Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 24 (2011) 580–587

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Journal of Food Composition and Analysis

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Original Article

Changes in phenolic antioxidants during chuño production (traditional

Andean freeze and sun-dried potato)
J. Mauricio Peñarrieta a,b,*, Trinidad Salluca a,b, Leslie Tejeda a,c, J. Antonio Alvarado a,
Björn Bergenståhl b
a
Instituto de Investigaciones Quı´micas, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia
b
Food Technology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
c
Pure and Applied Biochemistry, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Total antioxidant capacity (TAC), total phenolic compounds (TPH), total flavonoids (TF) and the amounts
Received 3 July 2009 of individual phenolic compounds were assessed in Bolivian potato cultivars (various Solanum species)
Received in revised form 24 September 2010 before, during and after the traditional freezing and sun-drying of potatoes known as chuños. The TAC of
Accepted 1 October 2010
chuños ranged from 0.4 to 2.7 mmol Trolox equivalents/g dry matter using 2,20 -azino-bis(3-
Available online 21 December 2010
ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) and from 0.7 to 3.0 according to the ferric reduction
antioxidant power (FRAP). The values of TAC obtained using FRAP were about 70% lower after freeze-
Keywords:
drying while they remained essentially constant when measured using ABTS. High-performance liquid
Antioxidant capacity
chromatography showed the presence of epicatechin, chlorogenic acid, gallic acid, syringaldehyde and
Phenolic compounds
Chuño protocatechuic acid in both potato and chuño samples although the values were lower in the chuño
Bolivia samples. The results suggest that the antioxidant capacity and the content of individual phenolics are
Food composition somewhat decreased but far from eliminated during the process. Chuño can therefore still be considered
an important source of antioxidants in the diet.
ß 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction highlands (Salaman, 1949). There is evidence that sun-dried

From the nutritional point of view potato (various Solanum
species) is one of the most important food crops worldwide. As in
most plant foods potato contains a number of secondary
metabolites in particular phenolic compounds aiding in the
protection against insects and infections (Del Mar Verde Mendez
et al., 2004). Natural phenolic compounds in the diet have also
attracted much attention during the past years due to their
antioxidant capacity and potential health benefits to the consumer.
Potatoes may thus be an important source of antioxidants in the
human diet (Brown, 2005; Lachman et al., 2000).
The traditional Andean sun-dried potatoes known by the local
names ‘‘chuño’’ (black freeze-dried potato) and ‘‘tunta’’ (white
freeze-dried potato) are prepared using a traditional process with
ancient roots. Archaeological information concerning the origin of
this traditional process is uncertain but it is believed to have
started already before the Tiwanaku I period (400 B.C.) (Goldstein,
2003) when harvesting of potato crops began in the Andean
* Corresponding author at: Food Technology, Lund University, P.O. Box 124, SE-
22100 Lund, Sweden. Fax: +46 46 222 4682.
E-mail address: mauricio.penarrieta@food.lth.se (J.M. Peñarrieta).
potatoes were also consumed by the Incas (Tamara, 2003).
During the chuño process most of the moisture is pressed out of
the potato tissue and the remaining moisture is evaporated from the
tubers at low temperatures during the Andean winter season (5 to
+5 8C during night and +5 to 15 8C during day). The cellular structure
is destroyed during the freeze and thaw cycles allowing for the
removal of water by mechanical pressing. Vaporization at low
temperature is possible as the relative humidity is low (30–40%).
From the historical point of view this was one of the most important
methods of preserving food over seasons as well as being prepared
for occasional periods of famine. This method of conservation
together with ‘‘sukakollos’’ (irrigation trenches creating a micro-
climate to optimize food production) an important agronomical
improvement at that time made potato a major economical resource
during the Tiwanaku period (Bray, 1990).
Chuño remains as an important food component with certain
culinary qualities and it is an ingredient in many traditional dishes.
The production of potatoes in the Andean highlands is high; Bolivia
and Peru together produced 4.5 million tonnes in 2007 equivalent
to 150 kg per person a year (FAOSTAT, 2007). An example of the
importance of this product is that there is also a policy in Peru
aiming to convert 20% of potato production into chuño to preserve
the crop (El Comercio, 2008). In Bolivia the production and
consumption of chuño are stimulated as part of a national policy of

