LEDR PRELIM REVIEWER
these three uses of language will greatly vary
RESEARCH is the investigation of a particular
topic using a variety of reliable, scholarly
resources.
RESEARCH is the systematic process of
collecting and
analyzing information to increase
our
understanding of the phenomenon under study.
RESEARCH is the systematic investigation into
and study of materials and sources in order to
establish facts and reach new.
THREE MAJOR GOALS OF RESEARCH
* Establishing facts;
* Analyzing information; and
* Reaching new conclusions.
THREE MAIN ACTS OF DOING RESEARCH
* Searching for;
* Reviewing; and
* Evaluating information.
KINDS OF RESEARCH
1. Basic Research
Also known as "pure" research and is directed
towards the development of a scientific
2. Applied Research
Considered as an action research and is directed
towards practical
• practical application of the scientific
knowledge, It attempts to explain certain
problems brought about by certain
phenomenon; it modify, improve an existing
theory, or develop a new theory
NATURE OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH
Language Research
Requires consideration of many factors such as
language use, type of users, acquisition process,
setting, research methodology, and related
disciplines.
Language Use
Determines primarily whether the language is
first, second, or foreign to the speaker.
A research on the acquisition of either one of
from one to another.
Type of Users
These Takes into accounts
the age and characteristics of the learners.
These are closely tied up with the language
acquisition process. It is a common belief that
the young learner acquires language faster than
the adult.
Language Setting
Identifies the environment within which
language is acquired. A native speaker acquires
it in a natural environment - at home, with
family members, with playmates; a second or
foreign language learner acquires it in the
classroom under the supervision of a teacher.
Research Methodology
Determined by the researcher's philosophy,
motivation for conducting the the research and
conditions under which the research is
conducted.
A study like this will most likely use tools such
as survey questionnaire and interview.
Related Discipline
Pertain to areas that influences language study
like
education,
psychology,
sociology,
anthropology, and others. A language
acquisition research may consider pedagogy
(education), students' motivation (psychology),
the role of language in society (sociology), or
the origin and development of the language
(anthropology).
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES
1. Selecting and focusing a Research Problem
A. Sources of a Research Problem. A research
topic may be derived from 3 sources: the
researchers experience and interest, other
language researches; researches on allied
disciplines.
A. Sources of a Research Problem
1. Researchers experience and interest. A
research problem may come from the
researcher's personal experience with the study
of language which he/she finds interesting.
A. Sources of a Research Problem
2. Other Language Researches. Most studies
recommend a list of other research topics. From
this list, a researcher may get ideas on
interesting topics to work on.
A. Sources of a Research Problem
3. Researches on allied disciplines. Language
study is closely linked with other disciplines as
mentioned earlier. Reading researches in
Psychology, Education, Sociology, Anthropology
can provide the researcher a rich source of
topics from which a research problem may be
chosen.
1. Selecting and focusing a Research Problem
B. Focusing a research problem
After selecting a general topic, the next task to
consider is how to narrow down the topic into
something that can be done within the limits of
the researcher's environment such as time,
resources, researcher's expertise. And other
conditions under which the study would be
conducted. At this point, the researcher has to
decide whether to work on a general or specific
topic.
C. Formulating the general and specific
questions
Having decided to work on a specific aspect of
the topic, the researcher now has to translate
this choice into general and specific questions
which will constitute the research statement of
the problem. One general problem that
expresses the entire goal of the study will be
formulated followed by three to five specific
questions inquiring on the particulars of the
general problem.
2. Deciding the appropriate methodology and
procedure
A. Choosing the appropriate methodology and
procedure. Decisions on the appropriate
method of research to use depend on the
research approach and objectives used in the
study. There are many methodologies used in
language research, but the common ones are
descriptive, and experimental
2. Deciding the appropriate methodology and
procedure
A. Choosing the appropriate methodology and
procedure.
• Examples of a descriptive language study are
the oral proficiency of college students in a
certain university, correlation between grades
in English and grades in other academic subjects
among high school students, comparison of
difficulties in learning English among foreign
students in the Philippines.
