Drilling the Pay Zone

The completion begins when the drill bit first penetrates the pay zone. Drilling the
pay zone is one of the most important parts of the drilling operation. The drilling
mud that is adequate for drilling other intervals of the well may not be acceptable
for the pay zone. Whereas formation damage created by the mud is acceptable in a
nonproductive interval, it cannot be tolerated in the zone intended for production.
A mud is needed that can control fluid loss into the formation without creating
permanent damage. The mud may require special treatment and may occasionally
need to be changed out to a nondamaging fluid.

There are several goals in drilling that are of interest to the completion engineer:

• Drilling a usable hole. A hole through the pay should accept the design size of
casing.

• Minimizing formation permeability damage. High drilling-mud overbalance

pressure, uncontrolled particle size, a mud filtrate that causes clay swelling, and
poor fluid-loss control may mask the response of a productive formation to a drill
stem test (DST) and may lead to the bypassing of a producing zone.

• Controlling washouts. Wellbore instability problems may cause hole

enlargements that make perforation and formation breakdown much more difficult.

Washout: refers to a situation where the wellbore or a section of the wellbore becomes enlarged
or eroded due to the action of drilling fluids, high-pressure formations, or other factors. This can
result in an uneven wellbore shape, which may affect the proper functioning of the well.

The most important aspects of a drilling mud, from a formation damage standpoint,
are to prevent loss of the drilling-mud filtrate and to make sure that any filtrate that
is lost will not react with the formation to reduce permeability. Fluid reactivity is
usually controlled by using potassium chloride or other salts to stabilize the clay in
the formation.1 Potassium chloride may not always control clay reactions or may
require as much as 4% or more salt where smectite clay is present in the larger
pore passages.
 Casing Design

Conductor pipe

The conductor pipe is the first casing that is run in the well. This casing is usually
large diameter and may be set with the spudding arm on the rig. (The spudding arm
drives in the casing.) The primary purpose of the conductor casing is to serve as a
flow line, allowing mud to return to the pits and stabilizing the upper part of a hole,
which may be composed of loose soil, It also provides a point for the installation of
a blowout preventer (BOP) or another type of diverter system.
Surface Casing

Surface casing, on the other hand, is the casing string that is installed immediately
after the conductor pipe. It serves as a barrier between the wellbore and the
surrounding formations to prevent fluid migration and maintain well integrity.
Surface casing is set to a certain depth below the surface, which is typically
determined based on regulatory requirements and the geologic conditions of the
area. This casing is also cemented in place to provide a seal between the casing and
the wellbore.

Intermediate casing

The intermediate string is the next string of casing, and it is usually in place and
cemented before higher mud weights are used. It allows control of the well in case
of subsurface pressure higher than the mud weight and inflow of fluids. An inflow
of well fluids encountered during the drilling or completion of the well is called a
kick and may be extremely hazardous if the flowing fluids are flammable or
contain hydrogen sulfide (sour gas). The intermediate casing may or may not be
cemented in place and, if not cemented, may be removed from the well if an open
hole completion is desired.

Liner

refers to a type of casing string that is used to reinforce or extend the casing in a
wellbore. It is usually a smaller-diameter pipe that is inserted into an existing
casing string to address specific drilling or production challenges. Liners are not
run from the surface like traditional casing strings but are instead hung from a
previous casing string within the wellbore.

Liners serve several purposes:

1. Casing Extension: Liners are often used to extend the casing string to reach
greater depths within the well. This can be necessary when drilling deeper
sections or encountering challenging geological formations.
2. Casing Repair: If a section of casing becomes damaged or compromised, a liner
can be inserted to cover the damaged area and restore the integrity of the well.
3. Zonal Isolation: Liners can be used to isolate specific zones within the
wellbore, preventing communication between different formations or reservoirs.
This is important for controlling the flow of fluids and optimizing production.
4. Casing Size Change: In some cases, a liner might be used to transition between
different casing sizes or to adapt to changing well conditions.

Production casing

The final casing run into the well is a string across the producing zone that is hung
from the surface and may be completely cemented to the surface. This string must
be able to withstand the full wellhead shut-in pressure if the tubing or the packer
fails. Also, it must contain the full bottom-hole pressure and any mud or workover
fluid kill weight when the tubing or packer is removed or replaced during
workovers. The decision on whether to cement the full string is based on pressure
control, economics, corrosion problems, pollution possibilities, and government
regulations.

