Alignment

Procedures
Why is it important to align a vehicle?
 Outcome
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:

Perform a wheel alignment.

 Rationale
Why is it important for you to learn this skill?

Wheel alignments are preformed to restore a vehicle to the

handling characteristics
the manufacturer intended. Understanding the process to perform
a wheel
alignment will allow you to perform efficiently repair customer
handling complaints.
 Objectives
1. Select the appropriate alignment settings within specifications for a
given vehicle and load.

2. Perform a pre-alignment inspection and identify faulty components.

3. Perform a wheel alignment to adjust primary alignment angles.

4. Adjust steering linkage to establish the toe setting and center the
steering wheel.

5. Describe a road test procedure to verify alignment or alignment

problems.
 Objective One
Select the appropriate alignment settings within specifications for a given
vehicle and load.

Selecting Steering Angles

The goal of selecting steering angles is to determine the optimum
setting to
provide the best possible combination of the following three
characteristics.
 Selecting Steering Angles
1. Ease of steering means the driver must be comfortable with the amount
of effort
it takes to steer the vehicle. Ease of steering also refers to how
manageable the
vehicle is to control(handling characteristics)

2. Steering stability refers to the vehicle's tendency to go straight. It is

important
that the vehicle always have a tendency to travel in a straight line. After
negotiating a turn, the steering wheel should return to the straight-ahead
position.

3. Reduced tire wear means tires wear evenly and do not develop
abnormal wear
patterns.
 Selecting Steering Angles
Manufacturers sometimes design vehicles to favour one of these
characteristics at the expense of another. For example cars optimized for
handling often have extreme amount of negative chamber to enhance
cornering traction, this added traction comes at the expense of tire wear.

However, large luxury cars are often designed to be very stable; this
stability reduces the ease of steering and affects the handling characteristics
of the car.

Before adjusting steering angles you need to have a goal for what you want
to
accomplish. Decide on the optimum steering angle settings first. The
optimum steering
angle settings vary depending on the type of vehicle and its intended use.
 Units of Measurement
Steering angles are measured in degrees with the exception of toe
which may be
expressed in degrees or as a linear measurement.

Degrees
An angle is measured in degrees, where a full circle is 360
degrees. Figure 1
illustrates the concept of degrees.
 Degrees

Steering angle measurements are taken from a specific line of

reference; either true vertical or the geometric centre line of the
vehicle. This line of reference is zero degrees.
Readings vary to either side of zero degrees and are expressed
as
positive or negative depending on the direction they deviate
from zero
degrees (Figure below). For example, with positive caster the
steering axis leans rearward from vertical (zero degrees) and
when caster is negative the steering axis is leaning forward from
vertical (zero degrees).
The exception to this rule is SAI which is always a positive value.
 Degrees

Alignment angles are either positive or negative degrees.

Compared to the 360° we see in the circle of Figure above
alignment specifications are very small. A typical camber range
might be from 0.25° to 1.25°. It is important to realize that
whenever alignment angles are adjusted, you are only changing the
angle by a very small amount, often only fractions of a degree.
Steering angles are commonly expressed as fractions or decimals.
However, some
manufacturers express specifications in minutes (') and seconds (").
1degree = 60 minutes,
1 minute = 60 seconds
This means that 0.25° = 1/4 of 60' or 15'. You have to be familiar
with all of these
methods for expressing alignment readings and specifications.
 Linear
Specifications for toe may be published in linear units such as
millimetres, or
decimal inches However, some manufacturers do publish their
specs in degrees and
minutes. An approximate conversion is 0.25º= 3mm (0.125
inches).
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) What are the three characteristics to consider when
selecting steering angle values?
2) What are steering angles measured in?
 Specifications
Vehicle manufacturers publish wheel alignment specifications in the
service
information for each specific make and model. After-market parts suppliers
and alignment equipment manufacturers produce alignment specification
manuals that include specifications for all makes and models. Alignment
machines are also equipped with the latest vehicle specifications.
Alignment angle specifications establish safe operating parameters for the
specific vehicle. If the vehicle is set within these parameters, it should
function to the level of performance that was intended when it was built.
Straying from these specifications may produce dangerous handling
characteristics and abnormal tire wear.
 Specification Range
The first step in angle selection is to find the minimum, maximum and
nominal
values for each angle.

Wheel alignment specifications establish the minimum and maximum

settings for
each angle. In the camber specification example in Table 1, the range
for camber on
this vehicle is from 0.50° to 1.50°. Any settings outside this range are
not acceptable.
Sometimes specifications are listed as either a preferred or nominal
setting with a
specified amount of tolerance. When specifications are published this
way, you have
to convert this specification to a range. For example, caster
specifications (Table 2)
for a vehicle may be published as:

Caster Range (tolerance)

This specification means the nominal setting is 2°, but it can safely be
adjusted
higher by 0.50° or adjusted lower by 0.50°.
To convert this specification to a range, do these calculations.
1) To calculate the maximum setting add the tolerance value to the
nominal setting
Maximum value calculation 2º + 0.50º = 2.50º
2) To calculate the minimum setting subtract the tolerance value
from the nominal
setting.
Minimum value calculation 2º - 0.50º = 1.50º
The range for this specification is 1.50° to 2.50°.

