar mass = 17.03g/mol] at 752mmHg and 55oC
[R = 0.0821]
Soln
Mass PV
=
Remember: Molar mass RT
Let us make molar mass subject of formula
Mass × RT
Molar mass = P × Volume
Mass
Where Volume = density
Density × RT
Molar mass = P
Let us make density subject of formula [This is what we are asked to calculate for in the
question]
Molar Mass × P
Density = RT
N.B: Pressure should be in atm.
1atm = 760mmHg
xatm = 752mmHg
1atm × 752mmHg
xatm = 760mmHg
103
xatm = 0.99atm
N.B: Temperature should be in Kelvin scale
o
C + 273 = Kelvin
o
C = 55
55oC + 273 = 328K
Parameters provided
Molar mass = 17.03g/mol
Pressure = 0.99atm
R = 0.0821
Temperature = 328k
17.03 × 0 .99
Density = 0 .0821 × 328 = 0.626g/L
10) A scientist has a synthesized greenish-yellow gelatinous compound of chlorine

and oxygen whose dentists is 7.7g/L at 36 oC and 2.88atm. Calculate the molar
mass of compound
Soln
Apply same concept in the above question
Formula;
Molar mass × P
Density = RT
From the question, we are asked to calculate the molar mass; Let make molar
mass subject of formula
Density × RT
Molar mass = P
Pressure = 2.88atm
Density = 7.7g/L
Temperature = 36oC
oC + 273 = Kelvin
36oC + 273 = 309K
R = 0.0821
7.7 × 0.0821 × 30g
Molar mass = 2.88
104
Chapter 9
pH Concept
Learning Outcome
 Understand the concept of pH.
 Solve calculations involved in the pH concept.
 Understand the concept of basicity of an acid and acidity of a base.
If you feel confident about these chapters, why not try the quiz over the page?
105
Practice Question
1. The POH of 0.25mol/dm3 of HCl is _________
2. Which of the following salt solution will have a pH greater than 7? (a) NaCl (b)
Na2CO3 (c) Na2SO4 (d) NaHSO4
3. What is the pH of a 0.001M solution of NaOH?
4. What is the hydroxyl ion concentration [OH −] in a solution of sodium hydroxide

of pH 10.0?
5. What is the hydrogen ion concentration [H+] of a solution pH 8.3?
6. What is the pH of each of the following solution?

(i) 0.001M HCl
(ii) 0.01M NaOH
(iii) 0.02M NaOH
(iv) 0.02M HCl
106
1. Concept of pH
pH concept: The concept of pH was brought by a man called Soren peder Lauritz
Sorenson in the year 1909. He coined the term pH.
pH means potential of hydrogen.
Question: What is called the pH scale?
The pH scale is a scale of numbers from 0 to 14. On this scale 0 – 6. 9 means that the
solution is acidic, 7 represent the solution to be neutral while 7.1 – 14 means that the
solution is alkalinic.
Question: What is pH?

pH is the measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
The diagrammatic representation of the pH scale is shown below.
0 6.9 7.1 14
7
From this scale above, it means that when I have two solutions
Solution A Solution B
pH = 2 pH = 5
Question: Which of the solution above is more acidic?

Answer: Solution A is more acidic. This is because the direction of the arrow in the scale
is pointing towards 0 (zero). As the arrow points toward 0, it indicates increase acidity.
Question: Which of the solution below is more alkalinic?

Solution A Solution B
pH = 9 pH = 12
Answer: Solution B is more alkalinic. This is because the direction of the arrow in the
scale is pointing towards 14. As the arrows points toward 14, it indicate increase
alkalinity.
CALCULATIONS ON THE pH CONCEPT

For the purpose of calculations
pH is defined as the negative logarithm to the base 10 of hydrogen ion concentration.
Mathematically
pH = − log[H+]
Things to note
[ ] in chemistry means concentration [for calculation purpose]
 H = Hydrogen ion
z
[H+] = Hydrogen ion concentration
107
Remember I said earlier that [ ] means concentration so anything written in bracket in

chemistry concentration should be added to the name.
In this case hydrogen ion H + was inside a bracket as [H +] so it should be pronounced as

Hydrogen ion concentration.
Note: Anything that happens to acid will happen to base.

So;
pH deals with acid = [H+]
pOH deals with base = [OH−]
 pOH = − Log [OH−]
Where
OH− = hydrogen ion
[OH−] = hydrogen ion concentration as explained earlier
So far we have discussed two formulas on the pH and pOH concept.
Other formulas are
pH + pOH = 14
[H+]  [OH−] = 1  10−14
N.B: 1  10−14 is a constant which is equal to kw where kw is called WATER
DISSOCIATION CONSTANT.
The four formulas above is the formulas that is used to solve pH and pOH of strong
solutions.
Strong Solution can be strong acids and bases.

The formulas above is not used for solving pH and pOH of weak solution which is either
weak acids and bases.
At this point, it is very important we know this formula to be derived below.

pH = − log [H+]
Remember [H+] = hydrogen ion concentration
Sometimes to calculate [H+] we simply use an expression
[H+] = Concentration of acid solution  Basicity of acid
So replacing [H+] with concentration of acid solution  Basicity of acid, we get pH
to be solution.
pH = − Log [Concentration of acid  Basicity of acid]
pOH = − Log [OH−]

Remember [OH−] = hydroxide ion concentration
Sometimes to calculate [OH−], we simply use an expression
[OH−] = Concentration of base solution  Acidity of a base
So replacing [OH−] with concentration of base solution  Acidity of base, we get pOH to
be
108
pOH = − Log [Concentration of base solution  Acidity of base]. As we progress, you

will understand better.
Question: What does Basicity of acid and Acidity of a base mean?
WHAT IS BASICITY OF AN ACID?

This is the number of replaceable hydrogen ion present in one molecule of an acid.
For example 1
HCl is an acid [When it’s been dissociated, we get]
1HCl ⇌ H+ + 1Cl−
So at the end of the dissociation, we had 1 hydrogen ion. It means that the basicity of
HCl is 1 (one) or Monobasic.
For example 2
H2SO4 is an Acid [When it’s been dissociated, we get]

H2SO4 ⇌ 2H+ + SO42−
H2SO4 is 2 (two) or dibasic.
For example 3
H3PO4 is an Acid [When it’s been dissociated, we get]
H3PO4 ⇌ 3H+ + PO43−
H3PO4is 3 (three) or tribasic.
WHAT IS ACIDITY OF A BASE?

Example 1
NaOH is a base [when it’s been dissociated, we get]
1NaOH ⇌ 1Na+ + 1OH−
So at the end of the dissociation, we had 1 hydroxide ion. It means that the acidity of
NaOH is 1 (one) or monoacidic.
Example 2
Ca(OH)2 is a base [when it’s been dissociated, we get]
Ca(OH)2 ⇌ Ca2+ + 2OH−
Ca(OH)2 is 2 (two) or diacidic.
Example 3
Al(OH)3 is a base [when it’s been dissociated, we get]

Al(OH)3 ⇌ Al3+ + 3OH−
109
Al(OH)3 is 3 (three) or triacidic.
I believe you now understand the concept of Basicity of acid and acidity of a base.
To solve calculation questions under this concept, it will be in 4 CASES.
CASE 1: How to calculate pH and pOH of strong acids and base respectively with [H +]
and OH− given.

1) Determine the pH of HCl given the (H+) in mol/dm3 to be 1.00  10−3.
Soln
Parameter provided
[H+] = 1.00  10−3mol/dm3
pH = ?
Recall; the formula for pH
pH = − Log [H+]
Input parameter
pH = − Log [1.00  10−3]
pH = 3
2) Calculate the pH of H2SO4 given the [H+] in mol/dm3 to be 1.00  10−6?
Soln
Parameter provided
[H+] = 1.00  10−6
pH = ?
Recall; The formula for pH
pH = − Log [H+]
Input parameter
pH = − Log [1.00  10−6]
pH = 6
3) Determine the pH of HCl given the [H+] in mol/dm3 to be 1.79  10−8
Soln
Parameter provided
[H+] = 1.79  10−8
pH = ?
Recall; The formula for pH
pH = − Log [H+]
Input parameter
pH = − Log [1.79  10−8]
pH = 7.75
110
4) Calculate the pOH of NaOH given the [OH−] in mol/dm3 to be 5.00  10−9.
Parameter provided
[OH−] = 5.00  10−9
pOH = ?
Recall; The formula for pOH
Input parameter
pOH = − Log [5.00  10−9]
pOH = 8.301
CASE 2: How to calculate pH and pOH of strong cards and base respectively without
[H+] and [OH] given in the question.

1) Determine the pH of a 0.002mol/dm3 solution HCl
Soln
You can see that the nature of the question is different from CASE 1.
The [H+] is not given what they actually gave us is the concentration of the full
solution [0.002mol/dm3 solution HCl] in this particular question, it is an acid
solution.
When we encounter questions on this aspect, we simply use those formula I

derived in the chapter.
pH = − Log [Concentration of acid solution  Basicity of acid]
where
Concentration of acid solution = 0.002mol/dm3
Basicity of acid (HCl) = 1
Inputing the parameters into the formula
pH = − Log [0.002  1]
pH = − Log [0.002]
pH = 2.7
2) Determine the pH of a 0.0025mol/dm3 of H2SO4 solution
Soln
Parameter provided
Concentration of acid solution [H2SO4] = 0.0025mol/dm3
Basicity of acid (H2SO4) = 2
pH = − Log [Concentration of acid solution  Basicity of acid]
pH = − Log [0.0025  2]
pH = − Log [0.005]
pH = 2.301
111
3) Calculate the pOH of a 0.00005mol/dm3 solution of Ca(OH)2
Soln
Parameter provided
Concentration of base solution [Ca(OH)2] = 0.00005mol/dm3
Basicity of base [Ca(OH)2] = 2
pOH = − Log [Concentration of base solution  Acidity of base]
pH = − Log [0.00005  2]
pH = − Log [0.0001]
pH = 4
CASE 3: General concept on pH and pOH calculations

1) Determine the pH of NaOH given that [OH−] in mol/dm3 to be 5.00  10−8
Soln
The compound in the question is an alkali or base [NaOH]. However, this does
not matter because we have been told in the question to calculate pH.
Recall; pH deals with acid = [H+]

pOH deals with base = [OH−]
The parameter given is of base or alkali so we simply calculate in that manner (i.e.
calculate for pOH first and then convert to pH).
First let us calculate pOH

[OH−] = 5.00  10−8mol/dm3
pOH = − Log [5.00  10−8]
pOH = 7.301
Recall; pH + pOH = 14
Where pOH = 7.301
pH = 14 – pOH
pH = 14 – 7.301
pH = 6.7
So the final answer is 6.7 which is the pH
2) Calculate the pOH of HCl given the [H+] in mol/dm3 to be 1.00  10−4
Soln
You can see we are told to calculate pOH, but we were given parameters for acid
[HCl]
First calculate pH and then convert answer to pOH
pH = − Log [H+]
[H+] = 1.00  10−4
pH = − Log [1.00  10−4]
112
pH = 4
Let us convert pH to pOH

pH + pOH = 14
pH = 4
pOH = 14 – pH
pOH = 14 – 4
pH = 10
CASE 4: How to calculate [H+] and [OH−] from pH and pOH respectively.