0889-1575/$ – see front matter ß 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2010.10.006
 J.M. Peñarrieta et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 24 (2011) 580–587
food sovereignty promoting domestic food products (Bolivian
Constitution, 2007).
There are only few data in the literature on freeze-dried
potatoes regarding their chemical and nutritional composition.
Moreover, the process itself is not clearly described in the scientific
literature. For instance, it has been shown that chuño has higher
calcium content than fresh potatoes after cooking; whereas iron
levels were not altered and others such as zinc and protein
decreased (Burgos et al., 2008).
In the present study which is part of a programme investigating
the antioxidant capacity of Bolivian foods (Peñarrieta et al., 2008),
the intention was to monitor changes in phenolic compounds and
antioxidants before and after chuño process performed as a part of
the traditional agricultural system in the Altiplano. The objective of
the investigation is to describe the possible gain (through release of
bound phenols) or loss (through drainage water and oxidation) of
free antioxidants during the chuño process as it is actually
practiced in Bolivia today.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Chemicals
Folin–Ciocalteu reagent, gallic acid, sodium carbonate, sodium
nitrite, aluminium chloride hexahydrate, acetone (p.a.) and
methanol (HPLC grade) were purchased from Merck (Darmstadt,
Germany). ABTS [2,20 -azino-bis(3-ethylbenzotiazoline-6-sulpho-
nic acid)], catechin, chlorogenic acid, epicatechin, potassium
persulphate, Trolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-
carboxylic acid, 97%), TPTZ (2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine) and syr-
ingaldehyde were obtained from Sigma–Aldrich (St. Louis, MO,
USA). Ferric chloride was purchased from ICN Biomedicals Inc.
(Costa Mesa, CA, USA) and acetic acid (glacial p.a.) and sodium
acetate from BDH Chemicals Ltd. (Poole, UK).
2.2. Plant material
Fifteen potatoes (various Solanum species) from twelve
cultivars potentially used as raw material for the chuño process
and eighteen chuños from eight different cultivars were collected
at two periods (the end of March and June) during 2007 from
different production sites in the Aroma province in the Bolivian
Altiplano south west of La Paz with the objective to reflect the
traditional methods actually used under rural conditions. Our
intention was to follow the production from the potato to the final
chuño at a number of representative production sites. Due to
practical limitations this was only possible to obtain both potato
and corresponding chuño material in one case (Calacachi). The
other samples obtained from traditional production sites reflect
typical chuño potatoes and chuños although the samples are not
corresponding. The agricultural procedures at all the included rural
sites are considered representative of the traditional Altiplano
agriculture. The altitudinal range of these locations was 3789–
4008 m above sea level (see Table 1), where the climate is cold
(approximately 10–20 8C during growth season and below freezing
during cold nights in the chuño processing season) and semi-arid
to arid with a total annual rainfall ranging from 200 to 800 mm,
mainly precipitating November to March. No artificial irrigation is
used. The planting and harvest periods are fixed and there is a
rigorous system of earth rotation. There is only one annual harvest
per year during March to May. The land is worked by animal
traction (oxes). Fertilization is based only on animal and human
manure. To allow for better comparisons material from the
experimental farms (Universidad Mayor de San Andrés and
Fundación y Promoción de Productos Andinos, PROINPA) were
also included in the investigation. The practice at experimental
581
farm UMSA Patacamaya was very close to the traditional
agricultural practice of the zone while at Choquenaira and
PROINPA farms were using irrigation, phosphate fertilizer and
mechanical soil treatment. The samples were purchased at the
growing sites during the harvest season at the farms. The tubers
were typically 4–7 cm long and uniform sizes ranges were
selected. The sample size was approximately one kg and stored
in plastic bags at 5 8C for 12 h and then transferred to a freezer
(80 8C) until the investigation.
2.3. The Chuño process
At harvest (April–May), potatoes are selected for the chuño
processes manly depending on their size (small tubers are
preferred), rather than cultivar (Khoyo, Luki are preferred although
most varieties are used) and bitterness (bitter potatoes are also
acceptable for this purpose). The potatoes are stored under cold,
dark conditions until the end of June or the beginning of July
(winter time) when processing starts. The potatoes selected for the
chuño process are spread on the ground at dawn when the
temperature is around 5 8C and they will be frozen before they
are exposed to full sunlight. The solar radiation and the flow of dry
air (30–40% relative humidity) evaporate the moisture. Liquid is
removed by stepping on the potatoes several times a day during
the first few days. This procedure also removes the skins. The total
process usually takes three weeks, time by which the potatoes are
completely dry. Once chuños are obtained and the remaining peel
(periderm) is removed manually, the shiny dark product can be
stored for long periods under dry conditions. The local producers of
the Altiplano claim that chuños can be stored for up to 20 years
without any perceptible changes but after such an extended period
of time the chuños are claimed to become bitter.
2.4. Extraction
Five to six potatoes/chuños were selected from the frozen
sample and were allowed to thaw at room temperature. The
samples were analysed without peeling to allow for full compari-
son with chuños. However, surplus dirt at the potato samples was
removed with paper towels.
The potatoes/chuños were homogenized in mixer with acetate
buffer (0.1 M, pH 5.0) in a liquid/sample ratio 5:1. The samples
were centrifuged in a Thermo IEC Multi/RF with an 8850 rotor at
20,000  g during 30 min at 4 8C. The supernatant was aspirated
and stored at 80 8C before being analysed. To obtain the water-
insoluble extracts, 1 g of the remaining pulp was homogenized
with 8 ml of acetone and was stirred during 30 min at room
temperature. Then the mixture was centrifuged for 10 min at
1200  g and room temperature and the supernatant solution was
separated and stored at 80 8C (Peñarrieta et al., 2008).
2.5. Measurement of total antioxidant capacity, total phenolic
compounds and total flavonoids
The total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was measured using the
ABTS and FRAP methods as described by Nilsson et al. (2005) and
modified by Peñarrieta et al. (2008). The results are expressed as
mmol Trolox equivalents per gram of dry matter (mmol TE/g (dm)).
The total amount of phenolic compounds (TPH) was determined as
described previously (Peñarrieta et al., 2008) and the results
expressed as mmol gallic acid equivalents per gram of dry matter
(mmol GAE/g (dm)). The level of total flavonoids (TF) was also
measured as described previously (Peñarrieta et al., 2008) and the
results expressed as mmol catechin equivalents per gram of dry
matter (mmol CE/g (dm)). All measurements were performed in the
water-soluble and water-insoluble extracts.
582 J.M. Peñarrieta et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 24 (2011) 580–587

Table 1
Description of potatoes (various Solanum species) and chuño samples collected in Bolivia.