Caster Range (minimum and

maximum)
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) What is the first step in angle selection?

2) If a specification range have no sign in front of it, it is

assumed to be what?
 Front Caster and Camber Angle Selection
Selecting the most positive caster the specifications allows
increases stability, but
also increases steering effort. The most positive setting is 2.5°.
Therefore 2.50° is the
Ideal caster setting for this vehicle with power assisted steering.
Conversely, if the
vehicle had manual steering, you should select the lowest caster
setting the
specification allows for ease of steering. The ideal caster setting
for manual steering
would be 1.50°.
 Front Caster and Camber Angle Selection

Although the manufacturer allows some tolerance, each angle

should be set the
same from side to side. Equal angle settings ensure that the
steering and suspension
systems react to the road the same way and produce predictable
directional control
while minimizing tire wear. However, most roads are crowned for
drainage and tend
to pull the vehicle to the right
Road crown causes the vehicle to pull right
 Caster and Camber Angle Selection Rules
To offset this tendency to follow the road crown, caster and camber
can be adjusted to create a slight pull to the left. A total pull of
0.50° to the left is desirable. This offsetting pull can be created
using one of the following three rules.
• Nominal rule.
• All pull through camber rule.
• All pull through caster rule.
 Nominal Rule
Adjust caster and camber so that each angle provides a 0.25° pull to the left.
This is
the preferred way of achieving the required pull; however, circumstances may
prevent you from using it. For example, if the caster on the vehicle is not
adjustable,
or the adjustments are at the end of their limits, the nominal rule cannot be
used.
All Pull Through Camber Rule
Adjust camber to provide a 0.50º pull to the left. Adjust caster to the same value
on the right and left sides.
All Pull Through Caster Rule
Adjust caster is to provide a 0.50º pull to the left. Adjust camber to the same
value
on the right and left sides. Any difference in caster from side to side is cross
caster.
Similarly, any difference in camber from side to side is cross camber. Some
manufactures specify a maximum amount of cross caster and cross camber.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) What is the Nominal Rule?

2) Setting the left front wheel with slightly more camber

than the right will compensates for what?
 All Pull Through Caster Rule
Adjust caster is to provide a 0.50º pull to the left. Adjust camber to
the same value
on the right and left sides. Any difference in caster from side to
side is cross caster.
Similarly, any difference in camber from side to side is cross
camber. Some
manufactures specify a maximum amount of cross caster and
cross camber.

Use the table in the next slide to apply the rules for properly
selecting caster and camber for the vehicle you are working on.
 Rear Camber Selection
Rear camber does not contribute to the directional stability of the
vehicle. The
camber on the left and right rear should be set to the nominal
value.
Front and Rear Toe Selection
Toe is always set to the same value on the right and left sides on
the same axle.
Toe specification may be expressed as the total toe specification or
as the individual
toe specification for each wheel. The method of selecting the
proper value varies
depending on how the specification is expressed.
Total Toe Specification
If the toe specification is expressed as a total toe specification, you
divide the nominal value by two and apply the result to each
For example:
• Total toe specification is 0.20º ± 0.10º (the nominal value is
0.20º)
• 0.20º ÷ 2= 0.10º
• Set the left and right toe to 0.10º.
Individual Toe Specification
If the specification is expressed as individual toe specification, you
adjust the left and
right toe to the nominal value.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) If the toe specification is expressed as a total toe
specification, what value is the nominal number
divided by?

2) Any difference in caster from side to side is called ?

3) Any difference in camber from side to side is called?

 Objective One Exercise
Exercise 1
Wheel Alignment for 2009 Toyota Prius
1. Calculate the range of each angle from the specification given
2. Circle all of the current settings that are not within specifications.

3. Using the current setting, what are the possible customer

complaints? Circle all that apply.

Left Pull Right Pull Steering wheel off centre

LF tire wear RF tire wear LR tire wear RR tire wear
4. Using the specifications, fill in the rear camber.

