WEEK 2

ELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)

INTRODUCTION

Electro-chemical Machining (ECM) is one of the recent and most useful machining process. In
this process, electrolysis method is used to remove the metal from the work piece. It is best
suited for the metals and alloys which are difficult to be machined by mechanical machining
processes.

Principle of ECM

This process is based on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electrolysis which may be stated as
follows

1. The first law states that the amount of any material dissolved or deposited, is proportional
to the quantity of electricity passed.
2. The second law proposes that the amount of change produced in the material is
proportional to its electrochemical equivalent of the material.

Basically in electroplating, the metal is deposited on the work piece, while in ECM, the
objective is to remove the metal from the work piece. So, the reverse of electroplating is applied
in ECM process. Therefore, the work piece is connected to positive terminal (anode) and the tool
is connected to negative terminal (cathode). When the current is passed, the workpiece loses
metal and the dissolved metal is carried out by circulating an electrolyte between the work and
tool.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF ECM PROCESS

Construction

• The schematic arrangement of ECM process is shown in fig

• It consists of work piece, tool, servomotor for controlled tool feed, D.C power supply,
electrolyte, pump, motor for pump, filter for incoming electrolyte and reservoir for
electrolyte.
• A shaped tool (electrode) is used in this process, which is connected to negative terminal
(cathode) and the workpiece is connected to positive terminal (anode).

• The tools used in this process should be made up of the materials which have enough
thermal and electrical conductivity, high chemical resistance to electrolyte and adequate
stiffness and machinability.
• The widely used tool materials are stainless steel, titanium, brass and copper.
• The tool is of hollow tabular type as shown in figure and an electrolyte is circulated
between the work and tool.
• Most widely used electrolyte in this process is sodium nitrate solution. Sodium chloride
solution in water is a good alternative but it is more corrosive than the former. Some
 other chemicals used in this process are sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphate, sodium
flouride, potassium nitrate and potassium chloride.
• Servomotor is used for controlling the tool feed and the filter is used to remove the dust
particles from the electrolytic fluid.

Working

• The tool and workpiece are held close to each other with a very small gap (0.05 to
0.5mm) between them by using servo motor.
• The electrolyte from the reservoir is pumped at high pressure and flows through the gap
between the workpiece and tool at a velocity of 30 to 60m/s.
• A mild D.C. Voltage about 5 to 30 volts is applied between the tool and workpiece.
• Due to the applied voltage, the current flows through the electrolyte with positively
charged ions and negatively charged ions. The positive ions move towards the tool
(cathode) while negative ions move towards workpiece (anode).
• The electrochemical reaction takes place due to this flow of ions and it causes the
removal of metal from the workpiece in the form of sludge.

Analysis of Metal Removal

In Electro chemical machining process, electrolysis method is used to remove the metal from
the work piece.

A mild DC Voltage of about 5 to 30Volts is applied between the tool and work piece. So the
current in water flows through the electrolyte (solution of NaCl) with charged ions. Many
chemical reactions occur at the cathode and the anode.
The following reactions are possible at the Cathode (Tool)

Na+ + e− = Na

Na + H2O = Na(OH) + H+

2H+ + 2e− = H2 ↑ (Hydrogen evolution)

It shows that there is no deposition on tool but only gas (H2) is formed.

The following reactions occur at the Anode (Iron (Fe) Work piece)

Fe Fe++ + 2e−

Fe++ + 2Cl− FeCl2

Fe++ + 2(OH) − Fe(OH)2

FeCl2 + 2(OH) Fe(OH)2 + 2Cl−

It shows the work piece (Fe) goes into solution and hence machined. In this reaction it produces
iron-chloride (FeCl2) and iron-hydroxide (Fe(OH)2) as a precipitate. This precipitate is taken
away by the electrolyte which is circulated between the work and tool.