Cultivar Samplea Scientific Coordinates Altitude Collection Date % Dry matter

name (m.a.s.l.) site

Sajampaya P-saj-1 Solanum tuberosum 19613356E8092342N 3789 1. Experimental farm, 27/03/2007 28

UMSA, Patacamaya
Waycha P-way-1 Solanum tuberosum 19613356E8092342N 3790 1. 27/03/2007 26
ssp. andigenius
Khoyo P-kho-1 Solanum sp. 19613356E8092342N 3790 1. 30/06/2007 27
Luki P-luk-2 Solanum juzepzukii 19599887E8119182N 3980 2. Villa loza 27/03/2007 33
Roja P-roj-2 Solanum tuberosum 19599887E8119182N 3981 2. 27/03/2007 25
ssp. tuberosum
Luki P-luk-3 Solanum juzepzukii 19596083E8114639N 3920 3. Calacachi 27/03/2007 26
Waycha P-way-3 Solanum tuberosum 19596083E8114639N 3921 3. 27/03/2007 26
cv. andigenius
Wilaimilla P-wil-4 Solanum tuberosum 19588713E8132480N 3978 4. Pinaya 27/03/2007 26
Pali P-pal-5 Solanum tuberosum 19593767E8130306N 4008 5. Calamarca 27/03/2007 28
Mali P-mal-5 Solanum tuberosum 19593767E8130306N 4008 5. 27/03/2007 28
Chairimilla P-cha-5 Solanum tuberosum 19593767E8130306N 4008 5. 27/03/2007 26
Wilaimilla P-wil-5 Solanum tuberosum 19593767E8130306N 4008 5. 27/03/2007 26
Wayrapaceña P-wpa-6* Solanum tubersum 19576074E8154793N 3883 6. Experimental farm, 27/03/2007 27
ssp. tuberosum UMSA, Choquenaira
Query P-que-7* Solanum tuberosum 19574570E8156252N 3890 7. Experimental farm, 30/06/2007 22
Proinpa
Capiro P-cap-7* Solanum tuberosum 19574570E8156252N 3890 7. 15/06/2007 26

Chuño sajampaya 21 days C-saj-1 Solanum tuberosum 19613356E8092342N 3789 1. 30/06/2007 89

Chuño waycha 21 days C-way-1 Solanum tuberosum 19613356E8092342N 3790 1. 30/06/2007 88
ssp. andigenius
Chuño khoyo 21 days C-kho-1 Solanum tuberosum 19613356E8092342N 3791 1. 30/06/2007 85
Chuño capiro 21 days C-cap-1 Solanum tuberosum 19613356E8092342N 3789 1. 15/06/2007 38
Chuño khoyo 21 days C-kho-3 Solanum tuberosum 19596083E8114639N 3921 3. 30/06/2007 85
Chuño waycha 21 days C-way-3 Solanum tuberosum 19596083E8114639N 3921 3. 30/06/2007 83
cv. andigenius
chuño charimilla 7 days C7-cha-6* Solanum tuberosum 19576074E8154793N 3883 6. 15/06/2007 88
Chuño wayra paceña 7 days C7-wpa-6* Solanum tuberosum 19576074E8154793N 3883 6. 15/06/2007 88
Chuño waycha 3 days C3-way-6* Solanum tuberosum 19576074E8154793N 3883 6. 15/06/2007 84
ssp. andigenius
Chuño capiro 21 days C-cap-7* Solanum tuberosum 19574570E8156252N 3890 7. 15/06/2007 61
Chuño khoyo 3 days C3-kho-8 Solanum tuberosum 19587317E8143288N 3949 8. El Tholar 15/06/2007 88
Chuño khoyo 2 days C2-kho-8 Solanum tuberosum 19587317E8143288N 3950 8. 15/06/2007 44
Chuño waycha 21 days C-way-8 Solanum tuberosum 19587317E8143288N 3951 8. 15/06/2007 33
ssp. andigenius
Chuño sajampaya 1 day C1-saj-9 Solanum tuberosum 19610778E8119182N 3920 9. On the way from 15/06/2007 25
Patacamaya to
Ayo Ayo
Chuño luki 2 days 2 days C2-luk-9 Solanum juzepzukii 19610778E8119182N 3920 9. 15/06/2007 31
Chuño roja 2 weeks C14-roj-9 Solanum tuberosum 19610778E8119182N 3920 9. 15/06/2007 34
Chuño roja 21 days C-roj-9 Solanum tuberosum 19610778E8119182N 3920 9. 15/06/2007 80
Chuño sajampaya 21 days C-saj-9 Solanum tuberosum 19610778E8119182N 3920 9. 15/06/2007 87
a
P denotes potato or C chuño, followed by the number of days of processing in the case of chuños, the cultivar and the site. Asterisk (*) denotes the farming procedure has
been non-traditional.

2.6. High-performance liquid chromatography
Prior to the HPLC analysis, the extracts were hydrolysed by
refluxing the water-soluble extracts in 1.5 M HCl/50% methanol for
2 h at 90 8C after the addition of baicalein as internal standard
(Peñarrieta et al., 2008, 2009).
The aim of the hydrolysis was to realise the polyphenols from
their corresponding glycosides. The TAC was determined using
the FRAP method of the hydrolysed samples together by total
phenols TPH to allow for a comparison with the compositional
analysis. The ABTS method was not used due to interference. The
HPLC analysis was limited to the water-soluble extracts due to
practical reasons.
The phenolic compounds were separated using a Shimadzu
liquid chromatograph system (LC 10ADVP), equipped with a
vacuum degasser (DGU 14-A), a solvent delivery module (FCV-
10ALVP), an auto-injector (SIL-10ADVP), a column oven (CTO-
10ASVP) and a diode-array detector (SPD-M10AVP). The column
was a 3.5 times 150 mm Kromasil C18 reversed-phase type and
protected by a 10 mm pre-column (Scantec Lab, Sävedalen,
Sweden). The flow rate was 0.8 ml/min and the injection volume
was 20 ml. The mobile phase was a binary solvent system
consisting of (A) 1% acetic acid/water and (B) methanol and the
gradient used was 40% B at 0 min 65% B after, 5 min, 90% B after
10 min and 40% B after 15 min until 17 min. The UV absorbance of
the elute was recorded using a multiple diode array detector
(190–550 nm). The compounds were identified by comparing
with standards of each identified compound using retention time,
the absorbance spectrum profile. As a control pure standards were
also added to the samples and eventual peak splitting was used as
an indication of potential misinterpretation (Peñarrieta et al.,
2008). The samples were quantified at 280 nm. The limited of
detection was 0.01 mmol/g dry matter of sample or 4 pmol/
injection.
2.7. Dry matter content
The dry matter content was determined in triplicate after
drying of approximately 2 g sample at 100 8C to obtain a constant
weight.
Table 2
TAC assessed using the ABTS and FRAP methods, together with total phenolic compounds (TPH) and total flavonoids (TF) in (A) potatoes and (B) chuño samples. The TAC data are expressed as mmol TE/g (dm), TPH as mmol GAE/g
(dm) and TF as mmol CE/g (dm). Means (SD) of six measurements are given.