5. Using the specifications, fill in the rear toe settings

6. Using the nominal rule, fill in the settings

7. Using the equal camber rule, fill in the settings

8. Using the equal caster rule, fill in the settings

9. Using the specifications, fill in the front toe settings

 Exercise 2
Wheel Alignment for 2011 Chevrolet Corvette
1. Calculate the range of each angle from the specifications given

2. Circle all of the current settings that are not within

specifications.
3. Using the current setting, what are the possible customer
complaints? Circle all that apply.
Left Pull Right Pull Steering wheel off centre
LF tire wear RF tire wear LR tire wear RR tire
wear

4. Using the specifications, fill in the rear camber settings

5. Using the specification, fill in the rear toe settings

6. Using the nominal rule, fill in the settings

7. Using the equal camber rule, fill in the settings

8. Using the equal caster rule, fill in the settings

9. Using the specifications, fill in the front toe settings

Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
End of Chunk
 Objective Two
Perform a pre-alignment inspection and identify faulty components.
Perform a pre-alignment inspection to locate and identify faulty components.

Alignment Procedure Summary

Before you begin the wheel alignment procedure, familiarize yourself with the
steps
and sequence you must follow to achieve the desired result. It is critical that you
accurately complete each of the steps and treat each part as vital and important.

1. Before bringing the vehicle inside the shop look it over for obvious
damage,
uneven ride height and the general position of each wheel in its
wheelhouse.
Mentally note any condition that may require specific investigation.
Interview
the customer and road-test the vehicle.
2. Centre the vehicle on the alignment rack and be sure the rack is
level.

3. Perform a thorough pre-alignment inspection including tire pressure,

tracking,
ride height and all steering and suspension components (front and
rear).

4. Mount the runout clamps and sensors as specified in the set-up

instructions for
your alignment equipment.

5. Raise the vehicle off the rack and compensate each head for run-out.

6. Lock the brakes using a brake pedal depressor and unlock the
turntables.
7. Lower the vehicle and jounce front and rear. A firm jounce (bounce)
of the
suspension ensures the vehicle settles at its normal ride height.

8. With the sensors locked, perform the caster sweep. Generally,

caster and SAI are
measured simultaneously. Measure the toe-out on turns. Steer the
vehicle ahead
(sometimes called split the toe). The front wheels must be straight
ahead relative
to the rear wheels.

9. Record the readings.

10. Review the caster and camber selection rules and choose the ideal
settings for thevehicle you are working on.
11. Once you have determined the settings you want to end up
with, you are ready to begin the actual adjustments.

12. Begin with the rear adjustments.

13. Adjust rear camber, rear toe and thrust line.

14. Move to the front and adjust caster, camber and toe
(remember turning radius and SAI are not adjustable).

15. Centre the steering wheel and you are ready for a road test.
 Pre-Alignment Inspection
Before making any alignment adjustments, you must thoroughly
inspect all steering
and suspension components. Damaged or worn suspension parts
and steering parts
must be replaced to ensure safety and accurate setting of
alignment angles. Do not
perform alignment adjustments on any vehicle that has steering
and/or suspension
components worn beyond manufacturer specifications. Before
bringing the vehicle
into the shop for an alignment you must first interview the
customer, walk around
the vehicle and do a thorough visual inspection and, finally, road-
test the vehicle.
 Interview the Customer
Often customers request an alignment because of a perceived
problem. For this
reason you need to talk to your customer and find the reason behind
the request. If
you just do an alignment and it does not fix their problem, you have
an unhappy
customer, even if you did a very good job. Sometimes customers
complain about
normal characteristics of their vehicle. A good example of this is
variable assist
power steering (VAPS). This system is relatively new to the automotive
market and is
designed to prevent drivers from oversteering, especially at high
speed, by
increasing steering effort.
If this increased steering effort is perceived as a problem, a wheel alignment
will not correct it. In this case, you cure the problem by educating the customer.
Find out about your customer's driving habits. Hauling heavy items, trailer
towing,
highway/city driving and even carpooling affect the way an alignment needs to
be
performed.
Visual Inspection
The first step in performing a pre-alignment inspection is a thorough visual
examination.
Before bringing the vehicle into the shop, look for obvious damage and subtle
signs
that may indicate specific areas that require a more detailed inspection when
you
get the vehicle in your stall. Make mental notes, or even written notes, about
any
conditions that you notice during your inspection.
Stand back from the vehicle and ask yourself some questions.
• When viewing the vehicle from the side, does the vehicle sit level
?
• Does it have a tail-down or nose-down attitude?
• When viewing the vehicle from the front or rear, does it lean to
one side? If it
does not sit level, it may have weak or broken spring(s) or even
frame damage.
Study each wheel in relation to the wheelhouse.
• Is each wheel centred in its wheelhouse?
• Compare the front wheels. Are they both about the same
distance from the rear
edge of the wheelhouse?
- If they are not, the vehicle could have setback resulting from
damaged
suspension parts or frame damage.
• Visually compare the rear wheels. Are they about the same
distance from the
front of the wheelhouse ?
If they are not, the tracking may be off or there could be
suspension or
frame damage at the rear.
Is each wheel centred in its wheelhouse?
Next, inspect the body sheet metal alignment. Body alignment,
frame
alignment and wheel alignment overlap, so a misalignment in one
area can affect
another.
Does the hood fit squarely in the hood opening? Do the doors have
an even gap all
around? If the sheet metal does not fit properly, this could mean
the vehicle has
hidden damage or has been repaired improperly.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) What steps should be done before doing the
alignment?