1) The pOH of a certain soft drink was found to be 10.60. Calculate
(i) The pH of the soft drink
(ii) [H+] of the soft drink
Soln
(i) To calculate the first question
Recall; the formula
pH + pOH = 14
pOH = 10.60
pH = 14 – pOH
pH = 14 – 10.60
pH = 3.40
(ii) To calculate [H+] in the second question, we will simply make it subject of
formula below
Recall; pH = − Log [H+]
Make [H+] subject of formula
[H+] = Log−1 [−pH]
[H+] = Log−1 [− 3.40]
[H+] = 3.98  10−4mol/dm3
N.B: If for example, we were given pOH and we were told to calculate [OH −] we
simply use the formula below
[OH−] = Log−1 [− pOH]
113
Chapter 10
Electrochemistry
Learning Outcome
 Understand basic terms in this aspect like electrolysis, electrolyte, electrodes
 Understand deeply the quantitative (calculations) aspect of this chapter.
114
Practice Questions
1. Calculate the quantity of electricity used during the electrolysis when a current of
0.21 ampere flow for 2 hours.
2. Calculate the current in amperes that will deposit 8g of calcium from fused CaCl2
in 1 hr.15 minutes [Ca = 40; 1 Faraday = 96500 C]
3. Calculate the current in amperes required to produce 18g of aluminium in 2

hours.
4. A volta-meter containing silver trioxonitrate meter containing copper (II)

tetraoxosulphate (VI) solution when a current of 0.20 amphere was passed
through the solution, 0.70 of silver was deposited. Calculate
(i) The mass of copper that would be deposited in the copper voltameter
(ii) Quantity of electricity used and the time of current flow [Cl = 63.5, Ag =
108.1 Faraday = 96500 C]
5. Determine how many moles of electrons are transferred when 4825 coulombs of
electricity are passed through an electrolytic cell [1f = 96500 C]
6. Calculate the number of copper (II) ions that will be discharged by 0.250 F
[Avogadro’s constant = 6.02  1023 mol].
7. In the electrolysis of acidified water using Hoffman voltameter, a current of 2A

flows for 3 hour 15 minutes. Calculate the volume of oxygen liberated.
115
1. Concept of Electrolysis
What is Electrolysis: This is the passage of direct current (DC) through a compound in
solution or molten form with decomposition occurring at the electrodes.
N.B: Electrolysis occurs in a special vessel called the electrolytic cell. This electrolytic cell
converts electrical energy to chemical energy.
2. Electrolyte: An electrolyte is a compound which conducts electricity when it is in

liquid form.
3. Electrode: These are terminals by which current enters and leaves the electrolytic cell
There are two types
Cathode: This is the electrode at which reduction occurs, i.e. gain of electrons occurs.
N.B: In an electrolytic cell, cathode is negative
N.B: In an electrochemical cathode is positive.
Anode: This is the electrode at which oxidation occurs, i.e. loss of electrons.
N.B: In an electrolytic cell, anode is positive
N.B: In an electrochemical, anode is negative.
4. Quantitative Aspect of Electrolysis

To solve questions on the quantitative [Calutation] aspect of electrolysis, it will be in six
(6) case.
CASE 1: Faraday’s first law of Electrolysis

This law state that “the mass (M) of an element deposited during electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity (Q) that pass through the electrolyte.
From the statement above

Mass of an element  Quantity of electricity
M  Q
Introducing a constant K
M = KQ
Where M = Mass of element
K = Constant
Q = Quantity of electricity
N.B: K will be changed to Z
M = ZQ
N.B: Q = It
Where Q = Quantity of electricity
I = Current (Amperes)
t = Time (seconds)
So inputing It in place of Q we get
M = ZIt
Where M = mass of element
Z = Electrochemical equivalent
T = Current (Amperes)
116
t = time (seconds)
When dealing with Faraday’s first law of electrolysis. The formula must be noted.
M = ZIt

1) Given the electrochemical equivalent of a metal (M2+) as 3.6  10−4. What quantity
of electricity will liberate 20g of this metal [F = 96500 C]
Soln
Recall; From Faraday’s first law of electricity
M = ZIt
Where Q = It
Q = Quantity of electricity
Let us interchange It with Q
M = ZQ
Making Q subject of formula
M
Q= Z
Where M = mass = 20g
Z = Electrochemical equivalent = 3.6  10−3
20g
−3
Q = 3. 6 × 10 = 55, 555.56C
CASE 2: General calculations in electrolysis

The formula below, you must endeavor to remember it
Mass =
Where
I = current (Amperes)
t = time (seconds
q = charge of element (ion)
F = Faraday’s constant = 96500C

1) What mass of Gold is deposited during the electrolysis of gold (III)
tetraoxosulphate (VI) when a current of 15A is passed for 193 seconds? [Au = 197]
Soln
This question require us using the formula I gave on CASE 2 which is
Molar Mass × It
Mass = q × F
117
Parameter provided
Molar mass = 197
I = 15A
t = 193 seconds [already in seconds, no need to correct]
q = Gold (III) = Au3+ = q = 3
F = 96500C
Mass = ?
197 × 15 × 193
Mass = 3 × 96500
Mass = 1.97g
2) What current in Amperes will deposit 2.7g of aluminium in 2 hours? [Al = 27]
Soln
Molar Mass × I × t
Mass = q × F
Parameter provided
Molar mass = 27
t = 2 hours (should be converted to seconds)
 2 hours  60 min  60 sec = 7200 sec
q = Al3+ = q = 3
F = 96500C
Mass = 27g
I=?
Let us make current (I) subject of formula
Mass × q × F
I = Molar mass × t
2.7g × 3 × 96500
Mass = 27g/mol × 7200 = 4 Amperes or 4A
CASE 3: Calculations in Electrolysis dealings with volume
Molar Mass × It
Recall; Mass = q × F
Where Q = It
Molar Mass × Q
Mass = q × F
Making Q subject of formula
Mass × q × F
Q = Molar mass
Recall; from mole concept
118
Mass
n = Molar mass
where n = number of mole
Mass × q × F
Q = Molar mass
Q = nqF
Making n subject of formula
Q
n = qF
From mole concept, number of mole (n) is also
Vol( dm 3 )
3
n = 22 . 4dm [at stp]
Vol( dm 3 ) Q
22 . 4dm = qF
3
Making Volume (dm3) subject of formula;
Q × 22.4dm 3
Volume (dm3) = qF
Where Q = It
It × 22.4dm 3
Volume (dm3) = q × F
1) What volume of oxygen measured at stp would be liberated on electrolysis of
9650 coulombs of electricity?
Soln
There is an equation to be written here
4OH− (aq)  2H2O + O2 + 4e−
Whenever you are asked to solve questions relating to oxygen, just know that q
(charge of element) is 4.
Formula to apply:
Q × 22.4dm 3
Volume (dm3) = qF
Where Q = 9650C
q=4
F = 96500C
119
9650 × 22 . 4dm 3
Volume (dm3) = 4 × 96500 = 0.56dm3
CASE 4: Calculations in Electrolysis dealing with number of mole (n)
Recall; from derivation of the formula in CASE 3, we saw this equation
Mass × q × F
Q = Molar mass
From mole concept
Mass
n = Molar mass
where n = Number of mole
Mass × q × F
Q = Molar mass
Q = nqF
To solve questions on this case, this formula derived above must be noted.

1) Calculate the quantity of electricity required to discharge an electrode containing
4.0 mole of Q3+.
Soln
Recall; Q = nqF
Parameters provided
n = 4 mole
q = Q3+ = 3
F = 96500C
Q = nqF
Q = 4  3  96500
Q = 1158000C
CASE 5: Calculations in Electrolysis dealing with number of mole and number of

Farad
On this case, the formula below must be noted.

Farad
n= q
Where q = charge of element
How many mole of copper will be deposited by passing 3 Farad of electricity through a
solution of copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI).
120
Soln
Recall; the formula
Farad
n= q
Parameters provided
Farad = 3F
q = Cu2+ = 2
3
n = 2 = 1.5 mole
CASE 6: Faraday’s Second Law of Electrolysis

This law state that “if the same quantity of electricity is passed through different
electrolyte arranged in series.
As we study this case of calculation, a phrase should be noted in questions on this aspect
“same quantity of electricity”.
N.B: In this law, the relative number of mole of the elements discharged or liberated are
inversely proportional to the charge on the ion of the element.
From this words above

1
Number of mole  charge on the ion of the element
When n = Number of mole
q = Charge on the ion of element
1
n  q
introducing a constant k
n k
=
1 q
k = nq
This is why the Faraday’s second law of electrolysis equation is
n1q1 = n2q2
because two elements will be related.
where
n1 = Number of mole of first element
q1 = Charge of ion of the first element
n2 = Number of mole of second element
q2 = Charge of ion of the second element
This equation n1q1 = n2q2 can also be expressed in the another way.
Mass
121
Mass
Interchanging n1 and n2 with Molar mass we get
Mass1 × q 1 Mass2 × q 2
=
Molar mass 1 Molar mass2
If a given quantity of electricity liberate 0.65g of Zn 2+, what amount in grams(g) of Hg 2+
would be liberated by the same quantity of electricity [Hg = 201, Zn = 65].
Soln
First, I said when you are solving questions on the Faraday’s second law of electrolysis a
phrase must be noted which is “same quantity of electricity”.
Recall; the formula
n1q1 = n2q2
From the questions case they are asking us to calculate mass (grams) so instead of using
the first formula first derived, we simply use the formula with mass
Formula:
Mass1 × q 1 Mass2 × q 2
=
Molar mass 1 Molar mass2
The first element = Zn2+
q1 = Zn2+ = 2
Molar mass1 = 65g/mol
Mass1 = 0.65g
The second element = Hg2+
q2 = Hg2+ = 2
Molar mass2 = 201g/mol
Mass2 = xg
Let us make mass2 subject of formula
Mass1 × q 1 × Molar Mass2
Mass2 = q2 × Molar Mass
0.65 × 2 × 201
Mass2 = 2 × 65
Mass2 = 2.01g of Hg2+
122
Chapter 11
Redox Reaction
Learning Outcome
 Understand what a redox reaction is.
 Determine oxidation number of elements.
 Calculate the change in oxidation number during a redox reaction.
 How to calculate EMF [electromotive force] of a cell.
 Know how to balance a redox reaction in Acidic and Basic medium.
If you already feel confident about these chapters, why not try the Quiz over the page?
123
Practice Questions
1. What is the value of X in the following equation? Cr 2O72− + 14H+ + Xe−  2Cr3+ +
7H2O
2. What is the oxidation number of iron in Fe2O3?
3. What is the oxidation number of manganese in each of the following species?

(i) MnCl2
(ii) MnO2
(iii) MnO4−
4. What is the oxidation number of phosphorus and the IUPAC name of the
compounds below?
(i) NaH2PO4
(ii) H3PO3
(iii) H3PO4
5. What is the change in the oxidation number of I in the reaction below?