Sample TAC (ABTS) TAC (FRAP) TPH TF

Water- Water- Water- Water- Water- Water- Water- Water- Water- Water- Water- Water- Water- Water-
soluble insoluble soluble + soluble solublea insoluble soluble + soluble solublea insoluble soluble + soluble insoluble soluble +
water- water- water- water-
insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble

A. Potatoes
Potato samples with corresponding chuños
P-saj-1 2.1 (0.3) <0.01 2.1 6.7 (0.8) 8.7 (1.7) 0.2 (0.01) 6.9 5.4 (0.3) 5.7 (0.5) 4.2 (0.8) 9.6 2.7 (0.5) 1.6 (0.1) 4.3
P-way-1 1.3 (0.1) <0.01 1.3 7.2 (0.5) 7.3 (0.3) 0.8 (0.01) 8.0 4.7 (0.5) 25.3 (0.5) 8.5 (1.7) 13.2 2.3 (0.5) 1.3 (0.2) 3.6
P-way-3 0.7 (0.1) <0.01 0.7 6.4 (1.3) 12.6 (1.3) 0.6 (0.01) 7.0 1.5 (0.3) 13.5 (2.8) 8.5 (1.7) 10.0 2.5 (0.3) 2.3 (0.4) 4.8
P-cap-7* 1.1 (0.01) 0.1 (0.01) 1.2 1.9 (0.1) 6.9 (0.6) <0.01 1.9 13.1 (0.6) 2.9 (0.7) 0.3 (0.01) 13.4 0.7 (0.1) 0.4 (0.3) 1.1

J.M. Peñarrieta et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 24 (2011) 580–587
Typical chuño potato samples without corresponding chuños
P-kho-1 3.5 (0.1) 1.7 (0.3) 5.2 3.9 (0.5) 6.8 (1.4) 0.3 (0.1) 4.2 21.1 (3.3) 7.3 (2.3) 6.6 (0.5) 27.7 0.9 (0.03) <0.01 0.9
P-luk-2 1.1 (0.2) <0.01 1.1 5.0 (0.4) 6.2 ((0.6) 0.4 (0.01) 5.4 2.6 (0.5) 4.3 (1.0) 3.5 (0.7) 6.1 1.0 (0.1) 2.5 (0.01) 3.5
P-roj-2 1.0 (0.2) <0.01 1.0 6.2 (0.6) 9.4 (1.3) 1.3 (0.5) 7.5 2.1 (0.3) 10.1 (2.2) 12.7 (2.5) 14.8 1.4 (0.1) 3.1 (0.6) 4.5
P-luk-3 0.7 (0.1) <0.01 0.7 3.4 (0.4) 10.4 (0.8) 0.4 (0.01) 3.8 2.0 (0.1) 13.0 (2.7) 10.8 (2.2) 12.8 2.0 (0.3) 1.4 (0.2) 3.4
P-wil-4 0.6 (0.1) <0.01 0.6 4.9 (1.1) 11.2 (0.5) <0.01 4.9 2.9 (0.1) 3.5 (1.4) 8.2 (1.6) 11.1 2.1 (0.1) 2.2 (0.3) 4.3
P-pal-5 0.7 (0.01) <0.01 0.7 4.6 (0.3) 10.5 (1.5) 0.1 (0.02) 4.7 1.5 (0.04) 11.8 (1.6) 2.2(0.4) 3.7 1.3 (0.1) 1.5 (0.3) 2.8
P-mal-5 0.9 (0.2) <0.01 0.9 4.2 (0.5) 8.4 (0.7) 0.5 (0.02) 4.7 5.3 (1.1) 7.6 (1.7) 8.6 (1.7) 13.9 2.7 (0.3) 1.4 (0.2) 4.1
P-cha-5 0.6 (0.1) <0.01 0.6 3.7 (0.4) 11.5 (2.2) 0.5 (0.08) 4.2 1.5 (0.1) 7.4 (1.4) 4.1 (0.8) 5.7 1.7 (0.2) 0.8 (0.2) 2.5
P-wil-5 0.9 (0.2) <0.01 0.9 6.0 (0.8) 10.9 (1.0) 0.8 (0.17) 6.8 5.0 (0.6) 4.5 (0.8) 0.5 (0.1) 5.5 1.4 (0.3) 2.1 (0.3) 3.5
P-wpa-6* 1.1 (0.2) <0.01 1.1 3.9 (0.7) 13.0 (1.3) 0.1 (0.01) 4.0 1.7 (0.1) 7.2 (1.4) 0.6 (0.1) 2.3 2.3 (0.3) 1.5 (0.2) 3.8
P-que-7* 4.9 (0.1) 1.6 (0.5) 6.5 4.3 (0.5) 10.1 (0.9) 0.4 (0.01) 4.7 NA 14.8 (2.1) 7.0 (0.7) 7.0 1.6 (0.1) <0.01 1.6
Median 1.0 0.01 1.0 4.6 10.1 0.4 4.7 2.8 7.4 6.6 10.0 1.7 1.5 3.5
Range 0.6–4.9 <0.01–1.7 0.6–6.5 1.9–7.2 6.2–13 <0.01–1.3 1.9–8.0 1.5–21.1 2.9–25.3 0.5–12.7 2.4–27.7 0.9–2.7 <0.01–3.1 0.9–4.8