3. Reviewing related literature and studies
A. Reason for review. A review of related
literature and studies is necessary for two
primary reasons:
1. To broaden the researcher's perspective of
the research problem and
2. To help him/her focus the problem into a
workable research question.
3. Reviewing related literature and studies
A. Sources of related literature and studies
1. Libraries. School and other institution
libraries are the primary provider of information
for the review.
2. On-line. Today, much information is provided
by the internet which has boosted research. The
researcher must however, very judicious in
selecting materials because not all information
posted online is reliable.
3. Professional Organizations. Some valuable
materials on their specific disciplines are kept
by professional organizations. Attending their
conferences will provide access to these
materials.
4. Foreign embassies. Some researches,
especially in social sciences, will find valuable
materials in embassies. A letter requesting
access to these materials endorsed by the
student's adviser and dean can help facilitate
research in these libraries.
A. TOPIC SELECTION
1. Identifying a Research Topic
1. Identifying a Topic. A research topic focuses
the study to a defined,
manageable size. It provides
structure for the steps in the scientific method
and is discussed in many ways by identifying the
research question, the research problem and
the purpose of the research.
Main Sources of Topic
a. Theory.
An organized body of concepts,
generalizations and principles that can be
subjected to investigation. It provides
conceptually rich topics and confirmation of
some aspects of the theory
b. Personal Experience
c. Replication
d. Library Immersion
2. Narrowing Topic
Problems encountered with broad topics:
enlarging the review of the literature beyond
reason, complicating the organization of the
review of the literature itself, and creating
studies that are too general, too difficult to
carry out, and too difficult to interpret.
To help narrow the topics, it might help to talk
to experts in the field like professors in college
or department or researchers known, or to read
secondary sources that provide overviews of
the topics such as handbooks and reviews of
literature.
3. Making a Formal Statement of Quantitative
and Qualitative Research Studies
Quantitative research topic identifies the
variables of interest and the nature of the
participants, and describes the specific
relationship between the variables.
Qualitative research topic emerges over the
course of the study. It begins as an initial
statement that tends to be stated as a general
issue or concern and becomes focused as more
is learned about the context, participants, and
phenomena of interest. It is typically stated late
in a written study.
4. Formulating Researchable and
Topics
Non-Researchable
Researchable topics can be investigated
through collection and analysis of data. They
have theoretical or practical significance and
have been conducted ethically. They contribute
to the educational processes and can be
adequately researched given the expertise,
resources, and time
resources, constraints of the researcher.
Non-Researchable topics address philosophical
or ethical issues. They cannot be resolved
through the collection and analysis of data.
They address "should" questions. Ultimately,
these are matters of opinion.
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE, AND
STUDIES
Review of literature involves the systematic
identification, location, and analysis of
documents containing information related to
the research problem.
It is the process of collecting, selecting, and
reading books, journal articles, reports,
abstracts, and other reference materials,
including electronic sources about the problem
under investigation.
Referring to various sources, the following
information may be collected:
• Background information about the problem
and related concepts
• • Theories that explain the existence of the
problem and the possible connection between
certain factors and the problem.
• Data that confirm the existence and
seriousness to the problem.
• General and specific findings
of studies related to the
problem.
• Recommendations for further study given in
related studies.
1. The Need for a Review of Literature and
Studies
A review of literature and studies is a must in
research. It aids the researcher in many ways:
a. It helps the researcher identify and define a
research problem.
A new problem may arise from research
problem. A new problem may arise from vague
results, conflicting findings, or the inability of
study variables to adequately explain the
existence of the problem.
b. It helps justify the need for studying a
problem. When findings of related studies are
not clear or do not provide adequate/conclusive
answers to certain issues or questions, then the
conduct of a study is justified.
c. It helps prevent unnecessary duplication of a
study. There are many research problems that
are already "over studied: and yet, similar
studies are still being conducted. If a researcher
has adequately reviewed related literature
about his/her study, unnecessary duplication
can be avoided.
d. It can be a source of theoretical basis for the
study.