2) Why is it important to interview the customer ?

3) Can an alignment be done on a vehicle with worn

steering/or suspension components?
 Road Test
Once you have visually examined the vehicle, road-test it to verify
the customer
complaint and experience first-hand the steering and handling
characteristics of the
vehicle. During the road test analyze the handling characteristics
as you follow a pre-
determined course. The route you choose should have:
• a section that is straight and flat,
• a spot where you can safely stop and start,
• several dips or bumps,
• an area requiring several right and left hand turns and
• a large open area like your parking lot.
Use the straight, flat road to check for directional stability (tendency to go
straight),
looseness in the steering and steering wheel position. Pulling to one side (lead),
play
In the steering wheel or an off-centre steering wheel will often prompt
customers to
request an alignment.
Where the vehicle can safely be brought to a stop, watch for a brake pull. Some
customers blame the pull caused by the brakes on the alignment. After coming
to a
complete stop, start out again, accelerating moderately, and look for torque
steer.
Driving over dips and bumps is a good way to detect bump steer. Bump steer is
a
term used to describe steering wheel movement or a vehicle's change in
direction
while the steering and suspension systems are reacting to a bump or dip in the
road.
Other less common terms used to describe bump steer are orbital steer
and roll
steer. A misaligned steering rack, worn or misadjusted idler arm or bent
steering
components are the most common causes of bump steer. The dips and
bumps are
also useful for detecting weak shocks, springs or struts.
Driving in an area that requires right and left turns helps you determine if
the vehicle
recovers quickly from turns (does the steering wheel return to centre
after a turn?).
Watch for memory steer, which is a pull in the direction the vehicle was
last turned.
Memory steer results from binding in either the steering linkage or ball
joints and
causes the vehicle to pull. Also watch for body roll during this part of the
road test.
Finally, if you are working on a front wheel drive vehicle, you
should test the CV
joints.
If the CV joints have to be replaced later, the wheel alignment will
have to be
repeated, so check them first. Move into an open lot, cramp the
steering wheel to
the left and make several full circles. Then make several cramped
turns to the right.
Listen for telltale clicking sounds that may indicate worn outboard
CV joints.
Straighten the vehicle out and accelerate and brake a couple of
times, listening for
clunking sounds that may indicate inboard CV joint problems
Your road test should give you an accurate expectation of what your
pre-alignment
inspection will reveal. Once you have made all of your repairs and
adjusted the
wheel alignment angles, you should follow this same procedure for the
post-
alignment road test to verify the handling improvements and that the
steering wheel
is straight.
Wheels and Tires
Having completed the visual inspection and road test, you are ready to
bring the
vehicle into the shop and begin the pre-alignment inspection. Start with
the wheels
and tires. All four wheels should be the same diameter, width and offset
and be free
from all damage.
All four tires must be in reasonable condition. All that is between
the vehicle and the
road are the tires. For the vehicle to have predictable directional
control, the tires
must be the same (from side to side) and in good condition.
Check the tires for the following. (next slide)
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) What is Bump steer?

2) What are the common cause of Bump steer?

3) What is Memory steer?

4) What are the common causes of Memory steer?

 Tracking
Although you will be measuring tracking with the alignment equipment during
the
actual alignment procedure, it is necessary to measure it during the pre-
alignment
inspection. If the vehicle tracking is not correct, that may indicate damage
and/or
worn suspension parts. You want to make sure you complete a thorough
inspection
of the vehicle before you begin the alignment procedure.
You can measure tracking quickly and easily using a tracking gauge, sometimes
referred to as a track gauge, tram gauge or trammel (Figure below ). The
tracking
measurement should be the same from side to side, within 6 mm (1/4 in). If the
difference is more than 6 mm (1/4 in), you will have to investigate further to
find the
cause. Set back or an actual tracking problem could cause the difference
 checking tracking with a tracking gauge

Shock Absorbers
Shocks absorbers must pass the bounce test. Firmly jounce the
vehicle front and rear and observe how quickly the vehicle
recovers.
After you jounce the vehicle, it should come to rest quickly.
Generally, if the shock
absorbers (strut dampeners) are dampening effectively, the
vehicle should recover
within 1 1/2 oscillations. One jounce (compression) and one
rebound (extension) of
the spring are considered one oscillation.
Visually inspect the shock absorbers for leaks. Hydraulic seals
around the pistons
commonly wear or fail. If the fluid leaks out, replace the shock.
Hydraulic shock
absorbers commonly sweat; do not mistake minor sweating for
leakage.
Since shocks are rubber-mounted you must inspect the mounting
points for cracks,
weather checks and oil deterioration. Some manufacturers supply
mounting kits
separately. If they are not available, it may be necessary to replace
the entire shock
even though it is in good working order. Shock absorbers are
replaced in pairs or sets
of four.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) What tool can be used to measure tracking easily
during the pre alignment inspection?