According to Faraday’s first and second law of electrolysis

𝐸𝐼𝑡
W=
𝐹

Where W = Mass of ions dissolved in kg.ion

E = Equivalent weight of a substance dissolved or deposited

I = Current flowing through the electrolyte cell in ampheres

t = Time in seconds

F = Faraday’s constant = 96,500 coulombs = 26.8 Amp.hr = 26.8*60 = 1609Amp.min

Assuming that all the current flowing through the electrolytic cell is used in the desired metal
removal process, i.e., 100% current efficiency. The rate of metal removal is given by

𝑊
Metal Removal Rate (MRR) = m/s
𝐴𝜌𝑡

Where A = Machined area in m2

ρ = Density of the work piece in kg/m3

𝐄𝐈
By substitution we get, MRR =
𝐅𝐀𝛒

𝐕 𝐄
The feed rate of electrode is given by f=𝛒 𝐗
𝐬 𝐡 𝐅𝛒

Where V = Machined voltage, volts

ρs = Specific resistance of electrolyte in ohm-m

 h = Tool work gap, mm

It is noted that the gap (h) is directly proportional to applied voltage (V) and inversely
proportional to the feed rate (f).

In actual ECM process, the actual metal removal rate may differ from theoretical calculations
due to conditions not being ideal and other factors influencing the same.

It is clear that the material removal rate increases with current and the machine can be operated
at the highest feed rate condition. The following factors which affect the current flow are

1. Gas evolution (H2) at the cathode surface may reduce the current flow.
2. Polarized ionic layers may build up at electrode, causing large voltage drops near the
surfaces.
3. When electrolyte is heated more, it results in boiling. It automatically reduces the
electrolyte action.

Problem 1: During electrochemical machining of iron with a copper electrode working in a

5(M) Nacl solution in water, an equilibrium gap of 0.0125cm has been achieved at a current
density of 150Amp/cm2. If the operating voltage has been 10v, determine the feed rate (f) of the
tool.

Given, Sp resistance of Nacl solution, ρs = 30ohm-cm, Valency at which iron is dissolute, v = 2,

Density of iron ρ = 7.8gm/cm3.

Soln:

E = Equivalent weight of a substance dissolved or deposited = M/v = 5/2 = 2.5

V = 10v, h = 0.0125cm, F = 1609 Amp.min

𝐕 𝐄 𝟏𝟎 𝟐.𝟓
Feed rate f = 𝐗 = 𝐗 = 0.020cm/s
𝛒𝐬 𝐡 𝐅 𝛒 𝟑𝟎 𝐱 𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟗 𝐱 𝟕.𝟖
Problem 2: In a certain electrochemical dissolution process of iron, a metal removal rate of
3cm3/min was desired. Determine the amount of current required for the process, assuming:
Atomic weight of iron, M = 56gm, Valency, v =2, Density of iron, ρ = 7.8gm/cm3.

Soln:

E = Equivalent weight of a substance dissolved or deposited = M/v = 56/2 = 28

MRR = 3cm3/min

𝐄𝐈 28 X I
Now, MRR = , 3=
𝐅𝐀𝛒 1609 X 1 X 7.8

I = 1344.6Amp

Problem 3: Calculate the MRR in an anodic dissolution process of chromium, if the current
density available has been 250Amp/cm2. Assume atomic weight of chromium, M = 52gm,
valency of chromium, v = 2, Density of chromium ρ = 7.2gm/cm3.

Soln:

E = Equivalent weight of a substance dissolved or deposited = N/v = 52/2 = 26

𝐄𝐈 26 X 250
Now, MRR = = = 0.561cm3/min.
𝐅 𝐀 𝛒 1609 X 1 X 7.2

Problem 4: While machining tungsten, a MRR of 0.98cc/min has been observed at 1000amp.
Evaluate the valency at which the metal has been electrochemically dissoluted. Assume Atomic
weight of tungsten M=186gm, density of tungsten ρ = 19.4gm/cc, F = 1609amp-min.