5I−(aq) + 6H+(aq) + IO3−(aq)  3I2(g) + 3H2O(l)
6. Given that
Na+(aq) + e− ⇌ Na(s) Eo = − 2.71V
Ag+(aq) + e− ⇌ Ag(s) Eo = + 0.80V
Calculate the emf of the cell below
124
1. What is a Redox Reaction

Redox reaction is a reaction in which oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously.
Oxidation and reduction are defined in the table below.
Basis for Definition Oxidation Reduction

1. Oxygen It is the addition of oxygen It is the removal of oxygen
2. Hydrogen It is the removal of hydrogen It is the addition of hydrogen
3. Electron Loss of electron Gain of electron
4. Oxidation number Increase in oxidation number Decrease in oxidation number
5. Electropositivity and Addition of an Removal of an
electronegativity electronegative element and electronegative element and
removal of an electropositive addition of electropositive
element element
2. Determination of oxidation number of element

What is oxidation number: Oxidation number of an element is the electrical charge
which the element has or appear to have as determined by a set of arbitrary rules.
Rules for determining Oxidation Number (ON)

Rule 1: The oxidation number of any free element i.e. an uncombined element is zero (0).
For example
Hydrogen (H2) is a free element because it is not combined with any other
element.
The oxidation number of H2 = 0
Rule 2: The oxidation number of a simple ion is the same as the charge of the ion.
For example
Sodium ion [Na+1]
The charge of the ion of sodium is +1
The oxidation number of Na+1 = +1
Rule 3: The oxidation number of oxygen in most compound is −2 e.g. H 2O, H2SO4 except
in peroxide and super oxides.
In peroxide,
The oxidation number of oxygen = −1
E.g. H2O2, Na2O2, CaO2
In super oxides
The oxidation number of oxygen = − ½
Rule 4: The oxidation number of hydrogen in most compounds is +1 except in binary

hydrides where H is −1. Example of binary hydride are LiH, CaH2 etc.
Rule 5: The oxidation number of fluorine in all compounds is −1.
Rule 6: The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all elements in a compound is zero
(0).
For example
125
This is a compound H2SO4

The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all elements in a compound is zero
(0).
 H2SO4 = 0
It applies to all compounds.
Rule 7: The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all elements in a radical is equal to
the charge of the radical.
For example
NO3−1 is a radical [Nitrate radical]
Oxidation number = −1
SO42− is a radical [Sulphate radical]
CO32− is a radical [Carbonate radical]

1) What is the oxidation number of Sulphur in the following species?
(i) SO2 (iv) H2SO4 (vii) SO42−
(ii) SO3 (v) H2S2O7 (viii) H2S
(iii) S8 (vi) S 2−
(i) SO2
S + 2(0) = 0 Apply rule 6
S + 2 (−2) = 0 Apply rule 3
S + (−4) = 0
S–4=0
S=0+4
S=+4
The oxidation number (ON) of sulphur in SO2 = +4
(ii) SO3
S + 3(0) = 0 Apply rule 6
S + 3 (−2) = 0 Apply rule 3
S + (−6) = 0
S–6=0
S=0+6
S=+6
The oxidation number (ON) of sulphur in SO3 = +6
(iii) S8
The oxidation number of Sulphur in S8 = zero (0).
Recall rule number 1
(iv) H2SO4
2(H) + S + 4(0) = 0 Apply rule 6
2(+1) + S + 4 (0) = 0 Apply rule 4
2(+1) + S + 4 (−2) = 0 Apply rule 3
126
+2 + S + (−8) = 0
+2 + S – 8 = 0
S=0+8–2
S=+8–2
S=+6
The oxidation number (ON) of sulphur in H2SO4 is +6.
(v) H2S2O7
2(H) + 2(S) + 7(0) = 0 Apply rule 6
2(+1) + 2S + 7(0) = 0 Apply rule 4
2(+1) + 2S + 7(−2) = 0 Apply rule 3
+2 + 2S + (–14) = 0
+2 +2S – 14 = 0
2S = + 14 – 2
2S = + 12
Divide both side by 2
2 S +12
=
2 2
The oxidation number (ON) of sulphur in H2SO4 is +6.
(vi) S2−
The charge of the ion of sulphur is −2
The oxidation number of S in S2− = −2 Applu rule 2
(vii) SO42−
S + 4(0) = −2 Apply rule 7
S + 4(−2) = −2
S + (−8) = − 2
S–8=−2
S = −2 + 8
S=+6
The oxidation number of Sulphur in SO42− is +6.
(viii) H2S
2(H) + S = 0 Apply rule 6
2(+1) + S = 0 Apply rule 4
+2 + S = 0
S=0–2
S=−2
The oxidation number of sulphur in H2S is −2
3. Calculations involving change in oxidation number during a redox reaction

To solve question on this aspect, the formula below should be followed
Change in oxidation number = Oxidation number on product side – Oxidation number
on reactant side
Solve Question with Detailed Explanations

127
1) MnO4−(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq)  Mn2+(aq) +5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

What is the change in the oxidation number of Mn in the following reaction?
Soln
(a) Oxidation number of Mn in reactant side
MnO4− = −1 Apply rule 7
Mn + 4(0) = −1
Mn + 4 (−2) = −1 Apply rule 6
Mn + (−8) = −1
Mn – 8 = −1
Mn = −1 + 8
Mn = +7
(b) Oxidation number of Mn in product side

Mn2+
The charge of the ion of manganese (Mn) is +2.
The oxidation number of Mn in Mn2+ = +2 Apply rule 2.
From the formula above
Change in oxidation number = +2 – (+7)
Change in oxidation number = +2 – 7 = – 5
Note this below

A change in oxidation number value of – 5 indicate that 5 electrons are gain per the atom
while a change in oxidation number value of +5 indicate that 5 electrons are lost per the
atom.
 When the change in oxidation number value is negative, REDUCTION has
occurred.
 When the change in oxidation number value is positive, OXIDATION has
occurred.
4. Calculating the EMF of a cell

To calculate the EMF of a cell, a formula must be noted
Eo cell = Electrode potential of cathode – electrode potential of anode
Eo cell = E cathode – E anode
Where Eo cell = Electromotive force of a cell
E cathode = Electode potential of cathode
E anode = Electrode potential of anode
QUICK NOTE
An electrode potential is a measure of the tendency of an atom of the element of the
electrode to undergo oxidation and reduction.

If the standard electrode potential of Zinc and Copper are – 0.763V and –0.34V
respectively, calculate the electromotive force of the cell (Eo cell).
128
Soln
Formula to apply
Eo cell = E cathode – E anode
Parameter provided
E cathode = +0.34V
E anode = – 0.763V
Eo cell = +0.34V – (– 0.763V)
Eo cell = +0.34V + 0.763V
Eo cell = +1.1V
5. Balancing Redox Equation

In this aspect, 2 methods are available to balance a redox reaction.
 Half equation/Half-cell method
 Oxidation number method
Emphasis will be laid on half-reaction method.
Steps to follow
Step 1: Write down the oxidation and reduction half equation
To each half equation
Step 2: Balance the atom whose oxidation number changed in the reaction by adding
appropriate co-efficient.
Step 3: Balance oxygen atom by adding appropriate number of H 2O to the side deficient
in oxygen atoms.
Step 4: Balance hydrogen atom by adding appropriate number of H + to the side deficient
in hydrogen atom.
Step 5: If the reaction occurred in basic medium, add appropriate number of OH − to both
sides to neutralize the H+.
Step 6: Balance the charge by adding appropriate number of electrons to the side with the
greater overall charge.
Step 7: Equalize electrons by carrying out reciprocal multiplication on both equation i.e.
use the number of electron in the oxidation half equation to multiply through the
reduction half-equation and vice-versa.
Step 8: Combine the 2-half equation.
Step 9: Eliminate electron, H2O or H+ where necessary.
Step 10: Inspect to see if the equation is balanced atomically and electrically.

1) Write the balanced ionic equation for the reaction of Cr 2O72− and SO2 to give Cr3+ and
SO42− in acidic medium.
Soln
Cr2O72− + SO2  Cr3+ + SO42−
Step 1: Write both half equation
Reduction half equation Oxidation half equation
Cr2O72−  Cr3+ SO2  SO42−
129
Step 2: (Balance chromium atom) Step 2: (Not necessary)

Cr2O7  2Cr
2− 3+
SO2  SO42−
Step 3: (Balance oxygen atom) Step 3:
Cr2O7  2Cr + 7H2O
2− 3+
SO2 + 2H2O  SO42−
Step 4: (Balance hydrogen atoms) Step 4:
Cr2O7 + 14H  2Cr + 7H2O
2− + 3+
SO2 + 2H2O  SO42− + 4H+
Step 5: Not necessary Step 5: Not necessary
Step 6: Balance the charges Step 6:
Cr2O7 + 14H  2Cr + 7H2O
2− + 3+
SO2 + 2H2O  SO42− + 4H+
Total − 2 14(+1)  2(+3) 0 0 0  −2 4(+1)
Charge
+12 +6 0 +2
 
Cr2O72− + 14H+ + 6e−  2Cr3+ + 7H2O SO2 + 2H2O  SO42− + 4H+ + 2e−
Step 7: Equalize electrons Step 7:
[Cr2O7 + 14H + 6e  2Cr + 7H2O]  2
2− + − 3+ [SO2 + 2H2O  SO42− + 4H+ + 2e−]  6
2Cr2O72− + 28H+ + 12e−  4Cr3+ + 14H2O 6SO2 + 12H2O  6SO42− + 24H+ + 12e−
Step 8: (Combine both equation)
2Cr2O7 2− + 28H+ + 12e− + 6SO2 + 12H2O  4Cr3+ + 14H2O + 6SO4 2− + 24H+ + 12e−
Step 9: Eliminate electrons, H2O and H+ where necessary
(a) Remove electrons
2Cr2O7 2− + 28H+ + 6SO2 + 12H2O  4Cr3+ + 14H2O + 6SO4 2− + 24H+
(b) Remove 24H+ from both side
2Cr2O7 2− + 4H+ + 6SO2 + 12H2O  4Cr3+ + 14H2O + 6SO4 2−
(c) Remove 12H2O from both side
2Cr2O7 2− + 4H+ + 6SO2  4Cr3+ + 2H2O + 6SO4 2−
(d) Divide through by 2 because all the coefficient are divisible by two
Cr2O7 2− + 2H+ + 3SO2  2Cr3+ + H2O + 3SO4 2−
Step 10: It is balanced atomically and electrically.
130
Chapter 12
Quantitative Aspect (Calculation) of Solubility
Learning Outcome
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to

 Understand the concept of solubility.
 Understand properly the units in which solubility can be expressed.
 Solve question on solubility calculations dealing with two set of temperature.
 Solve questions on solubility in mol/dm3 and solubility product.
 Solve questions on solubility in mol/dm3 and common ion effect.
 Calculate question involving water of crystallization.
131
Practice Questions
1. The solubility in mole per dm3 of 20.2g of potassium trioxonitrate (V) dissolved in
100gm3 of water at room temperature is ________.
2. What volume of 0.20mol/dm3 NaOH solution would yield 5g of NaOH on

evaporation to dryness?
3. 3.06g of a sample of potassium trioxochloriate (V) KClO 3 was required to make a

saturated solution with 10cm3 of water at 25oC. The solubility in g/dm3 of the salt
is ______.
4. On recrystallization, 20g of magnesium tetraoxosulphate (VI) forms 41g of

magnesium tetraoxosulphate (VI) crystals, MgSO4 . X H2O. What is the value of X?
5. Some Copper (II) Sulphate pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O) crystal were heated at

120oC with the following results.
Weight of crucible 10.00g
Weight of crucible + CuSO4.5H2O 14.98g
Weight of crucible + Residue 13.54g
How many molecule of crystallization were lost?
6. On evaporation to dryness, 350cm3 of a saturated solution of salt Z gave 55.5g of

salt. What is the solubility of salt?
132
1. Solubility
What is Solubility: The solubility of a solute in a solvent at a particular temperature is
the maximum amount of solute that will saturate 1000cm3 of the solution at that
temperature.
Now, when it comes to calculations on solubility, there are some CASES question that
can be asked. There are various units solubility that can be expressed.
(i) mol/dm3
(ii) g/dm3
(iii) g/100g of water
CASE 1: Calculating solubility in mol/dm3

N.B: mol/dm3 is pronounced mole per dm3
When solving questions on this aspect, a formula is applied which is based on two
aspect.
Aspect 1 (Volume in dm3)

Mass
3
Solubility in mol/dm3 = Molar mass × Volume (dm )
Now you can see that the volume is in (dm3), so when using this formula particularly in
this aspect, volume should be in dm3.
Aspect 2 (Volume in cm3)

Mass × 1000
3
Solubility in mol/ dm3 = Molar mass × Volume (cm )
Now you can see that the volume in this aspect is in cm 3 so when using the formula 1000
should be added to the formula.