2) When checking the shock absorbers using the bounce

test, the vehicle should recover after how many
oscillations?
 Ride Height
Measure the vehicle ride height at the correct locations for the vehicle
and compare
to specs (Figure below). Look in the trunk for excessive loads.
Normally alignment
angles are adjusted at curb height with a full tank of fuel. If the
vehicle normally
carries extra load, it should be in the vehicle at the time of alignment
adjustment. If
the excess load affects steering or handling safety, advise the
customer. Visually
inspect the springs for damage. If the springs have to be
replaced because
they are sagged or damaged, they must be replaced in pairs. If
the vehicle
has torsion bars, you should adjust them during this inspection
 Ride Height

Ball Joints

Depending on the suspension style, the vehicle may have either two
or four ball joints.
Unload the ball joints, if required, by jacking the vehicle in the
recommended location.
Inspect the ball joints according to whether they are follower (guide)
or load carrying.
Follower type ball joints should not have any perceivable
movement (radial
or axial). Load-carrying joints must not exceed the manufacturer's
specified
tolerances for either radial or axial movement.

Inspecting Ball Joints for wear.

Several manufacturers use wear indicators on the load-carrying
joints. As the ball
joint wears, the grease zerk and the socket it threads into, recedes
into the joint.
When the socket is even with the cover, the joint is worn out and
must be replaced.
Ball joints that are not within manufacturer's specification must be
replaced. It is not
necessary to replace ball joints in pairs or all four if only one is
found out of
tolerance.
This would also be a good time to inspect the drive axle CV boots for cuts, grease
leaks
and loose or missing clamps. If the CV boots or joints require attention, they
should be
serviced with the steering and suspension. A wheel alignment adjustment should
be
performed whenever front drive shafts are removed and replaced.
Upper and Lower Control Arm Bushings
Inspect the rubber mounting bushings on the control arms . They
should not be off-centre and must be free from distortion, movement and
heavy cracks. Also inspect the control arms for damage, especially if the
tracking was out or you noticed the wheel not centred in the wheelhouse
during your visual inspection. If you need to replace control arm bushings
you
usually have to remove the control arm, so the repair needs to be done
before
you align the vehicle.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) How can the ball joints be unloaded?

2) How are alignment angles normally adjusted?

 Steering Linkage
You must identify any loose or damaged components in the steering
linkage. Inspect
all of the following components the vehicle is equipped with.
• Tie rod ends.
• Pitman and idler arms.
• Centre link.
Tie Rods
Visually inspect all tie rod ends. Firmly grasp the tie rods and rotate
back and forth
through their entire movement. Tie rods must have about 30° of
rotation. If they do
not, it may be because they are seized or were tightened when the
tie rod end studs
were at opposite ends of their travel.
With the vehicle jacked up, have a helper firmly grasp one road wheel
and rock it
back and forth while you inspect each tie rod end and the rest of the
steering linkage
for lateral movement. Have your helper move to the other side and rock
the road
wheel while you inspect the linkage on that side. Alternately you could
perform a dry
park test. With the wheels on a flat surface (not turntables) have a
helper rock the
steering wheel back and forth slowly while you observe the linkage
components.
There should be no lateral movement (side to side looseness) in any of
the tie rod
ends. If the vehicle has rack and pinion steering, inspect the rack and
pinion boots.
They should be dry, free of cuts and should not be twisted.
On some compact models, it may be possible to inspect the steering linkage
without
a helper, but the vehicle weight must be supported on jack stands positioned as
close to the outer end of the control arms as possible. The linkage components
will
not be in their normal wear position if the suspension is hanging at full
extension.

Inspecting tie rod ends for lateral movement

 Pitman Arm/Idler Arm
If the vehicle has parallelogram (conventional) steering linkage it
will have a pitman
arm joining the steering gear to the steering linkage and an idler
arm supporting the
linkage on the right hand side. While the vehicle is jacked up and
your helper is
rocking the wheel from side to side, inspect the pitman arm. It
should not have any
lateral (side to side) movement. The idler arm should have no
lateral movement, but
limited up and down movement is acceptable on some makes of
vehicle. Refer to
manufacturer's specifications and checking procedure to ensure
both components
are in roadworthy condition.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) Which steering components should be checked before
an alignment?

2) How do you check a tie rod?

3) How do you check a pitman/idler arm?

4) Which type of steering system uses a pitman arm?