Soln:

E = Equivalent weight of a substance dissolved or deposited = M/v = 186/v

v = Valency at which the metal has been electrochemically dissoluted

𝐄𝐈 E X 1000
Now, MRR = , 0.98 =
𝐅𝐀𝛒 1609 X 1 X 19.4

E = 30.59

E = M/v, 3059 = 186/v ⸫ v = 5.88 = 6

Tool material, Tool Design and Insulation

• Since the tool has no contact with the workpiece, there is no tool wear. So any material that is
good conductor of electricity can be used as tool material.
• The general requirements of tool material in ECM process are
1. It must be a conductor of electricity.
2. It must be chemically insert to the electrolyte.
3. It must be easily machinable.
4. It must be rigid enough to take up the load due to fluid pressure.
• Most commonly used tool materials are copper, brass, titanium, copper-tungsten and stainless
steel when the electrolyte is made of sodium or potassium. The other materials are aluminum,
graphite, bronze, platinum and tungsten carbide.
• The following table shows the properties of some of the tool materials.
• Electroforming and cold forging are used for tool shaping.
• As the surface finish of the workpiece mainly depends upon the condition of the bottom face
of the tool, that portion of tool should be polished.

ECM tool materials properties

 • The tool is made hallow for drilling holes so that electrolyte can pass along the bore in
tool.
• Figure shows the shape of tool to produce holes with minimum taper and excellent finish.
The outer surface of tool is insulated by vinyl, Teflon, enamels or high temperature
varnish as shown in fig.

The following features may be noted

1. Insulation on the sides of tool permits machining at bottom surface only. So, there is no
ECM effect on sides and thus no tapering effect.
2. Provision of radii at bottom avoids turbulence and break of flow. It also encourages
uniform electrolyte flow around the corner.
3. The electrolyte is made to flow from the inside of the tool cut, around the cutting edges
and up through the hole.

While designing the tool, the following two aspects are important

1. Determine the tool shape, so that the desired shape of the job is obtained under existing
machining conditions.
2. Design the tool by considering the electrolyte flow, insulation strength and fixing
arrangements.
ELECTROLYTE

• In ECM process the electrolyte is used for the following purposes

1. It carries the current between the tool and work piece.
2. It cools the cutting zone which becomes hot due to the flow of high current
3. It removes products of machining from the cutting zone.
• Electrolyte can be selected on the basis of material to be machined. The sodium and the
potassium salts are most commonly used as electrolytes.

• The electrolyte solution is pumped between the tool and work piece gap at a pressure of
2.5N/mm2 and at a velocity of about 30-60m/s.
• It may be noted that the low electrolyte temperature results in low metal removal rate and
high temperature leads to vaporization of the electrolyte. So, it is maintained around 350C
to 650C.
• Since some electrolytes are naturally corrosive, the ECM equipment should be made of
stainless steel or plastics.
• The essential characteristics of electrolyte are as follows
➢ It should be good conductor of electricity
➢ It should have non corrosive property
➢ It should be non-toxic and chemical stable
➢ It should have low viscosity and high specific heat.
SURFACE FINISHING

The following factors govern the accuracy of the parts produced by ECM.

1. Machining voltage.
2. Tool feed rate.
3. Temperature of electrolyte.
4. Concentration of electrolyte.

The surface finish in ECM process is of the order 0.2 to 0.8 micron with a tolerance of the order
0.005 mm depending on the work material and the electrolyte used.

ADVANTAGES OF ECM PROCESS

1. The metal removal rate by this process is quite high for strength-temperature resistant
(HSTR) materials compared to conventional machining processes.
2. Wear and tear of tool is negligible.
3. Machining is done at low voltage.
4. Intricate and complex shapes can be machined easily through this process.
5. The machined work surface is free of stresses.
6. No cutting forces are involved in the process.
7. High surface finish, of the order of 0.2 to 0.8 microns, can be obtained.
8. Very thin sections, such as sheet metal, can be easily machined without any damage.
9. It is an accurate process and close tolerances of the order 0.005 mm can bee easily
obtained.
10. No burrs are produced and this process can be easily automated.
11. Toughness and brittleness of a material has no effect on the machining process.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Non conducting materials cannot be machined.

2. Consumption of power is nearly 100 times more than in turning or milling the steel.
3. Machining process is comparatively slow
4. Initial investment is quite high
5. More space is required
 6. To vary the tool feed rate and supply of electrolyte, constant monitoring is needed.
7. Difficulty in designing a proper tooling system.