Production line

Is a type of liner that is specifically designed for the purpose of facilitating

hydrocarbon production in oil and gas wells. Similar to a traditional liner, a
production liner is a smaller-diameter pipe that is inserted into a previous casing
string. However, the production liner is specifically installed to improve the
production performance of the well by addressing reservoir challenges or
optimizing fluid flow.
 Cementing

Cementing is one of the most critical steps in well completion. Sadly, because it
comes at the end of drilling, in the haste to put a well on production, the time and
commitment to get a good cement job done is not always taken. Consequently,
significantly more time and money is spent in correcting the cement job than
would have been required to do it correctly.

Primary cementing comprises the main isolation of the casing and liner strings,
where cement may extend from the shoe (or bottom) of the string to the surface or
to a design height that covers and isolates all flowable productive and corrosive
zones.

This process serves multiple important functions:

1. Zonal Isolation: The primary purpose of primary cementing is to create a

hydraulic seal between different geological formations and the casing string.
This zonal isolation prevents the migration of fluids between reservoirs or
between the wellbore and surrounding formations. Proper zonal isolation helps
prevent cross-contamination, maintains reservoir pressure, and reduces the risk
of environmental issues.
2. Wellbore Stability: Cement helps provide structural support to the wellbore,
preventing it from collapsing or caving in due to the weight of the casing and
other downhole equipment. This stability is essential during drilling and
production operations.
3. Wellbore Integrity: Cement forms a barrier that helps prevent the corrosion of
the casing and the potential for gas or fluid leaks from the wellbore. It
contributes to the overall integrity of the well by protecting it from external
forces and corrosive environments.
4. Casing Support: The cement bond between the casing and the wellbore wall
helps anchor the casing in place, preventing movement and ensuring proper
alignment within the wellbore.
The process of primary cementing involves several steps:

1. Cement Slurry Design: The cement slurry is formulated with specific additives
to achieve desired properties such as viscosity, density, and setting time. These
properties are tailored to the well's conditions and requirements.
2. Casing Placement: The casing string is lowered into the wellbore and
positioned at the desired depth. The casing is usually run with a casing
centralizer, which helps create an even annular space for the cement.
3. Cement Placement: The cement slurry is pumped down the casing and into the
annular space between the casing and the wellbore wall. The slurry is displaced
by drilling fluids, ensuring that it fills the entire annular space.
4. Cementing Head and Plug: After the cement slurry is in place, a cementing
head and plug are used to separate the cement slurry from the drilling fluid. The
plug prevents the two fluids from mixing.
5. Cement Setting: As the cement sets, it hardens and forms a solid barrier
between the casing and the wellbore wall. The setting time can vary based on
the cement formulation and well conditions.

Squeeze cementing is the operation of repairing a cement job that failed to

effectively protect or isolate the upper zones, In a squeeze job, cement is forced
into the zone through perforations, ports in tools, a hole produced by corrosion, or
the clearance between casing overlap liners or strings.

To create holes or perforations in the casing for a cement squeeze job, a specialized
tool called a perforating gun is used. Perforating guns are designed to create
openings or perforations in the casing and surrounding rock formations, allowing
for controlled communication between the wellbore and the reservoir or formation
targeted for cement squeeze.
Cement density

Controlling the cement slurry density is critical for placing a column of cement
where the formation may be fractured by a heavy slurry or would allow the well to
flow if the cement slurry was lighter than the pore pressure.

In some treatments in which lightweight cements are not used—whether based on

preference, economics, or reasons of strength—staging tools can be used to control
the pressures on a zone by running a multistage cement job. A staged job separates
the cement job into small cement jobs that only support a portion of the total
column and weight. The tools prevent the cement columns from contacting each
other until set. An example of a cement-staging tool is seen in figure 11–15. The
simplest tool uses a drillable plug to seat the pipe below the tool and to open a set
of ports, allowing the next cement stage to turn the corner and start up the annulus.
Some tools are equipped with a seal device that, by creating channels or by
exerting more pressure on the lower zones, prevents cement from falling down the
annulus and ruining the job. With these tools, even a deep well with several zones
can be cemented by turning the job into several consecutive jobs.