Correlation studies usually use or generate
theories to explain the research phenomenon
under study. Researchers may use or adopt the
same theory of theoretical framework used in
the related studies.
e. It enables the researcher to learn how to
conceptualize a research problem and properly
identify and operationally define study
variables.
f. It provides a basis for identifying and using
appropriate research design. It also helps in the
formulation or refinement of research
instrument.
g. Results of related studies provide lessons for
data analysis and interpretation. Findings of a
study can be compared to findings of related
studies.
2. Functions of a Review
Specifically, the review seeks to:
a. Determine what has been done already;
b. Provide insights necessary to develop a
logical framework into which the topic fits;
c. Provide the rationale for the hypotheses
being investigated and the justification of the
significance of the study;
d. Identify potentially useful methodological
strategies; and
e. Facilitate the interpretation of the results.
3. General guidelines for the scope of the
review
When considering the scope of one's review,
the researcher should be reminded of the
following guidelines:
a. Bigger does not mean better.
b. Heavily researched topics provide enough
references to focus only on the major studies.
c. Lesser researched topics require reviewing
any study related in some meaningful way even
if this means searching related fields.
4. Stages of conducting a review
The review of literature and studies often follow
certain stages:
a. Identifying words to guide the search. It is
important to experiment with several keywords
and combinations of them. "Legal" key words
used for particular data bases like the ERIC
Thesaurus which can be accessed through the
ERIC homepage.
b. Identifying sources. This may be classified as
primary and secondary or empirical and
opinion. It is important to use secondary
sources such as handbooks, encyclopedias, and
reviews early in the review process because
they broaden and narrow keyword searches.
c. Abstracting the information found in the
references. To summarize references, there are
seven steps suggested:
1. Read the article abstract;
2. Skim the entire article;
3. Record complete bibliographic information;
4. Classify and code the article;
5. Summarize the article;
6. Identify thoughts about the article you
believe important and
7. Indicate direct quotes properly.
c. Abstracting the information found in the
references
1. Begin with the most recent references and
move toward the most dated;
2. Record all bibliographic information such as
author, date of publication, title, journal name
or book title or website name, volume and
issue, pages, library call number or URL;
3. Identify direct quotes and record page
numbers;
4. Identify main ideas.
c. Analyzing, organizing and reporting
This is the time to make important decisions
regarding the following: the outline review, and
the technical nature of reporting which includes
the use of formal language and adherence to
prescribe style (e.g., APA)
Calderon and Gonzales 1993
There are many kinds of classification
According to Purpose
According to Goal
According to the levels of investigation
According to the type of analysis
According to scope
According to the choice to answers to problems
According to statistical content
According to time element
According to Purpose
a. Predictive or prognostic – it has to
purpose determine the future
b. Directive – it determines what should
be done
c. Illuminative - it concerned with the
interactions of the components of the
variable being investigated.
According to Goal
a. Basic or pure (theoretical) – it is done
for the development of theories and
principles.
b. Applied (practical) – the application of
pure research
- This is testing efficiency of theories
and principles.
According to the levels of investigation
a. Exploratory – the researcher studies the
variables pertinent to a specific
situation.
b. Descriptive - the researcher studies the
relationships of the variables.
c. Experimental - the researcher studies
the effects of the variables on each
other
Dependent (effect)
Independent (cause)
According to the type of analysis
a. Analytic approach - the researcher
attempts to identify and isolate the
components of the research situation.
b. Holistic approach – this begins with the
total situation, focusing attention on
the system first and on its internal
relationship.
According to scope
a. Action research – this involves the
application of the steps of the scientific
method in the classroom problems.
- This type of research is done on a
vary limited scope
According to the choice to answers to problems
a. Evaluation research – all possible
courses of action are specified and
identified and the researcher.
b. Developmental research – the focus is
on finding or developing a more
suitable instrument or process that has
been available.
According to statistical content
a. Quantitative or statistical research – is
one in which inferential statistics are
utilized to determine the results of the
study.
b. Qualitative or non- Quantitative
research – this is the research in which
the use of the quantity or statistics is
practically not utilize.
According to time element
3 major research methods
1. Historical research – describe what was
2. Descriptive research – describe what is
3. Experimental research – describe what
will be.