APPLICATIONS OF ECM

1. Machining complicated profiles, such as jet engine blades, turbine blades, turbine wheels
etc.
2. Drilling small deep holes, such as in nozzles.
3. Machining of cavities and holes of irregular shapes.
4. Machining of blind holes and pockets, such as in forging dies.
5. Machining of hard materials and heat resistant materials.

LIMITATION OF ECM

1. Sharp internal corners cannot be obtained.

2. Post machining cleaning is needed to reduce the corrosion of the workpieces.
3. Tool design is very complicated and it requires cut and dry method to achieve the final
shape.
4. Complicated control is needed for the maintenance of higher tolerances.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ECM

1. Metal removal technique- based on faraday’s laws of Electrolysis and reverse

electroplating.
2. Work material – difficult to machine materials(conducting materials)
3. Tool material – Copper, Brass or Steel.
4. Voltage – 5-30V
5. Current – 50-40,000 A
6. Metal removal rate – 27mm3/s
7. Electrolyte – 20% NaCl solution in water, mixture of brine and H2SO4
8. Surface finish – 0.2 to 0.8 µm
9. Tolerance – 0.005mm
10. Specific power consumption – 7W/mm3/min
 CHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM)
INTRODUCTION

In chemical energy method, the metal is removed from the workpiece through controlled etching
of the workpiece material in contact with a chemical solution

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

• In this process , material is removed from the workpiece through a controlled etching or
chemical attack of the workpiece material
• Material can be removed from selected area of a workpiece or from the entire surface of
the workpiece, according to requirement.
• If selective machining is desired, the areas of the workpiece which not to be machined
are covered with a resistant material, called a resist or maskant.
• The workpiece to be machined is first cleaned in trichloroethylene vapor or in a solution
of mild alkaline at 85 to 950 c , followed by washing in clean water .This removes dust
and oil from the workpiece .
• After cleaning, the workpiece is dried and coated with the maskant material.
• The workpiece is then immersed in a chemical reagent as shown in figure .So, chemical
reactions takes places and the metal is removed from the workpiece .The metal is
removed by the chemical conversion of the metal into metallic salt.
• The time of immersion of the workpiece depends upon the amount of material removed
by chemical action.
• The chemical etching agent depends upon work material. Caustic soda is used as etching
reagent for aluminium, solution of hydrochloric and nitric acids for steel and iron
chloride for stainless steels.
• In order to obtain a uniform depth metal removal, temperature control and stirring of
chemical reagent is important.
• After machining, the workpiece should be washed thoroughly to prevent reaction with
any chemical etching reagent residues.
ETCHANTS

• The chemical reagent (etchants) is used to remove the metal from the workpiece .
The metal is removed by the chemical conversions of the metal into metallic salt.
• The chemical etching reagent depends upon work material. The following table
shows the etchant for different materials

MASKANTS

In chemical machining process, the areas of the workpiece which are not be machined are
covered with a resistant material, called a resist or maskant.

The following table shows the maskants for different materials.

METHODS OF MASKING

The usual methods of masking are:

(i) Scribed and Peeled maskants

(ii) Photoresists maskants

(i) Scribed and Peeled Maskants

In this method, a maskants (like point) is applied to the entire surface of the
workpiece by dip, spray, brush or stencil. After the maskant hardens, it removed from
those surfaces where material removal is desired. The maskant is removed by
scribing with knife and peeling away the desired surface. Templates can be used to
assist in scribing. This method is used when critical dimensional tolerances are not
required.