1) 3.06g of a sample of potassium trioxochlorate (V) (KClO 3) was required to make a
saturated solution with 10cm3 of water at 25oC. The solubility of the salt at 25oC in
mol/ dm3 is [K = 39, Cl = 35.5, O = 16].
Soln
The question asked for us to determine the solubility in mol/ dm 3 of the
compound and the volume in the question is in cm3.
Formula to Apply (CASE 1: Aspect 2)

Solubility in mol/dm3 =
Parameters provided
Mass = 3.06g
Molar mass = KClO3
39 + 35.5 + 16  3 = 122.5g/mol
Volume = 10cm3
Solubility in mol/dm3 = ?
133
3 .06g × 1000
3
Solubility in mol/dm3 = 122 .5g/mol × 10cm
Solubility in mol/dm3 = 2.5mol/ dm3
2) 117.0g of NaCl was dissolved in 1.0 dm 3 of distilled water at 25oC. Determine the
solubility in mol/ dm3 of NaCl at that temperature Na = 23, Cl = 35.5.
Soln
The question asked for us to determine the solubility in mol/dm3 of the salt and
the volume in the question is in dm3.
Formula to apply (CASE 1: Aspect 1)

Mass
3
Solubility in mol/dm3 = Molar mass × Volume (dm )
Parameter provided
Mass = 117.0g
Molar mass = NaCl
23 + 35.5 = 58.5g/mol
Volume = 1.0dm3
117. 0g
3
Solubility in mol/dm3 = 58 .5g/mol × 1dm
Solubility in mol/dm3 = 2mol/dm3
3) What volume of 0.20mol/dm3 NaOH solution would yield 5.0g of NaOH on

evaporation to dryness? [NaOH =40g/mol]
Soln
Parameter provided
Mass = 5g
Volume = ?
Solubility in mol/ dm3 = 0.20mol/ dm3
Mass × 1000
3
Recall; solubility in mol/dm3 = Molar mass × Volume (cm )
Mass × 1000
3
Volume = Solubility ( mol/dm ) × Molar mass
5g × 1000
3
Volume = 0 .20 mol/dm × 40g/mol
Volume = 625cm3
134
N.B: For example, the volume in the question was stated to be in dm 3, we simply
convert
1000cm3 = 1dm3
625cm3 = xdm3
Cross multiply
1000cm3 = 1dm3
625cm3 = xdm3
Make xdm3 subject
625cm 3 × 1dm 3
3
xdm3 = 1000cm
xdm3 = 0.625dm3
4) 24g of CuSO4 dissolves in 500g of water to form a saturated solution at 66 oC.

Calculate the solubility of CuSO4 at 66oC in mol/dm3 [Cu = 64, S = 32, O = 16]
Density of water = 1g/cm3
Soln
For questions like this, volume is not directly given, before we go ahead and
apply the formula to be used. Let us quickly solve for volume.
In the question, a phrase was mentioned “500g of water”
500g of water will convert to volume
Recall; Density of water = 1g/cm3
Density Mass
=
1 Volume
Making volume of subject of formula
Mass
Volume = Density
500g
3
Volume = 1g/cm = 500cm3
Quick note: If mass of water = 300g, it is still same as 300cm 3 because density of water is
1g/cm3.
Parameter provided
Mass = 24g
Molar mass = CuSO4
64 + 32 + 16  4 = 160g/mol
Volume = 500cm3
You can see that the volume will be calculated was in cm 3 so we simply apply CASE 1
(Aspect 2) formula.
Mass × 1000
3
Solubility in mol/dm3 = Molar mass × Volume (cm )
24g × 1000
3
Solubility in mol/dm3 = 160g/mol × 500cm
135
Solubility in mol/dm3 = 0.30mol/dm3
CASE 2: Calculating solubility in g/dm3

N.B: g/dm3 is pronounced grams per dm3
When solving questions on this aspect a formula is applied.
Before I give you the formula, it must be noted that to get the formula for solving
questions on solubility in g/dm3, we simply remove “molar mass” in the formula for
solving solubility in mol/dm3.
This is what I mean.

Mass
3
Solubility in mol/dm3 (volume is in dm3) = Molar mass × Volume (dm )
Simply remove “molar mass” in the formula above to get the formula for solving
solubility in g/dm3.
Aspect 1: (Volume is in dm3)

Mass
3
Solubility in g/dm3 = Volume (dm )
Aspect 2: (Volume is in cm3)
Mass × 1000
3
Solubility in g/dm3 = Volume (cm )
N.B: When you are solving questions on solubility pay good attention to the unit to
which it must be as stated by the question if its solubility in mol/dm3 or g/dm3.

1) A saturated solution of Na2CO3 contained 60g of Na2CO3 in 500cm3 of water.
Express the solubility in g/dm3 [Na = 23, C = 12, O = 16]
Soln
To solve question on this aspect, remember the formula and you can see that the
volume in the question is in cm3.
Formula to Apply [CASE 2 Aspect 2]

Mass × 1000
3
Solubility in g/dm3 = Volume (cm )
Recall; we said, when solving question on the solubility in g/dm 3 “molar mass” is
not included.
Parameter provided
Mass = 60g
Volume = 500cm3
60g × 1000
3
Solubility in g/dm3 = 500cm = 120g/dm3
136
CASE 3: Calculating solubility in g/100g

1) A saturated solution of Na2CO3 contained 60g of Na2CO3 dissolved in 500cm3 of
water at 40oC.
Soln
From the above question
60g of Na2CO3 dissolves in 500cm3 in water
From explanation earlier in CASE 1 [Question 4]
500cm3 of water = 500g of water [Density = 1g/cm3]
60g of Na2CO3 = 500g of water
xg of Na2CO3 = 100g of water
60g × 100g
xg of Na2CO3 = 500g = 12g
 The solubility in g/100g of water is 12g/100g of water.
2) Solubility calculations dealing with two set of temperature
1. The measured solubility of Na2SO4 at 78oC and 50oC are 3.26mol/dm3 and
1.25mol/dm3 respectively. A student cooled 500cm3 of a saturated solution of
Na2SO4 from 70oC to 50oC, as instructed by his chemistry teacher. What mass of
Na2SO4 will crystallize out of the solution?
Soln
This question deals with two temperatures
First at 78oC
Parameters provided
Molar mass of Na2SO4
23  2 + 32 + 16  4 = 142g/mol
Volume = 500cm3
Mass = x
Let us determine the mass of Na2SO4 from this parameters above.
Mass × 1000
3
Solubility in mol/dm 3 × Molar Mass × Volume (cm3 )
Mass = 1000
3.62 × 142 × 500
Mass = 1000
Mass = 231.46g of Na2SO4 at 78oC
At 50oC
Parameter provided
Molar mass of Na2SO4 = 142g/mol
137
Volume = 500cm3
Mass = x
Mass × 1000
3
Mass = 1000
1.25 × 142 × 500
Mass = 1000
Mass = 88.75g of Na2SO4 at 50oC
To get the mass of Na2SO4 that will crystallize out both temperature, we simply
subtract the smaller mass gotten at 50 oC from the larger mass gotten at 78 oC mass
of Na2SO4 that will crystallize out = Mass of Na 2SO4 gotten at 78oC – Mass of
Na2SO4 gotten at 50oC.
Mass of Na2SO4 that will crystallize out = 231.46g – 88.75g

Mass of Na2SO4 that will crystallize out = 142.71g
Alternatively,
We can subtract the smaller solubility in mol/dm 3 from the large one to get a
single value.
Solubility in mol/dm3 of Na2SO4 at 78oC – Solubility in mol/dm3 of Na2SO4 at

50oC
3.26 mol/dm3 – 1.25g/mol = 2.01 mol/dm3
The solubility in mol/dm3 of Na2SO4 at both temperature is 2.01 mol/dm3.

We can now go ahead and solve the mass of Na2SO4 that will crystallize out.
From the formula above
Mass = 1000
Parameter provided
Molar mass of Na2SO4 = 142g/mol
2.01 × 142 × 500
Mass = 1000
Mass = 142.7g
The mass above is the mass that will crystallize out.
You can see from both methods we got some answer.
138
3) Calculations involving solubility in mol/dm3 and solubility product.

In the cause of studying this aspect, some point must be noted.
Solubility in mol/dm3 and solubility product are denoted with symbols.
What is Solubility Product?

This aspect of solubility describes salt that are insoluble in water or do not
completely dissociate in water.
Solubility in mol/dm3 is denoted with x

Solubility product is denoted with KSP
Both notations has formulas that relates them based on the type of compound
based on ratios.
In this chapter, we are to learn the relationship between solubility in mol/dm 3
and solubility product based on four sets of compounds.
1:1 Compounds
1:2 Compounds
1:3 Compounds
2:3 Compounds
In this aspect, these compounds are salts.
Aspect 1: Obtaining the formula that relates solubility in mol/dm 3 (x) and solubility
product (KSP) for a 1:1 compound.
The compounds (salts) below are 1:1 compounds.
(a) AgCl
(b) AgBr
(c) BaSO4
(d) PbSO4
Let us use one of the aforementioned compounds to explain obtaining the formula that
relate solubility in mol/dm3 (x) and solubility product (KSP).
Let us consider AgCl: When this salt is dissociated we get
AgCl ⇌ Ag+1 + Cl−1

1 : 1
ksp = 1x . 1x
ksp = 1x1 . 1x1
ksp = [1x1]1 . [1x1]1
ksp = 1x1 . 1x1
where 1x1 = x1
ksp = x1 . x1
ksp = x2
x = √ KSP
where KSP = solubility product
139
x = solubility in mol/dm3
 For a 1:1 compound (salt) like AgCl and the other compounds mentioned above; The
formula that relate KSP and x is:
KSP = x2
When we are asked to calculate x which is solubility in gmol/dm3, we simply make x
subject of formula.
x = √ KSP
The compound (salt) below are 1:2 compound.