B. Chuños
Chuños samples with corresponding potato
C-saj-1 0.9 (0.04) 0.2 (0.01) 1.1 1.4 (0.04) 2.8 (0.3) 0.2 (0.01) 1.6 1.9 (0.2) 2.4 (0.4) 3.3 (0.3) 5.2 0.4 (0.02) <0.01 0.4
C-way-1 1.8 (0.1) 0.9 (0.1) 2.7 1.2 (0.1) 3.5 (0.4) 0.2 (0.06) 1.4 2.7 (0.6) 2.2(0.3) 5.0 (1.0) 7.7 0.6 (0.03) <0.01 0.6
C-way-3 0.8 (0.1) 0.6 (0.1) 1.4 0.8 (0.05) 1.3 (0.1) 0.3 (0.1) 1.1 3.1 (0,.3) 2.8 (1.0) 3.9 (0.3) 7.0 0.2 (0.02) <0.01 0.2
C-cap-7* 0.1 (0.01) 0.3 (0.03) 0.4 1.9 (0.2) 4.6 (0.5) <0.01 1.9 5.0 (0.9) 6.1(0.5) <0.01 5.0 0.3 (0.1) <0.01 0.3

Chuño samples without corresponding potatoes

C-cap-1 1.7 (0.4) 0.6 (0.1) 2.3 3.0 (0.5) 4.6 (0.1) <0.01 3.0 9.5 (1.3) 4.6 (0.5) 0.9 (0.3) 10.4 0.9 (0.01) 0.4 (0.1) 1.3
C-kho-1 1.2 (0.1) 0.7 (0.1) 1.9 1.4 (0.1) 4.0 (0.1) 1.0 (0.1) 2.4 4.1 (1.4) 4.6 (0.2) 4.5 (0.4) 8.6 0.6 (0.02) <0.01 0.6
C-kho-3 0.8 (0.6) 0.8 (0.5) 1.6 0.7 (0.04) 2.2 (0.4) <0.01 0.7 3.1 (0.2) 4.8 (0.9) 6.3 (1.5) 9.4 0.3 (0.01) <0.01 0.3
C-way-8 1.2 (0.2) <0.01 1.2 2.6 (0.4) 4.6 (0.5) <0.01 2.6 9.0 (1.4) 4.5 (1.0) 0.8 (0.01) 9.8 0.7 (0.1) 0.2 (0.01) 0.9
C-roj-9 0.8 (0.1) 0.2 (0.03) 1.0 1.8 (0.1) 3.0 (0.1) <0.01 1.8 4.1 (0.7) 4.5 (1.0) 2.3 (1.0) 6.4 0.4 (0.05) <0.01 0.4
C-saj-9 1.2 (0.1) 0.6 (0.1) 1.8 1.9 (0.1) 2.8 (0.1) <0.01 1.9 5.7 (0.4) 3.4 (0.7) <0.01 5.7 0.6 (0.01) <0.01 0.6

Chuño samples in process

C1-saj-9 3.4 (0.1) 5.9 (1.1) 9.3 5.8 (0.3) 7.4 (0.9) 0.4 (0.02) 6.2 19 (2.2) 10.4 (0.6) 3.4 (1.1) 22.4 2.1 (0.2) 0.7 (0.1) 2.8
C2-kho-8 1.3 (0.2) <0.01 1.3 2.3 (0.2) 4.8 (0.4) <0.01 2.3 11 (1.2) 4.8 (0.9) 2.1 (0.3) 13.1 1.0 (0.29 0.3 (0.09) 1.3
C2-luk-9 1.9 (0.2) <0.01 1.9 2.9 (0.4) 6.6 (0.7) <0.01 2.9 13 (2.7) 9.9 (1.9) 4.0 (0.3) 17.0 1.0 (0.1) 0.1 (0.01) 1.1
C3-kho-8 0.6 (0.1) 0.3 (0.01) 0.9 1.4 (0.2) 2.4 (0.2) <0.01 1.4 6.1 (0.9) 3.5 (0.7) 4.2 (0.3) 10.3 0.4 (0.02) 0.2 (0.01) 0.6
C3-way-6* 0.2 (0.01) 0.1 (0.05) 0.3 1.7 (0.5) 2.1 (0.2) <0.01 1.7 5.9 (0.6) 0.9 (0.2) 1.6 (0.8) 7.5 0.3 (0.1) 0.2 (0.01) 0.5
C7-cha-6* 0.4 (0.01) <0.01 0.4 1.4 (0.1) 1.9 (0.1) <0.01 1.4 4.5 (0.6) 3.0 (0.5) 1.5 (0.6) 6.0 0.3 (0.04) <0.01 0.3
C7-wpa-6* 0.4 (0.1) 0.3 (0.04) 0.7 2.2 (0.1) 3.5 (0.1) 0.2 (0.03) 2.4 5.0 (0.6) 3.0 (0.5) 2.7 (1.3) 7.7 0.6 (0.1) 0.3 (0.03) 0.9
C14-roj-9 1.5 (0.1) 0.3 (0.03) 1.8 2.8 (0.1) 8.4 (0.7) <0.01 2.8 12 (1.1) 6.4 (1.3) <0.01 12.0 0.9 (0.1) 0.3 (0.01) 1.2
Medianb 1.0 0.6 1.5 1.6 3.2 0.01 1.8 4.1 4.5 2.8 7.4 0.5 0.01 0.5
Rangeb 0.1–1.8 <0.01–0.9 0.4–2.7 0.7–3 1.3–4.6 <0.01–1 0.7–3 1.9–9.5 2.2–6.1 <0.01–6.3 5.0–10.4 0.2–0.9 <0.01–0.2 0.2–1.3

Number of independent samples analysed (n = 15); number of replicates = 6. NA = not analysed. Asterisk (*) denotes the farming procedure has been non-traditional.
a
Data obtained after hydrolysis.
b
Refers to final chuño. Number of independent samples analysed (n = 10); number of replicates = 6.