(ii) Photoresists Maskants

• It is an excellent method of masking, especially for complex work. This method
is used for thin sections and components requiring closed dimensional
tolerances.
• The workpiece to be machined is thoroughly cleaned and decreased by acid or
alkalis. The cleaned metal is dried and photo resist material is applied to the
workpiece by dipping, spraying, brushing or roller coating.
• The coating is then dried and hardened by heating in an oven upto about 125 0C.
 • The design of the part to be machined is prepared at a magnification of upto 100
x. The master drawing is photographed and reduced to the size of the finished
part.
• The master photographic negative is placed over the dried photo resist coated
surface of the workpiece and exposed to ultraviolet light , which hardness the
exposed areas .
• After exposure, the workpiece is then developed by immersing it into a tank
which contains an organic solvent bath solution.
• The unexposed portions are dissolved out during the developing process, while
the exposed portions remain on the workpiece.
• Finally the treated workpiece is dipped into the etching solution. After 5 to 15
minutes, the unwanted metal is removed from the workpiece and the finished
part is washed thoroughly to eliminate all chemical residues

METAL REMOVAL RATE

Metal removal rate mainly depends upon the selected etchant. Metal removal rate is fast with
certain etchant. It increases undercutting, poor surface finish and more heating takes place. So,
each rate is limited to 0.02 to 0.04 mm/min. Etching rate and depth of cut are high for hard
metals (titanium alloys , stainless steel and heat resistant alloys ) and low for softer materials
(aluminium ) . With optimum time, temperature and solution control, accuracies of the order of
+/- 0.01 mm is obtained. Surface finish of the order of 5 microns is produced. The size of the
work piece that can be treated is limited to the size of the tank in which the workpiece is dipped
for etching.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL MACHINING PROCESS

The chemical machining process can be classified as follows:

(i) Chemical Blanking.

(ii) Chemical Milling (Contour Machining).
(iii) Chemical Engraving
(i) Chemical Blanking

In chemical blanking, the material is etched entirely on the workpiece. It is used for
cutting out parts from thin sheet metals or foil sheets.

Chemical blanking process is a prominent nontraditional machining process for

producing machined features on thin plates and foil material using a suitable etching
solution, which were generally produced by mechanical blanking presses. Chemical
blanking penetrates the job material entirely such as features like slots, holes, etc. The
method blanks total parts of the desired profile from a sheet of material by chemical
etching. In this process, the blanking operation is performed by utilizing different
masking techniques, e.g., photo resist, screen printing masking and cut and peel
methods. Various difficulties such as backlash, part distortion and vibrations have been
occurred during production of smaller parts using mechanical blanking presses. But,
these types of problems are not occurred during chemical blanking using a favorable
solution. This process has mainly four steps,
1. Workpiece pre cleaning
2. Masking (Fig a)
3. Etching (Fig b to d)
4. De-masking
(ii) Chemical Milling (Contour Machining)

In contour machining, the material is selectively etched from certain areas on the
workpiece. It is used for removing metal from thicker work pieces.

Chemical milling is a process used to produce shapes by chemical etching selective

portion of material from the relatively large surface area of work metal. The main
purpose is to produce shallow cavity with complex profiles on plates, sheets forging,
generally for the overall reduction of weight.

Steps in Chemical Milling process:

1. Workpiece pre cleaning process

2. Masking and Scribing mask
3. Etching
4. Cleaning masking material

(iii) Chemical Engraving: It is a process of printing and printmaking techniques in which

the image is incised into a surface by high-pressure high-temperature chemical spray to
remove material to create a permanent etched image in metal. A mask or resist is
applied to the surface of the material and is selectively removed, exposing the metal, to
create the desired image

APPLICATION OF CHEMICAL MACHINING PROCESS

• Chemical machining process is applied in great number of usages where the depth of
metal removal is critical to a few microns and the tolerances are close.
• The major application of chemical machining is in the manufacture of burr free
components.

ADVATAGES OF CHEMICAL MACHINIG PROCESS

• Burr –free components are produced.

• Most difficult to machine materials can be processed.
• High surface finish is obtained.
 • Any metal can be machined.
• Stress free components are produced.
• Since the process is comparatively simple, there is no need of highly skilled labor.
• Both faces of the workpiece can be machined simultaneously.
• Hard and brittle materials can be machined.
• Tooling cost is very low.
• Complex contours can be easily machined.

DISADVANTAGES OF CHEMICAL MACHINING PROCESS

• Since the process is slow, metal removal rate is low.

• Manufacturing cost is high.
• Workpiece thickness, that can be machined, is limited.
• Large floor area is needed.
• It is not possible to produce sharp corners