(a) CaF2
(b) PbCl2
Let us consider CaF2: When this salt is dissociated, we get
CaF2 ⇌ Ca2+ + 2F−

1 : 2
ksp = 1x . 2x
ksp = 1x1 . 2x1
ksp = [1x1]1 . [2x1]2
ksp = 1x1 . 4x2
where 1x1 = x1
ksp = x1 . 4x2
ksp = 4x3
x = √
3 KSP
4
 For a 1:2 compound like CaF2 and the other compounds mentioned above; the formula
that relate KSP and x is:
KSP = 4x3
When we are asked to calculate x which is solubility in mol/dm3, we simply make x
subject of formula.
140
x = √
3 KSP
4
The compound below are 1:3 compound.

(a) Al(OH)3
(b) Fe(OH)3
Let us consider Al(OH)3: When this compound is dissociated, we get
Al(OH)3 ⇌ Al3+ + 3OH−

1 : 3
ksp = 1x . 3x
ksp = 1x1 . 3x1
ksp = [1x1]1 . [3x1]3
ksp = 1x1 . 27x3
where 1x1 = x1
ksp = x1 . 4x2
ksp = 4x3
x = √
3 KSP
4
 For a 1:3 compound like Al(OH)3, the formula that relate KSP and x is:
KSP = 27x4
subject of formula.
x = √
4 KSP
27
Aspect 4: Obtaining the formula that relate solubility in mol/dm 3 (x) and solubility
The compound below is a 2:3 compound.

(a) Ca3(PO4)2
141
Let us use the compound above to explain obtaining the formula that relate solubility in
mol/dm3 (x) and solubility product (KSP).
Let us consider Ca3(PO4)2: When this compound is dissociated, we get

Ca3(PO4)2 ⇌ 3Ca2+ + 2PO43−
3 : 2
ksp = 3x . 2x
ksp = 3x1 . 2x1
ksp = [3x1]3 . [2x1]2
ksp = 27x3 . 4x2
ksp = 108x5
x = √
5 KSP
108
 For a 2:3 compound like Ca3(PO4)2, the formula relate KSP and x is:
KSP = 108x5
subject of formula.
x = √
5 KSP
108
Summarily:
When we are given solubility in mol/dm 3 (x) and asked to calculate solubility product
(KSP), we simply recall the formulas for all the aspects explained above.
For a
1:1; KSP = x2
1:2; KSP = 4x3
1:3; KSP = 27x4
2:3; KSP = 108x5
But when we are given solubility product (KSP) and asked to calculate solubility in
mol/dm3 (x). We simply recall the formula is explained above.
For a
1:1, x = √ KSP
1:2, x =
KSP
4 √
3
142
√
4 KSP
1:3, x = 27
√
5 KSP
2:3, x = 108

1) The measured solubility of AgCl (silver bromide) at 50oC is 1.342  10−5 mol/dm3.
Calculate the solubility product
Soln
AgCl ⇌ Ag+1 + C1− (It is a 1:1 compound)
1 : 1
Formula to apply ⇒ KSP = x2
Parameters provided
Measured solubility in mol/dm3 = 1.342  10−5 mol/dm3
Solubility product (KSP) = x
KSP = (1.342  10−5)2
KSP = 1.800964  10−10
2) Calculate the molar solubility of AgBr, if the KSP is 5  10−13
Soln
AgBr ⇌ Ag+1 + Br−1 (It is a 1:1 compound)
1 : 1
Formula to apply ⇒ KSP = x2
Parameters provided
Solubility product (KSP) = 5  10−13
Solubility in mol/dm3 = x
Making x subject of formula
x = √ KSP
x = 5  10−13 = 7.0711  10−7 mol/dm3
3) The solubility of PbCl2 (Lead (II) Chloride) is 0.0161981 mol/dm 3. What is the
solubility product?
Soln
PbCl2 ⇌ Pb2+ + 2Cl− (It is a 1:2 compound)
1 : 2
Formula to apply ⇒ KSP = 4x3
Parameters provided
Solubility in mol/dm3 = 0.0161981 mol/dm3
Solubility product (KSP) = ?
KSP = 4x3
KSP = 4(0.0161981)3
KSP = 1.7  10−5
143
4) Calculate the solubility in mol/dm3 of CaF2, if its solubility product is 3.9  10−11.
Soln
CaF2 ⇌ Ca2+ + 2F− (It is a 1:2 compound)
1 : 2
Parameters provided
Solubility product (KSP) = 3.9  10−11
Solubility in mol/dm3 = x
Making x subject of formula
x= √
3KSP
4
√
−11
3 3 .9 × 10
x= 4
x = 2.14  10−4 mol/dm3
5) The solubility of Al(OH)3 (Aluminium hydroxide) is 1.83  10−9 mol/dm3. What is

the solubility product?
Soln
Al(OH)3 ⇌ Al3+ + 3OH− [It is a 1:3 compound]
1 : 3
Parameters provided
Solubility in mol/dm3 = 1.83  10−9 mol/dm3
Solubility product = x
KSP = 27x4
KSP = 27(1.83  10−9)4
KSP = 3.028  10−34
4) Calculating solubility in mol/dm3 question common ion effect?
On this concept, when a salt is dissolved in a solution that already contains one of
the ions present in the salt at a particular temperature, the solubility of the salt
turns out to be lower than the solubility of the same salt in pure water at the same
temperature.
To understand this concept better, let us understand the quantitative aspect of it

(calculations).
This formula below must be noted
KSP of the salt

Solubility (mol/dm3) = Concentration of solvent

144
1. The KSP of AgCl is 2.0  10−10 mol/dm3 at 45oC. Calculate the solubility of AgCl
in 0.01 mol/dm3 solution of HCl.
Soln
Remember the formula:
KSP of the salt
Solubility (mol/dm3) = Concentration of solvent
Parameter provided
KSP of AgCl = 2.0  10−10
Concentration of solvent (HCl) = 0.01mol/dm3
2 .0 × 10−10
3
Solubility (mol/dm3) = 0 .01mol/dm
Solubility (mol/dm3) = 2.0  10−8 mol/dm3
5) Calculations involving water of crystallization
This aspect mainly concern efflorescent substance. When an efflorescent substance

is heated or exposed to the atmosphere for a period of time, it loses all or part of
its water of crystallization.
For better understanding of this aspect; There is a formula that must be noted.
Mo A [ Hm − Am ]
X = 18Am
Where X = Number of molecules of water of crystallization
MOA = Molar mass of anhydrous salt
Hm = Mass of hydrated salt
Am = Mass of anhydrous salt
Note: Hydrated salt is a salt with water
Anhydrous salt is a salt without water

1) 2.5g of an hydrated salt gave on heated 2.13g of anhydrous salt given that the
molar mass of the anhydrous salt is 208g/mol. Calculate the number of molecule
of the water of crystallization.
Soln
Parameter provided
Mass of hydrated salt = Hm = 2.5g
Mass of anhydrous salt = Am = 2.13g
Molar mass of anhydrous salt = MoA = 208g/mol
X=?
Formula Apply
145
Mo A [ Hm − Am ]
X = 18Am
208 [ 2.5 − 2.13]
X = 18 [ 2.13]
208 [ 0 .37 ]
X = 38 .34
76 . 96
X = 38 .34 = 2
146
Chapter 13
Nuclear Chemistry (Calculations in Radioactivity)
Learning Outcome
 Understand the basic concept of radioactivity.

 Solve calculations in balancing nuclear reaction.
 Solve calculations involving half life and decay constant relationship.
 Solve calculations involving fraction left and fraction lost.
 Solve calculations in radioactivity involving mass, amount, quantity, contrite,
given time and half life.
 Solve calculations involving mass deficit, binding energy and binding, energy per
nucleon.
If you already feel confident about these chapter, why not try the quiz over the page
147
Practice Questions
31
1. What is the mass defect in the formation of a nucleus of 15 P given that the mass of
a proton is 1.00073amu, while the mass of a neutron is 1.0087amu.
2. Given that a radioisotope has a decay constant of 2.3  10−3 year −1. Calculate its
half life.
272
3. A particle represented as 100 Z loses four particles and three beta particles. Its new
charges is
4. State the values of r and s in the following equation
1 r
2  1H + sT
5. A radioactive sample contains 50g of the element. Given that the half life of the
element is 15mins, calculate the amount of the sample that will remain after
25days.
6. Copy and balance the following equation and thus identify A, B, C, D
238 234
(i) 92 U  90 Th + A
226 222
(ii) 88 Ra  Rn + B
86
214 214
(iii) 82 Pb  83 Bi + C
6 3 4
(iv) 3 Li + D  1 H + 2 He
7. The half of an element X is 5 days. If 5g of X is initially present that will be the
mass of X after
(i) 5 days
(ii) 20 days
(iii) 35 days
(iv) 40 days
148
1. Radioactivity
What is Radioactivity: This is the spontaneous emission of radiations from the nucleus
of an element.
N.B: Not all elements emits radiations spontaneously. An element which emit radiation
spontaneously is called a RADIOACTIVE ELEMENT.
For an element to be radioactive or non-radioactive, a ratio must be known it is called the

neutron-proton ration (n/p).
Neutron-proton ratio is given with a symbol (n/p). This ratio is also called the stability
ratio of a nucleus.
Element
n/p = Less than 1 or greater than 1.5 n/p = between 1 and 1.5
Nucleus = unstable Nucleus = stable
[Radioactive element] [Non-radioactive element]
It means that unstability of the nucleus of an element/atom brings about radioactivity to

be precised NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY.
But if the radioactivity occur when a stable nucleus is bombarded with neutron and this
process creating an unstable nucleus (radionuclide) such unstable nuclei created by
bombardment with neutron emits radiations. This type of radioactivity is called
Artificially Radioactivity which may also be called Nuclear Transmutation.
Diagram below to explain the above statement
Non-radioactive substance bombardment Radioactive substance
As we proceed through this aspect, we will learn the calculations aspect of radioactivity.
But before we start proper, let us be familiar with this radiation and their
symbols/identity.
Radiations are of two types basically.

1) Major radiations
 Alpha radiations (rays)
 Beta radiation (rays)
 Gamma radiation (rays)
2) Minor radiations
 Position (positive electron)
 Negation (negative-electrons)
 Neutrons
 Protons
149
Symbols of the radiation above

4
1) Alpha rays ( 2 He )
0
2) Beta rays (−1 β )
0
3) Gamma rays (0 γ )
0
4) Positron (positive electron) (+1 e )
0
5) Negatron (Negative electron) (−1 e )
1
6) Neutron (0 n )
1
7) Proton (1 P )
Let us proceed to the quantitative aspect of this topic, it will be discussed in 5 cases.
CASE 1: Calculations involved in balancing nuclear reaction [Equation]

What is a Nuclear Reaction?
A nuclear reaction is defined as a process in which a nucleus undergoes change in its
neutron and/or proton composition.
A
As we proceed more in this case, we will see nuclear species in the form of B U
A
This nuclear species ( B U ) is called a nuclide.
A
B U
Where A = (superscript) = mass number or atomic number or nucleon number
It must be noted that (A) or superscript is the formed from the addition of number of
proton and number of neutrons.
B = (subscript) = Atomic number of product

To balance a nuclear equation, we must ensure that
 The sum of mass number (superscript) on the product side is equal to the sum of
mass number on the reactant side.
 The sum of atomic number (subscript) on the product side is equal to the sum of
atomic number on the reactant side.