 Centre Link (Relay Rod)
While your helper is rocking the wheel back and forth, make sure the centre link
does not have any lateral movement. No lateral movement is permitted in any of
the
steering linkage components.
It is important to make sure the centre link is parallel to the front crossmember.
Some manufacturers specify a measurement from the alignment rack up to
either
end of the centre link. They may even provide some adjustment at the idler arm
mounting bracket to allow up and down movement. Some vehicles use shims
under
the steering gear mounts to raise or lower the left side. If the centre link is not
parallel to the crossmember, the vehicle will tend to bump steer.
Bump steer is a result of unequal toe change as the suspension reacts to the
irregularities of the road.
If the centre link is parallel to the crossmember, toe change will be
the same
on each wheel and directional control will not be disturbed.
However, if the centre
link is lower on one side than the other, one wheel will toe in or out
more than the
other, causing the vehicle to dart to one side or the other. If you
have to replace any
steering linkage components be sure to use the correct puller or
parting tool as
recommended by the manufacturer.
Avoid damaging grease seals of parts that will be reused and
always
check replacement parts for correct fit.
 Strut Rods
Carefully inspect strut rod bushings for cracks, looseness and
rubber deterioration.
Also look for shiny spots where the strut rod passes through the
frame. Shiny spots
indicate excessive movement and warrant bushing replacement.
Always replace the
bushings on both sides if one is defective. When removing the
bushings, carefully
inspect the strut rod, as it may have been rubbing on the frame.

Stabilizer Bar Bushings

Some vehicles have stabilizer bars in both the front and the rear.
Inspect the rubber
bushings on the links as well as the frame-mounted U bushings for
cracks, looseness
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) What would Shiny spots in the strut rod that passes
through the frame indicate?

2) What should be looked for while inspecting stabilizer

bushing?

3) What will be the result, if the center link is not parallel

to the crossmember?
 Rear Suspension
The rear suspension members must also be carefully inspected.
The rear suspension
members are similar to the front and require the same attention.
Springs, shock
absorbers, control arms, bushings and ball joints are all commonly
found on the rear.
In addition, inspect track bars for damage and check their rubber
bushings for
cracks, looseness and deterioration. If the vehicle has rear leaf
springs, make sure
you check the centre bolts, rebound clips, shackles and hanger
bushings.
 Steering Gear (Power/Manual)
The steering gear should operate smoothly from lock to lock without any
binding or roughness. Binding may indicate damaged rack teeth or a
steering
shaft rubbing on the column or bulkhead. Roughness could be caused by
galled or chipped bearings. Visually check the steering gear for fluid
leaks. To
check for slack, rock the steering wheel from side to side (engine
running if
P/S). When you turn the steering wheel, the road wheels should respond
I
mmediately. A rack and pinion steering gear must be parallel to the front
crossmember for the same reason the centre link must be parallel to the
crossmember. If a rack and pinion steering gear is lower on one side
than the
other, it will cause bump steer.
 Under Hood Inspection
After you have checked the steering gear for looseness and roughness,
there are
several checks to be made under the hood before your pre-alignment
inspection is
complete.
• Check the power steering fluid and if required, top it up with the
recommended
fluid.
• Check the power steering belt for condition and tension. Replace or
adjust it as
required.
• Check the power steering hoses and fittings for leaks, seepage and
abrasions.
• Inspect the steering shaft.
• Inspect the steering coupler for play and wear.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) What will be the result, if the rack and pinion steering
gear is lower on one side that the other?

2) Can a misaligned rear suspension caused bad

tacking?
 Objective Three
Perform a wheel alignment to adjust primary alignment
angles.
Alignment Procedure

The first step in an alignment procedure is to calculate the desired

steering angle
setting.
After you have calculated the ideal steering angle settings, you are ready
to set up
the alignment machine to measure the vehicles current steering angles.
As the Steering Angles module explains, each alignment equipment
manufacturer has specific set-up procedures particular to their machine.
Carefully follow the instructions to set up the machine .
At this point you need to analyse the secondary angles to determine if
any
components are bent on the vehicle.
Do not attempt to perform a wheel alignment on a vehicle with worn
or damage steering or suspension components. Accurately adjusting
the angles would not be possible.
Secondary Angles
Analysis of secondary angles determines if the vehicle has damaged or
out of place
steering, suspension or frame components. If any of these problems
exist, you will
not be able to correctly align the vehicle without repairing this problem
first.
Secondary angles are not directly adjustable; however the adjustment of
primary
alignment angles may affect the secondary angles.
The secondary angles are:
• thrust angle,
• turning radius,
• steering axis inclination and
• setback.