583
584 J.M. Peñarrieta et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 24 (2011) 580–587
2.8. Statistical analysis
The results are expressed as mean values of six replicates
measured over three days and medians. Principal component
analysis (PCA) was carried out using MATLAB (The MathWorks,
Natick, MA, USA). The significance of differences between groups
was assessed by the paired t-test (SPSS, version 16, Chicago, IL,
USA).
3. Results
3.1. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC)
The total antioxidant capacity of the potatoes and the chuños is
given in Table 2. The TAC in chuños ranged from 0.4 to 2.7
according to the ABTS method and from 0.7 to 3.0 according to the
FRAP method, expressed in terms of the sum of the water-soluble
and water-insoluble extracts (mmol TE/g (dm)). The TAC in
potatoes ranged from 0.6 to 6.5 and from 1.9 to 8.0 according to
the ABTS and the FRAP methods, respectively. The median values
for all potato samples were 1.0 (ABTS) and 4.7 (FRAP) mmol TE/g
(dm) and in chuño samples the medians were 1.5 (ABTS) and 1.8
(FRAP) mmol TE/g (dm). The highest TAC values in potatoes were
observed in the Query (by the ABTS method) and Waycha (by the
FRAP method) cultivars. From the values of the chuños where we
have corresponding potatoes we can see the TAC values by the
ABTS method are not correlating but remaining in the same range
(50%). By the FRAP method the TAC values are decreasing about 70%
unless the value is low. The general TAC values assessed by ABTS in
potatoes are also comparable to those obtained for chuños while the
TAC values assessed by FRAP are generally lower. In potatoes the
lowest TAC values were exhibited by Wilaimilla according to the ABTS
method and in Capiro using the FRAP method. Regarding the chuño
samples the lowest TAC values were seen in the cultivar Waycha by
the ABTS method and in Khoyo by the FRAP method.
278 Gallic Protocatechuic
acid
acid
Chlorogenic 257
250
acid
230
200 300 400
200 300 400 nm 200
0 5
Fig. 1. The phenolic compounds found in a chuño sample from a Sajampaya cultivar and the UV/vis spectra of the identified peaks from the sample (black curve) and the
corresponding standards (grey curve) of each compound.
The water-soluble extracts were hydrolysed and the antioxi-
dant capacity was assessed by FRAP. For potatoes the range was
increased from 1.9–7.2 before hydrolysis to 6.2–13 after hydrolysis
(mmol TE/g (dm)), while chuños showed a small increase from
0.70–3 before hydrolysis to 1.3–4.6 mmol TE/g (dm) after
hydrolysis showing a significant increase in paired t-test with P
better than 0.01 in both cases.
3.2. Total phenols and total flavonoids
The total phenols content dropped (30–70%) as a consequence
of the chuño process in all samples where we have a corresponding
potato. Generally the values of chuño samples are also lower than
the potatoes samples.
The total phenols ranged from 2.3 to 28 in potatoes and from 5.0
to 10.4 mmol GAE/g (dm) in chuño samples, while TF varied from
0.9 to 4.8 in potatoes and from 0.20 to 1.3 in chuños (mmol CE/g
(dm)).
Among potatoes the highest TPH and TF values were observed
in the Khoyo and Waycha cultivars, respectively while the lowest
were observed in Wayra paceña (TPH) and in Khoyo (TF). In chuño
samples the highest values of both TPH and TF were found in
Sajampaya after one day of processing while the lowest values
were observed in Capiro (TPH) and in Waycha (TF).
TPH was also assessed after the hydrolysis of the water-soluble
extracts and the range in potatoes increased from 1.4–21 before
hydrolysis to 2.9–25 after hydrolysis (mmol GAE/g (dm)). The
range of TPH in the water-soluble extracts from the chuño samples
was unaltered from 1.9–9.5 to 2.2–6.1 mmol GAE/g (dm) showing a
non-significant increase using paired t-test in both cases.
3.3. HPLC measurements
The individual polyphenols were quantified and tentatively
identified by comparison with standards using HPLC. Five
235 Epicatechin
Syringaldehyde
290
260
280 295
300 400
305
200 300 400
200 300 400
Bacalein
(internal standard)
10 15 minutes.
Elution time
 J.M. Peñarrieta et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 24 (2011) 580–587 585

Table 3
Content of individual phenolics in potato and chuño samples in water-soluble extracts, expressed as mmol/g (dm).

Sample Gallic acid Protocatechuic acid Syringaldehyde Chlorogenic acid Epicatechin

Potato samples with corresponding chuños

P-saj-1 1.7 0.2 7.3 1.0 10.9
P-way-1 0.9 0.1 <0.01 0.9 4.6
P-way-3 2.8 0.3 <0.01 0.7 15.6
P-cap-7* <0.01 0.01 <0.01 0.9 0.1
P-kho-1 0.9 0.08 <0.01 1.8 4.9

Typical chuño potato samples without corresponding chuños

P-luk-2 1.1 0.1 6.1 1.0 4.3
P-roj-2 3.4 0.4 <0.01 0.8 16.7
P-luk-3 0.6 0.07 <0.01 0.8 2.8
P-wil-4 0.4 0.05 <0.01 1.0 2.1
P-pal-5 1.4 0.2 <0.01 1.1 6.1
P-mal-5 1.3 0.2 5.7 1.2 9.1
P-cha-5 0.7 0.1 <0.01 1.3 4.3
P-wi1-5 1.3 0.2 1.5 1.1 8.9
P-wpa-6* 1.0 0.2 <0.01 1.0 <0.01
P-que-7* 1.5 0.2 <0.01 1.0 1.5
Median 1.1 0.2 0.01 1.0 4.6
Range <0.01–3.4 0.01–0.40 0.01–7.3 0.80–1.8 <0.01–17