235 231
1) Write a balance equation for the disintegration of 92 U to give 90 Th
Soln
235 231
92 U  90 Th
Looking at this equation above it is not balance we have to try and balance it.
To do this, simply add the specified radiation to the side deficient of values. In
4
this question, we need to add the alpha ray ( 2 He ) to the side of Th (Thorium).
150
235 231 4
92 U  90 Th + 2 He
CASE 2: Calculations involving half life and decay constant relationship

In this aspect, we shall relate two quantity which are half life and decay constant.
Half life: Is the time it takes for half of the total number of atoms in a given sample of an
element to decay.
N.B: Elements with long half life are more stable than those with short half life.
Half life is given with a symbol (t ½)
Decay constant is given with a symbol ()
Mathematically both parameters are given with a formula which is
0 .693
t½= λ
where t ½ = half life
 = decay constant
The S.I units of both parameters (half life and decay constant)
Half life can be measured in various time metrics seconds, minutes, hours, day, weeks,
months, years dependent on the question been asked.
To get the S.I unit of decay constant, it is a function of half life S.I unit.
If half life in a question in a particular questions is in seconds (sec), the S.I. unit of decay
1
constant will be per seconds (sec−1 or sec ).
This will be explained properly with the table below.
Parameter
Half life (t½) Seconds Minutes Hour Day Week Month Year
Decay 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
constant seconds minutes hour or day or week or month year or
or or hour−1 day−1 week−1 or year−1
second−1 minute−1 month−1
Pronounced per per per per day per week per per year
as seconds minutes hours month
Quick note
Natural radioactivity was discovered by a man called Henri Antone Becquerel.
 The unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq).
 When the rate of Radioactivity is studied that brings about ACTIVITY.
 Activity is the rate of Radioactivity.
 The unit of activity is Curne (Ci).
 Radioactivity can also be measured in disintegration per seconds (dps).
Quick conversion
1dps = 1Bq
1G = 3.7  1010 dps
151
Note: Activity and radioactivity are different.

1) The half life of a nuclide is given as 64 hours. Determine decay constant
Soln
Remember the formula
0 .693
t½ = λ
Parameters provided
Half life (t ½) = 64 hours (hr)
Decay constant () = ?
Let us make decay constant subject of formula
0 .693
t 12
=
0 .693
 = 64hr = 0.01083hr−1
Pronounced as = 0.01083 per hours
You can see that because the half life S.I unit in the question was in hour,
definitely, the decay constant S.I unit will be hour−1 (per hours) as seen in the
solution above.
2) The half life of a radionuclide was determined to be 4 years. Determine its decay
constant in per weeks.
Soln
0 .693
t½= λ
Parameters provided
Half life (t ½) = 4 years
Decay () = P (specified to be in per weeks)
First we need to convert the half life from years to weeks so as to get the correct
answer of the day constant in per weeks as stated by the question.
Conversion factor
1 year = 52 weeks
4 years = x weeks
4 years × 52 weeks
x = 1 week = 208 weeks
We can now proceed to solve the question
t ½ = 0.793
=?
152
Making decay constant subject of formula

0 .693
t 12
=
0 .693
 = 208 = 0.003332weeks−1
CASE 3: Calculations involving fraction lost and fraction left
In this aspect, there is a relationship that must be noted.

Fraction left + Fraction lost = 1
Both fraction left and fraction lost have their respective formulas.
t0
() ()
n
1 1 t1 2
=
Fraction left = 2 2
t0
1
Where n = t 2
Where t0 = given time
t½ = half life
t0
() ()
n
1 1 t 12
=1−
Fraction lost = 1 − 2 2
Quick Note: Both of the parameters above are time (they should be in the same S.I unit)
before you can solve a particular question.

1) The half life of a radioisotope is 6 weeks; if there are 512g of the radio isotope of a
given time, determine the fraction of it that would be left and lost after 12 weeks.
Soln
Parameters provided
Half life (t½ ) = 6 weeks
Given time (t0) = 12 weeks
()
n
1
(a) Fraction left = 2
t0
1
Fraction left = 2
() t 12
()
12
1 6
Fraction left = 2
1
Fraction left = 4
153
()
n
1
(b) Fraction lost = 1 − 2
t0
1
Fraction lost = 1 − 2
() t 12
()
12
1 6
3
Fraction lost = 4
N.B: Addition of fraction left and fraction lost must be equal to 1.
Fraction left + Fraction lost = 1
1 3
+ =1
4 4
2) The half life of a radioisotope is 12 weeks. If there are 512g of the radioisotope at a
given time, determine the fraction of it that would be left and lost after 6 months.
Soln
Parameters provided
Half life (t ½) = 12 weeks
Decay constant = 6 months
Remember, I said that both parameters above must be in the same S.I. unit.
Let us convert 6 months to weeks

1 months = 4 weeks
6 months = x weeks
4 weeks × 6 months
x weeks = 1 month
x weeks = 24 weeks
Now, both parameters are in same unit we can now solve.
Half life (t½) = 12 weeks
Decay constant = 24 weeks
()
n
1
(a) Fraction left = 2
t0
1
Fraction left = 2
() t 12
()
24
1 6
Fraction left = 2
1
Fraction left = 16
154
()
n
1
(b) Fraction lost = 1 − 2
t0
1
() t 12
()
24
1 6
15
Fraction lost = 16
N.B: Addition of fraction left and fraction lost must be equal to 1.
 Fraction left + Fraction lost = 1
1 15
+ =1
16 16
CASE 4: General calculations in radioactivity involving mass, amount, quantity, count
rate, given time and half life.
In this aspect to solve questions, a formula must be noted.

Ni
=2n
Nf
Where
Ni = initial mass, initial amount, initial quantity, initial count rate
Nf = final mass, final amount, initial quantity, initial count rate
Remember,
t0
1
Where n = t 2
t0 = given time
t½ = half life
t0
t0
Ni t 1
t 1 =2 2
Input n = 2 into the formula, it becomes Nf

So this formula above must be memorized.

1) The half life of Thorium 234Th is put theoretically at 26 hours. Calculate the mass of
Thorium that will be left after a 64 hour period given that there are 200g at the
start.
Soln
Formula to apply
t0
Ni t1
=2 2
Nf
Parameters provided
Ni = 200g
155
Nf = Mass of Thorium that will be left (final mass)

to = 64 hours
t½ = 26 hours
64
200g
=226
Nf [ 64
26
=2 . 46 ]
200g 2 . 46
=2
Nf
There are two ways I can simplify this above expression and get the value of Nf.
Aspect 1: Incase we were authorized to use a calculation in the examination hall, we

simply proceed by pressing 2 raise to the power 2.46 in the calculation are we get 5.5022.
200g 5 .5022
=
Nf 1
200 g × 1
Nf = 5 .5022 = 36.35g
Aspect 2: In some other examination cases when a proper scientific calculation is not
provided.
200g 2 . 46
=2
Nf
Steps to simplify the above expression
Step 1: Take log of both side [This is advisable when n is not a whole number, in this case
n = 2.46 and you do not have access to a calculator].
So by applying step 1, we have
200g
= Log 22 . 46
Log Nf
Step 2: From the rules of logarithm
Loga n = n Log a
Log2 2.46 = 2.46 Log 2
Inputing 2.46 Log 2 into the formula, we have
200g
=
Log Nf 2.46 Log 2
Log 2 = 0.301 [This value should not be forgotten]
200g
=
Log Nf 2.46  0.3010
200g
=
Log Nf 0.74046
Step 3: Take Antilog
200g
To apply this step, the log attached to Nf will move to the other side of the equation
and it then change to antilog (Log−1).
This is the equation before applying Step 3.
156
200g
=
Log Nf 0.7406
200g
=
Applying Step 3: Nf Log−1 [0.74046]
 Log−1 [0.74046] = 5.5012325
200g 5 .5012325
=
Nf 1
200 g × 1
Nf = 5 .5012325 = 36.36g
CASE 5: Calculations involving mass defect, binding energy and binding energy per
nucleon.
As we proceed into this aspect, we will learn all the concepts step by step.
In this CASE, three parameters have been mentioned.
 Mass defect
 Binding energy
 Binding energy per nucleon
MASS DEFECT (Calculation Aspect)

When solving questions on regarding mass defect, there are two types of mass defect
that must be noted.
(a) Actual mass defect
(b) Calculated mass defect
N.B: Actual mass defect is always given in questions so our task is to solve for the
calculated mass defect.
How to solve for calculated mass defect?

Follow the procedures
Let us assume this is atom
A
Where X is called an atom/nuclide

A = Mass number or atomic mass or nucleon number
In this CASE, the atom is without a charge so it is a neutral atom.
FOR A NEUTRAL ATOM/NUCLIDE

(a) Proton number is same as atomic number = Z
(b) Electron number is same as proton number = Z
(c) Neutron number is calculated by mass umber – atomic number
157
Neutron number = A – Z
Note: When solving questions on this (CASE) electron number is not needed, we are to
focus on just proton and neutron number.
Remember, we are to learn how to solve for calculated mass defect.

In this question which is to be solved soon, proton mass and neutron mass will be given
[They are constant]. Do not forget this!!!
Proton mass and neutron mass is not same as proton number and neutron umber. They
are different words.
The way the question will be asked

 Calculate the change in mass defect (m)
Change in mass defect (m) = Calculated mass defect – Actual mass defect
A
Z
To get calculated mass defect
Proton mass  Proton number = [a value in amu]
Neutron mass  Neutron number = [a value in amu]
Calculated mass defect  Both values will be added together
N.B: Calculated mass defect is always higher than actual mass defect.
Let us solve a question to explain what I just said.

4
Given that the actual mass defect of 2 He is 4.0026amu. Calculate the following:
(a) Change in mass defect
(b) Binding energy
(c) Binding energy per nucleon
[Proton mass = 1.0078 amu, neutron mass = 1.0087 amu]
Soln
(a) Change in mass defect (m)
m = Calculated mass defect – Actual mass defect
Parameter provided
Actual mass defect = 4.0026 amu
TASK: Let us solve for calculated mass deficit

4
Step 1: Determine the proton and neutron number of 2 He (Helium atom)
4
2 He
Proton number = 2
158

Mass number = 4
Atomic number = 2
Neutron number = 4 – 2 = 2
Step 2: Multiply the proton mass and neutron mass with their respective proton and
neutron number calculated above.
Proton mass  Proton number

1.0078 amu  2 = 2.0156 amu
Neutron mass  Neutron number
1.0087 amu  2 = 2.0174 amu
 1.0078 amu  2 = 2.0156 amu

1.0087 amu  2 = 2.0174 amu
Calculated mass defect  4.0330 amu
This value just gotten is the calculated mass defect. Now let us solve for (a).
(a) Change in mass defect (m)

 m = Calculated mass defect – Actual mass defect
Parameter provided
Calculated mass defect = 4.0330 amu
Actual mass defect = 4.0026 amu
m = 4.0330 amu – 4.0026 amu
m = 0.0304 amu
(b) Let us solve for the binding energy

N.B: Binding energy = mc2
Where m = change in mass defect
c = speed of light = 3  108 m/s
Note this below!!!
Before we input the values of change in mass defect (m) into the formula for
solving binding energy.
The value of m which is 0.0304 amu should be converted to kg.