Thrust Angle
Thrust angle is determined by the toe of each rear wheel. Ideally
the thrust angle
should be zero degrees, however up to 0.5º thrust angle is
acceptable. On vehicles
that have adjustable rear toe the thrust angle is corrected by
adjusting the rear
individual toe to the same value.
Vehicles with rear suspension that does not have adjustable rear toe, such as
solid
rear axles, have no provision to correct the thrust angle. If the angle is
excessive
(over 0.5º), the cause of the deviation needs to be determined. Inspect the
bushings
that locate the rear suspension for excessive wear and movement. If there is no
problem found with the bushings the next step is to check if the rear axle or
frame is
bent. Follow the manufacturer's specific point to point measurements to check
these components for bends.

Turning Radius
If specifications are provided, compare the turning radius measurement to the
specification. Measurements out of specification indicate a bent steering arm.
Turning radius specifications are not always provided by the
manufacturer. When
specifications are not available compare the left and right
measurements. The
amount of toe out on turns should be the same within 1.5º. If the
difference is
greater than 1.5º one of the steering arms is bent.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) What are the secondary angles?

2) How is thrust angle determined?

3) If the toe out on turns is not within specifications, this

can probably be caused by?
 Steering Axis Inclination and Included Angle
Steering axis inclination and included angle measurements provide
a means to
determine if suspension or frame components are bent or out of
place. Some
manufacturers provide a specification for SAI and included angle,
however it is
common that SAI and included angle specifications are not
provide.
Comparison of the left and right values determines if there is a
problem.
The amount of difference from side to side allowed by
manufactures varies, but a
difference of greater than 1º usually indicates further investigation
is required.
When analyzing steering axis inclination and included angles, you must
also consider
camber at the same time. These three angles are interrelated and
changes to one
angle may affect the others.

SAI, Included angle and camber

If the camber adjustment moves one of the pivot points that form
the steering axis,
changing the camber also changes SAI, but included angle does
not change. This
occurs on vehicles with short long arm (SLA) suspension or
McPherson strut systems
with camber is adjustment at the top strut mount or lower control
arm,
If the camber adjustment does not move a steering axis pivot,
changes in camber
result in changes in included angle but SAI does not change.
Vehicles using
McPherson struts with the camber adjustment at the point where
the lower strut
mount bolts to the steering knuckle are one example of this.
 SAI and Included Angle Analysis
SAI and Included Angle Analysis Figure 18 illustrates a vehicle with
SLA suspension.
The camber specification is from 0º to 0.75º; SAI and included
angle specifications
are not provided. The readings show the left front camber is out of
specification (too
negative), the SAI is even side to side and the included angle has a
large variation of
1.25º.
The following points are considered to determine the appropriate
repair.
• Camber is adjusted by moving the upper control arm. This means
any adjustment
to camber effects SAI. Adjusting the camber would cause a
large variation in
SAI; therefore a component must be bent to cause the incorrect
camber reading.
• Since SAI is correct, the ball joints are located in the correct
position so the
control arms and the frame they attach to are O.K.
• The only component remaining to cause the camber to be out of
specification is
the steering knuckle/spindle assembly. A bend in this component
results in the
decrease in included angle and camber.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) What is the purpose of the S.A.I measurement?
Figure 19 illustrates a vehicle with McPherson strut suspension. The
camber specification is from 0º to 0.75º; SAI and included angle
specifications are
not provided. The readings show the right front camber is out of
specification (too
negative), the SAI is the same and the included angle has a large
variation of 1.50º.

• Camber is adjustable at the lower strut to knuckle bolts (A).

Adjusting camber
does not move either of the steering axis pivot points so SAI is not
affected.
• Included angle however does change with the camber adjustment.
• Adjusting the right camber to 0º causes the included angle to
change to 13.5º.
This vehicle is repaired with a camber adjustment
Referring to Figure 19, if the camber is adjustment is at the top strut
(B)
the diagnosis is different.
• Adjusting camber moves the top of the steering axis; therefore SAI
also changes
when camber is adjusted.
• Included angle does not change when camber is adjusted.
• If camber was adjusted it would cause SAI to have too much
variance side to side
and included angle would still be incorrect. The problem is a bent
component.
• Since SAI is correct, the upper strut mount and the lower ball joint
are in the
correct position. The problem is in the components between them;
the strut or
the steering knuckle.
Physical inspection of these components is necessary to determine
which is bent. When a strut is bent, and the damage is in the
housing, it is usually visible. If the strut shaft is bent rotating the
shaft causes the camber to change.

Figure 20 illustrates a vehicle with McPherson strut suspension.

The camber specification is from 0º to -0.5º; SAI and included
angle specifications are not provided. The readings show the
camber out of specifications, SAI has a large
variation of 2.25º and an included angle is even.
• The camber is out of specification by 2.25º, it is unlikely the
vehicle has enough
adjustment range for that amount of camber. A bent
component is likely the
cause.
• Included angle is even side to side indicating the the steering
knuckle and strut
are not bent.
• The large SAI difference indicates that one of the pivot points for
the left steering
axis has moved. Inspection of the lower control arm, frame and
upper strut
mounting location is necessary to determine the cause.
• In this case the lower control is bent.
Figure 21 illustrates a vehicle with McPherson strut suspension. The camber
specification is from 0º to 0.5º; SAI and included angle specifications are not
provided. The readings show camber on the left and right side out of
specification,
SAI has a large variation of 2.0º, included angle is even.