Chuños samples with corresponding potato

C-saj-1 1.2 0.2 0.1 1.0 2.3
C-way-1 0.06 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.2
C-way-3 1.5 0.1 <0.01 0.7 5.8
C-cap-7* 1.6 0.2 <0.01 0.8 7.0

Chuño samples without corresponding potatoes

C-cap-1 1.3 0.2 <0.01 0.9 8.2
C-kho-1 1.6 0.6 <0.01 0.9 21.3
C-kho-3 1.6 0.1 0.1 0.6 7.4
C-way-8 0.4 0.3 <0.01 2.3 1.7
C-roj-9 1.2 <0.01 <0.01 0.8 7.9
C-saj-9 <0.01 <0.01 0.1 0.9 0.1

Chuño samples in process

C1-saj-9 0.7 0.1 <0.01 0.8 4.3
C2-kho-8 0.9 0.0 <0.01 1.2 4.4
C2-luk-9 0.4 0.2 <0.01 1.0 1.5
C3-kho-8 0.1 0.2 0.1 1.1 0.2
C3-way-6* <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
C7-cha-6* <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.5 0.1
C7-wpa-6* <0.01 0.1 0.1 0.9 0.2
C14-roj-9 0.1 0.1 <0.01 1.0 0.1
Mediana 0.6 0.1 <0.01 0.9 2.0
Rangea <0.01–1.6 <0.01–0.60 <0.01–0.10 0.60–2.3 0.10–21

Asterisk (*) denotes the farming procedure has been non-traditional.

a
Refers to final chuño.