How to convert atomic mass unit (amu) to kilogram (kg).
Conversion factor
6.22  1026 amu = 1kg
0.0304 amu = x kg
0 .0304 amu × 1kg
26
x kg = 6 . 022 × 10 amu
x kg = 5.0482  10−29 kg
We can now input the value of m in kg to the binding energy formula.
159
Binding energy = mc2

Parameters provided
m = 5.0482  10−29 kg [This value should be in kg]
c = 3  108m/s
Binding energy = mc2

Binding energy = 5.0482  10−29kg  (3  108)2
Binding energy = 4.54  10−12 Joules
4
This is the binding energy for Helium atom (2 He)
(c) Let us solve for binding per nucleon

Formula to apply:
Binding energy
Binding energy per Nucleon = Nucleon


Divide
4
Recall; The atom in the question is 2 He
The atomic mass or mass number or nucleon number is 4 while the atomic
number is 2.
Nucleon number = 4
Binding energy = 4.54  10−12 Joules
4 . 54×10−12
Binding energy per Nucleon = 4
Binding energy per Nucleon = 1.135  10−12
160
Chapter 14
Chemical Energetics
Learning Outcome
 Understand the concept of states function (which are enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs
energy) that determines if a reaction will be spontaneous or not.
If you already feel confident about these chapter, why not try the quiz over the page.
161
Practice Questions
1. If the entropy change for the reaction below at 25 oC is 11.8kJmol−1, calculate the
Gibb’s energy, G for the reaction at 25oC.
½ N2 HeO2(g) ⇌ NO2(g) Ho = 89kJmol−1
2. State 1st and 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics
3. Given that the enthalpy change for a reaction at 27 oC is – 5000kJmol−1 and entropy
change is 109.5kJmol−1, calculate the free energy change for the reaction and state
with reason whether their action is spontaneous or not.
162
Chemical Energetics
1) What is a spontaneous reaction: A spontaneous reaction is a reaction that occurs
under a given set of conditions. Whether a reaction will be spontaneous or not depends
on three factors.
 Enthalpy
 Entropy
 Gibbs energy or free energy
ENTHALPY
This is simply the heat content of a reaction. Enthalpy is given with a symbol which is H.
ENTHALPY CHANGE
This is the heat change that accompanies a chemical reaction. Enthalpy change is given
with a symbol which is H.
The S.I. for enthalpy is Joules [J].
QUANTITATIVE ASPECT OF ENTHALPY CHANGE

Mathematically; Enthalpy change (H) is
H = Hp – Hr
Where H = Enthalpy change
Hp = Heat of product
Hr = Heat of reactant
Let take a few example
Example 1
A + B  C + D
10 Joules 15J
From the reaction above, A + B is in the reactant side of the reaction while C + D is in the
product side of the reaction.
Parameters provide
Heat or Enthalpy of Reactant (Hr) = 10 Joules
Heat or Enthalpy of Product (Hp) = 15 Joules
Calculate the Enthalpy change of the reaction above.
H = H[p – Hr
H = 15 Joules – 10 Joules
H = + 5 Joules
Now you can see that the h (Enthalpy change) value is positive (+5 Joules).
This must be noted!!!
When the Enthalpy change or change in enthalpy is positive, it means the reaction above
is ENDOTHERMIC.
163
This means that for an endothermic reaction

 H is always positive (+5 Joules)
 Hp should be greater than Hr
Hp = 15 Joules (This is greater)
Hr = 10 Joules
 The reaction vessel feels cold.
Example 2
A + B  C + D
20 Joules 15 Joules
Let us calculate H (Enthalpy change) for the reaction above

H = Hp – Hr
Hp = 15 Joules
Hr = 20 Joules
H = Hp – Hr
H = 15 Joules – 20 Joules
H = − 5 Joules
Now you can see that H (Enthalpy change or change in Enthalpy) is a negative (− 5
Joules). This must be noted!!!
When the Enthalpy change or change in enthalpy is negative, it means that the reaction
above is EXOTHERMIC.
This means that an exothermic reaction.
 H is always negative (−5 Joules)
 Hp should be lesser than Hr
Hp = 15 Joules (This is lesser)
Hr = 20 Joules
 The reaction vessel feels hot.
ENERGY PROFILE DIAGRAM
Activation energy Activation energy

Heat Energy
Heat Energy
Products Reactants
Reactants Energy absorbed Energy absorbed Products
Reaction Coordinate Reaction Coordinate

Endothermic Reaction Exothermic Reaction
What is an energy profile diagram: An energy profile diagram is a graphical

representation of a reaction pathway in terms of energy changes.
164
N.B: Heat contents [Hp and Hr] is on the vertical axis while reaction co-ordinates is on
the horizontal axis.
ENTROPY
This is simply the measure of the degree of disorderliness/randomness of a system.
Entropy is given with a symbol which is (S).
ENTROPY CHANGE
This is difference between entropy (S) state of reactant and product in a system. Entropy
change is given with a symbol which is (S).
Relationship between Entropy change (S) and Enthalpy change (H).
H = TS
Where H = Enthalpy change
T = absolute temperature (in Kelvin scale)
S = Entropy change
From the equation above, it shows that enthalpy change and entropy change is directly
proportional.
So when H is positive; Therefore S will also be positive [Thus, the reaction should be
ENDOTHERMIC].
When H is negative; Therefore S will also be negative [Thus, the reaction should be
EXOTHERMIC].
Quick Questions
Predict with reasons the signs of S for the following reactions.
(a) CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(b) Vaporization of water
(c) Condensation of water
(d) H2(g) + I2(g)  2HI(g)
Soln
N.B: The empty of gases is greater than the entropy of liquids and that of liquids is
greater than that of solids.
 S gas > S liquid > S solid
Where S means entropy
Answers
(a) The sign for entropy is positive (S = +ve)
This is because the product side of the reaction are more disorderly then the
reactant side of the reaction.
(b) The sign for entropy is positive (S = +ve)
This is because the product are more disorderly than the reactant.
Reaction to explain vaporization of water
H2O(g)  H2(g) + O2(g)
165
The product side of the reaction are gases.

(c) The sign for entropy is negative (S = −ve)
This is because the reactant side of the reaction is more disorderly than the
product and condensation of water is the reverse equation for vaporization of
water.
Reaction to explain condensation of water
H2(g) + O2(g)  H2O(l)
The reactant side of the reaction are gases.
(d) Zero: Because both product and reactant has same degree of disorderliness.
GIBB’S ENERGY
This refers to the energy which is available for doing work. It is the driving force that
brings about the reaction or change.
 Gibb’s energy is also called free energy.
 The unit in which Gibb’s energy is expressed is in Joules.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN H, S, G

The mathematically expression below relate the three parameter.
G = H – TS
Where all the symbols have their usual meaning.
QUICK NOTE
 When G is positive [The reaction is endergonic]
 When G is negative [The reaction is exergonic]
Condition for spontaneity of a chemical reaction

A reaction is spontaneous when G is Negative. A reaction is non-spontaneous when G
is positive.
N.B: When H = TS; G = Zero
(The reaction is in equilibrium)

1) Consider the reaction below occurring at 105 oC [If its measured entropy is − 3 
104]. Determine the value of G for the reaction.
2H2 + O2  2H2O H = − 2.1  104]
Soln
To solve questions of this such, we simply use the formula I gave previously that
relate H, S and G.
Formula to Apply;
G = H - TS
Parameters provided
H = − 2.1  10−4]
166
S = − 3  104]
T = 105oC (To be converted to Kelvin)
o
C + 273 = Kelvin
105oC + 273 = 378K
Let us apply input the parameters in the question to the formula

G = H – TS
G = − 2.1  10−4 – 378 (− 3  10−4)
G = − 2.1  10−4 – (− 11340000)
G = − 2.1  104 + 11340000
G = + 11319000]
The reaction above is a non-spontaneous reaction.

Reason: G is positive.
167
Chapter 15
Rate of a Chemical Reaction
Learning Outcome
 Understand the concept of what the rate of a chemical reaction is all about.
 Write the rate law expression of a reaction
 Determine the order of a reaction
 The concept of collision theory and actualization energy.
If you already feel confident about these chapter, why not try the quiz over the page?
168
Practice Question
1(i) What are the factors affecting the rate of a chemical reactions?
(ii) What do you understand by the term catalyst?
(iii) List four characteristics of catalyst?
2. The graph below show the decomposition of reactant A to form product C and D.
From the graph determine:
(i) The concentration of A after 2 secs in mol/dm3
(ii) The concentration of A after 5 sec in g/dm3
(iii) The rate of reaction
[molar mass of A = 34g/mol]
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
mol/dm3
3.0
2.5
[A]
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (Sec)
169
1. Rate of a Chemical Reaction

The rate of a chemical reaction is simply defined as the change in the concentration of
reactant or product with time.
Mathematically
Change in concentration of Product or Reactant
Rate = Time Taken for the Change
Where  = change
[ ] = concentration
Concentration S.I unit = mol/dm3
Pronounced as mole per dm3
Δ[Product ] mol/dm 3
=
Rate = Δt seconds
or
Δ[Reactant ] mol/dm 3
=
Rate = Δt seconds
3
mol/dm
seconds = mol/dm3/seconds or mol/dm3 seconds−1
Rate curve graphs
(a) (b) (c) (d)

rate rate rate rate
conc. conc. conc. conc.
LAW OF MASS ACTION

The law of mass action state that at constant temperature, the rate of a reaction is
proportional to the active masses of each of the reactant. This law was propounded by
Cato Guldberg and Peter Waage.
RATE LAW
The rate law is adapted from the law of mass action. This law states that the rate of a
reaction is proportional to the concentration of reactant.
N.B: This law (rate law) deals with the reactant side of a reaction.
A reaction below to explain further.

2A + 1B  3C + 2D
Mathematically
Rate  Concentration of the two reactant (2A and 1B)
Rate  [2A] . [1B]
170
N.B: The coefficient of the two species A and B should be raised as the power.
The coefficient of A is 2.
The coefficient of B is 1.
Rate  [A]2 . [B]1
Introduce a constant k
Rate = k[A]2 . [B]1 Rate law equation
Where
k = Rate constant
[A] = concentration of element A
[B] = concentration of element B
ORDER OF A REACTION
The order of a reaction is the sum up of the powers to which the concentration of
reactant are raised in the rate law expression [equation]
In the given equation above
2A + B  3C + 2D
We deduced that
R = k[A]2 . [B]1 = Rate law equation
Order = 2 + 1 = 3

1) Provide the rate law equation and order of the reaction in the main reaction step
in contact process.
Soln
First, constant process is a process used during the production of H2SO4.
For H2SO4 to be formed industrially by this process, it requires four stages.
The reaction stage is the step number 2 and it is the main reaction step.
V2Os
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
In this stage, a catalyst is needed to speed up the formation of SO3.

Now let provide the rate law expression of the equation above.
V2Os
2SO2(g) + 1O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
Recall;
To determine the rate law equation, we are interested with the reactant side of the
reaction [2SO2 and 1O2]
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
Mathematically,
Rate  Concentration of the two reactant [2SO2 and 1O2]
Rate  [2SO2] . [1O2]
171
N.B: The co-efficient of the two species: SO2 and O2 should be raised as the power.
The coefficient of SO2 is 2.

The coefficient of O2 is 1.
Rate  [SO2]2 . [O2]1
Introduce a constant k
Rate = k [SO2]2 . [O2]1
The order of the reaction is 2 + 1 = 3
CONCLUSION THEORY
The collision theory state that:
 For a reaction to occur, reactant molecules must collide.
 Not all of such lead to reaction.
 Only effective collision leads to reaction.
Note: An effective collision is a collision n which the colliding particle acquire actiation
energy (Ea).
WHAT IS ACTIVATION ENERGY?

Activation energy is minimum energy barrier which colliding particle must overcome
for a reaction to take place.
Activation energy is given with a symbol [Ea].
172
Chapter 16
Chemical Equilibrium
Learning Outcome
 Understand the concept of chemical equilibrium.

 Know what a reversible reaction is
 Know how to write the equilibrium constant and equilibrium constant equation
for a reaction.
If you already feel confident about these chapter, why not try the quiz over the page?
173
Practice Questions
1. Write the expression for the equilibrium constant k for the following reaction.
(i) PCl5(g) ⇌ PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
(ii) 2O3(g) ⇌ 3O2(g)
2. If the rate laws obtained for a given reaction is rate = k[X] n . [Y]m. What is the
overall order of the reaction?
3. A+ B  C
The rate equation for the chemical reaction above is
−Δ[ B ]
Δt = k[A][B]3
What is the overall order of the reaction?
174
Chemical Equilibrium
A chemical equilibrium condition in the course of a reversible chemical reaction in which
no net change in the amounts of reactant and product occur.
REVERSIBLE REACTION
A reversible reaction is a reaction that can proceed in the forward and backward
direction.
For example
N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g)
F
When is seen in a reaction, it shows that the reaction is a reversible reaction.
B
N.B: The arrow going to the forward direction indicate the forward reaction while the
arrow joining to the backward direction indicate the backward reaction.
The reaction above contains 2 separate reactions called forward and backward reaction.
Forward reaction: N2O4(g)  2NO2(g)
Backward reaction: 2NO2(g)  N2O4(g)
HOW TO WRITE THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT AND EQUILIBRIUM

CONSTANT EQUATIONS FOR A REACTION
The equilibrium constant is symbolized as (Keq) and it is the ratio of the rate constant for
the forward reaction (Kf) or product to the that of the rate constant of the backward
reaction (Kb) or reactant in a given equilibrium reaction.
Mathematically
Kf Product
=
Keq = Kb Reactant
Let take an example
mA + nB ⇌ pE + qF
What becomes the equilibrium constant equation for the reaction above? It becomes
Kf
Keq = Kb
Product
Keq = Reactant
[ E ] p .[ F ]q
m n
Keg = [ A ] . [ B ]
Where [A] = concentration of A
[B] = concentration of B
[E] = concentration of E
175
[F] = concentration of F
This is just the general aspect on how to write Keq for a reaction works.
But to be very specific; it must be noted that to write the equilibrium constant expression
of reactions some important concept must be noted.
 Pure solids and liquids are not included when writing the equilibrium constant
expression of reaction.
 Gases and aqueous solutions appears when writing the equilibrium constant
expression of reaction.
 Gases and aqueous solutions appears when writing the equilibrium to understand
the concept better.
Example 1
(1) 1C(s) + O2(g) ⇌ CO2(g)
Soln
From the look of things carbon is a solid, so it will not appear when we write the
equilibrium constant expression of the reaction
1C(s) + O2(g) ⇌ CO2(g)
Product
Keq = Reactant
Product = 1CO2(g) = [CO2]1
Reactant = 1O2(g) = [O2]1
They are gases that is why they are appearing in the equilibrium constant
equation.
[ CO2 ]1
1
Keq = [ O2 ]
Example 2
1CaCO3(s) ⇌ 1CaO(s) + 1CO2(g)
Soln
CaCO3 (limestone) and CaO (quick line) will not appear in the equation because they are
solid.
Keq = [CO2]1
Example 3
NH4(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Soln
176
Product
Keq = Reactant
1NH4(aq) + 4H2O(l) ⇌ 1NH4+(aq) + 1OH−(aq)
N.B: H2O (water) will not appear because it is a liquid.
Product: 1NH4+(aq) and 1ON−(aq)

Reactant = 1NH3(aq)
[ NH 4 ]1 . [OH− ] 1
Keq = [ NH 4 ] 1
Example 4
2SO2(g) + 1O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(aq)
Soln
Product
Keq = Reactant
Product = 2SO3 = [SO3]2
Reactant = 2SO2 = [SO2]2 and 1O2 = [O2]1
[ SO 3 ] 2
2 1
Keq = [ SO2 ] .[ O2 ]
Hope you can still remember the order of a reaction, how it is gotten.
Remember it is gotten from the reactant side of a reaction and from the reactant side of
the equation, we have
[SO2]2 . [O2]1
Order = 2 + 1 = 3
Now, let us say, the question says: Write the equilibrium constant expression for the
backward reaction (Keq Backward).
What you simply do is to reverse the initial equation.
The initial equation was 2SO2(g) + 1O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
The reversed equation is 2SO3(g) ⇌ 2SO2(g) + 1O2(s)

So let us write the equation constant equation for the reversed equation.
2SO3(g) ⇌ 2SO2(g) + 1O2(g)
Product = 2SO2(g) = SO22 and 1O2(s) = [O2]1
Reactant = 2SO3(g) = [SO3]2
Product
Keq = Reactant
177
[ SO2 ] 2 .[ O2 ] 1
Keq = [ SO 3 ] 2
Example 5
What is the equilibrium constant equation of the sum of the following equation?
First reaction: 2N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2N2O(g)
Second reaction: 2N2O(g) + 3O2(g) ⇌ 4NO2(g)
Keq for the first reaction
2N2(g) + 1O2(g) ⇌ 2N2O(g)
Product
Keq = Reactant
[ N 2 O ]2
2 1
Keq = [ N 2 ] .[ O 2 ]
Keq for the second reaction
2N2O(g) + 3O2(g) ⇌ 4NO2(g)
Product
Keq = Reactant
[ NO 2 ]4
2 3
Keq = [ N 2 O ] .[O2 ]
Summation of both equations will be
Keq Total = Keq first Reaction  Keq second Reaction
[ N 2 O ]2 [ NO 2 ]4
2 1 2 3
Keq Total = [ N 2 ] .[ O 2 ] . [ N 2 O ] .[O2 ]
[ N 2 O ]2 [ NO 2 ]4
2 1 2 3
Keq Total = [ N 2 ] .[ O 2 ] . [ N 2 O ] .[O2 ]
[ NO2 ] 4
2 4
Keq Total = [ N 2 ] .[ O 2 ]
Example 6
The equilibrium concentration of
2NO(g) + 1O2(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g) are 250oC are [NO] = 0.0542M, [O2] = 0.127M and [NO2] =
15.5M. Calculate the equilibrium constant K.
Soln
The Reaction
2NO(g) + 1O2(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g)
178
Product
Keq = Reactant
[ NO2 ]2
2 1
Keq = [ NO ] .[ O2 ]
[NO2] = 15.5M
[NO] = 0.0542M
[O2] = 0.127M
[ 15 .5 ]2
2 1
Keq = [ 0 .0542 ] . [0 .127 ] = 6.44  105
N.B: The unit M is known as molar and it can also be expressed as mol/dm3.
[NO2] = 15.5M can be 15.5 mol/dm3
[NO] = 0.0542M can be 0.0542 mol/dm3
[O2] = 0.127M can be 0.127 mol/dm3
179

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CHEMISTRY MADE EASY With Bright Edo

1. For the noble gases (The group 8A elements)

3. Write the appropriate symbol for each of the following atoms

(a) Z =1 1, A = 23 (b) Z = 28, A = 64 (c) Z = 74, A = 186

An atom is made up of three sub-atomic particle which I call P E N of an atom

P for proton [which is positively charged]

Now let us understand the meaning of the word ATOM.

The Symbol O: should be pronounced as Oxygen atom

The symbol O – O i.e. O2: should be pronounced as oxygen molecule.

The Symbol N: should be pronounced as Nitrogen atom.

The Symbol N – N i.e. N2 should be pronounced as Nitrogen molecule.

The Symbol P: should be pronounced as Phosphorus atom.

The symbol P – P – P – P i.e. P4: should be pronounced as Phosphorus molecule.

2. Determination of the Number of Protons, Electrons, Neutron of an atom

Let us examine an unknown atom X

Where X = unknown atom

CASE 1: For a NEUTRAL ATOM [Atom without a charge]

P = is same as atomic number

Where A = mass number

P = is same as atomic number

E = Proton Number – Charge

Where A = mass number

Solved Questions with Detailed Explanation

P = is same as atomic number = 11

Where Mass number = A = 23

P = is same as atomic number = 11

E = Proton Number – Charge

Where Mass number = A = 23

Example: Na+1, K+1, Ca2+, Al3+. These are Cations

Example: Cl−1, I−1, O2−, S2−. These are Anions

 Understand the word called isotopy.

What is the relative abundance of Rb?

[Hint: Percentage abundance is also called relative abundance or natural

What is Isotopy: Isotopy is a phenomenon where by atoms of same element have

2. Relative Atomic Mass

3. Determination of relative atomic mass of an atom

To determine Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) of an element, it can be in different cases.

CASE 1: Relative atomic mass calculations dealing two isotopes.

Where %1 = Percentage abundance of the first isotope

Solved Questions with Detailed Explanations on CASE 1

But let us solve together

[The percentage abundance in a question should be equal to 100%]

%1 = Percentage abundance of the first isotope = 90%

[The percentage abundance in a question should be equal to 100%]

%1 = Percentage abundance of the first isotope = 75%

RAM = 26.25 + 9.25

CASE 2: Relative atomic mass calculations dealing with three isotopes

Where %1 = Percentage abundance of the first isotope

Solved Question with Detailed Explanations on CASE 2

[The percentage abundance in a question should be equal to 100%]

One must be very careful when solving these kinds of calculations.

CASE 3: Relative atomic mass calculations dealing with Atoms

Solved Questions with Detailed Explanation

1) If two atoms of an element X contains 70 atoms of 9X and 30 atoms of X.

Calculate the relative atomic mass of X.

First isotope = 9X = 70 atoms

Solved Questions with Detailed Explanations

Percentage abundance of the first isotope becomes

Percentage abundance of the second isotope becomes

[The percentage abundance in a question should be equal to 100%]

CASE 5: General calculations on relative atomic mass determination.

Solved Questions with Detailed Explanations

Collect like term