individual compounds were identified (Fig. 1) first on the basis of
comparisons with the retention time, and secondly by comparison
of their absorption spectra with those of standards. Standards were
added to samples when searching for peak splitting. Reliable
identifications were obtained for gallic acid, protocatechuic acid
and epicatechin. A slight difference was observed between the
reference for chlorogenic acid and the peak in the samples. The
reference showed absorption maxima at 245 and 330 nm while the
maxima in the sample were seen at 250 and 330 nm. Cui et al.
(2004) reported that chlorogenic acid absorption is strongly
dependent on pH, which differs between the sample and the
standard when injected. Syringaldehyde also showed a slight
difference; the absorption maxima of the reference being seen at
245 and 305 nm, while those of the sample were seen at 260 and
295 nm. This can be explained by the influence of solvents present
during HPLC separation since syringaldehyde exhibits a consider-
able variation in absorption maxima depending on the solvent. For
example, absorption maxima were found at 238, 265 and 327 nm
in one study when determined in buffer (Delay and Delmotte,
1990) while the peak was seen at 280 nm when the absorption was
determined in ethanol (Borges del Castillo et al., 1983). The
quantitative data are summarized in Table 3.
The values obtained in both potatoes and chuños varied
between cultivars. Epicatechin was the main phenolic compound
followed by chlorogenic acid and gallic acid while protocatechuic
acid was present at lower concentrations. Syringaldehyde varied a
lot among samples. For samples where we had both potato and the
corresponding chuño we can observe that protocatechuic acid and
chlorogenic acid remained approximately unaltered. Syringalde-
hyde was almost eliminated during the chuño process if present in
the potato while gallic acid and epicatechin varied strongly before
and after the process. The general pattern when potatoes are
compared with chuños agrees with these observations.
3.4. Principal component analysis
Principal component analysis was applied to reveal patterns in
the data. Fig. 2 presents the bidimensional scores of all samples
studied. PC1 explained 64% of the total variance and PC1 and PC2
together explained 81% of the total variance. Potato and chuño
form two groups with only a slight overlap. The data from the
chuño group are less scattered than those from the potatoes, which
indicates that chuños constitute a more uniform product regarding
antioxidants and polyphenolic compounds.
586 J.M. Peñarrieta et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 24 (2011) 580–587
Fig. 2. PCA bidimensional score plot representing potato and chuño samples. The
grouping of potato (P) and chuño (C) samples can be clearly seen.
The loading plot is shown in Fig. 3. All the parameters included
are close to the origin, which indicates that the data have a large
variability that is not explained by covariance between parameters
or related to specific samples. FRAP, ABTS, phenols, flavonoids,
gallic acid, epicatechin and protocatechuic are positioned within
the potato domain in the diagram, indicating that the potato
samples are rich in these components. Chlorogenic acid is located
in the overlap region suggesting that it is present in both potato
and chuño samples. Syringaldehyde is located close to origo
suggesting that it varies independently.
4. Discussion
4.1. TAC in potatoes
There are several publications on the antioxidant capacity of
potatoes measured by different methods in many regions of the
world. In Bolivian potatoes the mean TAC values of 0.70 and
1.0 mmol TE/g (dm) have been found using ABTS and FRAP,
respectively (Peñarrieta et al., 2005). In another study using the
FRAP method TAC means of 0.80 and 1.2 mmol Fe2+/g fresh matter
were found in different European and African potato cultivars
analysing the whole tubers (Halvorsen et al., 2002), which can be
recalculated to give 0.40 and 0.62 mmol TE/g fresh matter. In
another study, 30 coloured potato cultivars from the Czech
Fig. 3. PCA loading plot of parameters included in the study. The boundaries of
potato and chuño samples are shown in the score plot.
Republic were analysed in the whole tuber by the FRAP and the
ABTS methods. The obtained values varied between cultivars. For
example values of 0.25–1.6 were obtained with the ABTS method
and 0.27–1.7 with the FRAP method both expressed as mg ascorbic
acid equivalents/g (dm) (Lachman et al., 2009). These data are in
accordance with the ranges obtained in the present study and they
also confirm the high variability of the antioxidant levels among
samples. However, the TAC values obtained by FRAP after
hydrolysis were higher than the corresponding values obtained
by the ABTS method. Lachman and Halvorsen did not hydrolyse the
samples and the results in the present study also show similarities
when FRAP and ABTS before hydrolysis are compared.
The variation in the TAC values after hydrolysis showed a
significant increase in paired t-test. It was also observed previously
(Peñarrieta et al., 2008) that the antioxidants are released by the
glycoside hydrolysis in a significant amount. Since the digestion
includes hydrolytic conditions we can assume that the high
antioxidant levels after hydrolysis possibly reflects the in vivo
conditions.
The FRAP method was selected to measure TAC after hydrolysis
in order to avoid interference since FRAP is an assay that directly
measures antioxidants or reductants at low pH in a sample while
ABTS is more indirect method because it measure the inhibition of
free radicals (Halvorsen et al., 2002).
4.2. Total phenolics and total flavonoid content in potatoes
In other studies the total amount of phenolic compounds in
different cultivars of Andean potatoes including peels have been
found to range from 7 to 72 mmol GAE/g (dm); the highest value
being found in a coloured cultivar (Andre et al., 2007). In four
cultivars from Italy the TPH content has been found to range from
0.6 to 1.35 and from 5.6 to 17.0 mmol GAE/g (dm) before and after
hydrolysis, respectively (Leo et al., 2008) in whole potatoes. In
another study on the influence of pulp colour on phenolic and
antioxidant content in potatoes, TPH values were found to range
from 17 to 19.4 mmol GAE/g (dm) in four different cultivars from
Czech Republic (Lachman et al., 2008). In our study the total
phenol ranged from 2.3 to 27.7 which are in agreement with the
Andean potatoes mentioned above, possible suggesting a high
level of total phenols as a consequence of traditional farming
practice.
Regarding the TF content in potatoes, an investigation in the
USA (Chun et al., 2005) showed a value of approximately 1 mmol
CE/g (dm), which is comparable to the range obtained in the
present study (0.9–4.8 mmol CE/g (dm)).
4.3. Individual phenolic substances in potatoes
Five compounds were identified in the water-soluble fraction
after acid hydrolysis: epicatechin, chlorogenic acid, gallic acid,
syringaldehyde and protocatechuic acid. The presence of these
compounds in potatoes has also been reported in the literature.
For example, epicatechin and gallic acid were found to be the
main phenolic compounds in potato peel (periderm) (Brown,
2005; Rodriguez de Sotillo et al., 1994), chlorogenic acid was the
major phenolic acid found in the potato pulp (cortex, parenchy-
ma and pith) (Leo et al., 2008; Reddivari et al., 2007), and
protocatechuic acid has been detected in the whole potato and
in peeled samples (Barba et al., 2008; Matilla and Kumpulainen,
2002). Syringaldehyde has been found in potatoes after
hydrolysis in pulp (Cottle and Kolattukudy, 1982). The results
obtained in the present study are in agreement with those from
the literature in that they showed higher values of epicatechin,
gallic acid and chlorogenic acid than protocatechuic acid and
syringaldehyde.
 J.M. Peñarrieta et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 24 (2011) 580–587
4.4. Changes in antioxidant and phenolic compounds during the
chuño process
The values of TPH and TAC obtained with the FRAP method tended
to be high in the early part of the chuño process and then to be
comparable low with the final chuño. It may be that some compounds
released during the initial stage of the process are later removed with
the liquid pressed out of the product during this process.
For the samples where we had both potato and the
corresponding chuño we can observe that protocatechuic acid
and chlorogenic acid remained approximately unaltered. Syrin-
galdehyde was almost completely eliminated during the chuño
process if present in the potato while gallic acid and epicatechin
varied strongly before and after the process. The general pattern of
the non-corresponding samples agrees with these observations.
Chlorogenic acid and protocatechuic acid are uniformly
distributed in the potato and also well retained in the chuño.
Gallic acid and epicatechin mainly occur in the peels and as the
main part of the peels was lost during the chuño process we would
expect that these polyphenols would also strongly decrease. The
high retention observed (although with some variability) indicates
that components from the peels are transferred to the potato
matrix during the process. This agrees with the dark to black colour
of the chuño.
The results of this study show that the chuño process resulted in
a slight/moderate loss of antioxidants and phenolic compounds.
Similar results have been obtained in a study on the sun-drying of
dates (Phoenix dactylifera), where antioxidants were lost during the
drying process, although TPH was higher after drying (Al-Farsi
et al., 2005). As explained above, the chuño process tended to
reduce the amount of antioxidants due to removal of the peel.
Antioxidants in the potato pulp (mainly chlorogenic acid and
protocatechuic acid) remained unaltered throughout the chuño
process. Thus, chuño can be considered an important source of
antioxidants and bioactive compounds, considering the impact of
the product on the diet of people from the Altiplano.
A portion consisting of 100 g of chuño provides 0.15 mmol TAC,
which is comparable to the antioxidant capacity of 200 g
cauliflower (Nilsson et al., 2006).
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Swedish International
Development Agency (SIDA/SAREC) in a collaborative project
between Universidad Mayor de San Andrés (UMSA), Bolivia and
Lund University, Sweden. We thank the experimental farms of the
Agronomical Faculty at Universidad Mayor de San Andrés (UMSA)
and the Fundación y Promoción de Productos Andinos (PROINPA)
for useful cooperation and for providing some of the samples. The
authors thank Prof. José Antonio Bravo from Universidad Mayor de
San Andrés (UMSA) for the English revision.
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