• Included angle is even indicating that the steering knuckle and strut are not
bent.
• Since SAI and and camber are incorrect on both sides a bent component is
unlikely on both sides of the vehicle.
• The difference in SAI indicates one of the pivot points for the steering axis has
moved on both sides. The most common cause is from the suspension
subframe
being shifted.
• Moving the sub-frame towards the left of the vehicle results in the left camber
decreasing and the right camber increasing, at the same time, the left SAI
increases and the right SAI decreases.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
End of Chunk
 Setback
The relative position of the front wheels determines setback. When analyzing
setback you also need to take caster into consideration. If the right side of the
vehicle is shorter (positive setback) and caster is more negative (-) on the
right this
could indicate that the lower ball joint has moved rear ward. The correction
may be
to replace a bent lower control arm or just a matter of moving the the right
lower
ball joint forward by a strut rod or subframe position adjustment. This would
correct
both the caster and setback.
If setback is positive and caster is even on the left and right sides, adjustment
of the
lower ball joint position to correct the setback causes the caster reading to
move out
of specification.
Since caster is correct you can assume the lower ball joint and the
upper
strut mount are in the correct positions and a component between
them is bent to
cause the in correct setback. Figure 22 illustrates a bent strut
causing this condition.

right front strut bent rearward

After you have determined adjusting the steering angles will repair the vehicle you
are ready to begin your adjustments. The steering angles must be adjusted in a
specific order.
1. Rear camber
2. Rear toe
3. Front Caster
4. Front Camber
5. Front toe
Rear Camber
The first angle to consider is the rear camber, Compare the camber values
on
each wheel to specification. Most alignment machines display the readings
as
well as the specifications, making comparison easy. The rear camber should
be within specification and the same from side to side.
 Rear Toe and Thrust Angle
Examine the individual toe settings and the thrust angle together.
You set individual
toe values the same so the thrust angle matches the geometric
centreline. The
example in Figure below shows the left rear wheel has toed out
and consequently
moved the thrust angle to the left.
In this example, the rear toe and thrust angle have been corrected
by adjusting the
left toe inward (Figure below). Depending on the current setting is
may be necessary
to adjust the toe on both rear wheels to correct the thrust line.
When the toe values
are the same on each rear wheel the thrust line matches the
geometric centre line.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) What is Set back?
 Front Caster and Camber
Caster and camber have traditionally been considered adjustable angles;
however
this is not always the case. Manufacturers rely more on SAI to satisfy many
of the
purposes that caster and camber traditionally fulfilled. Depending on which
angles
are adjustable determines which caster camber selection rule to use.
• If caster and camber are adjustable use the nominal rule to choose the
caster and
camber settings.
• If caster is not adjustable, use the equal caster rule to choose the caster
and
camber settings.
• If camber is not adjustable, use the equal camber rule to choose the
caster and
camber settings.
On some vehicles neither caster nor caster are adjustable. If the values
for these
angles are out of specification you need to determine if the vehicle has
bent
components or if a sub frame adjustment will correct the problem.

Adjusting Caster and Camber

Read the caster and camber settings. You have already applied the caster
and
camber selection rules to choose the ideal settings. Usually you have to
adjust caster
and camber together. As can be seen in slide 134, adding or subtracting
shims
affects both angles. The degree to which both angles are affected varies
from vehicle
to vehicle.
 Adjust caster and camber by moving the upper control
arm
If caster is not adjustable, you have to use the equal caster rule
and compensate for
road crown with camber. On some vehicles, although the caster is
not adjustable,
you may find it out of spec. This abnormality may be caused by a
shift in the front
sub-frame assembly (engine cradle) as a result of a road hazard or
collision. Any
misalignment of the subframe causes a misalignment of the front
wheels and caster
in particular (Figure in slide 136). If the sub-frame has shifted, you
have to loosen the mounting bolts and reposition it.
 sub frame misalignment affects caster

Once caster and camber are adjusted to the optimum settings,

move on to the final
adjustments, centring the steering wheel and setting toe.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) What is negative caster?

2) What is positive camber?

 Objective Four
Adjust steering linkage to establish the toe setting and
center the steering wheel.
Setting Front Toe
In order for the steering wheel to be centred, the front individual
toe setting must
be the same when the steering wheel is in the center position.
Follow this procedure
to set the front toe and centre the steering wheel.

1. Centre the steering wheel with the engine running.

2. Use a steering wheel lock to hold the steering wheel in the
centre position
(Figure on slide 140).
3. Adjust the left and right toe setting to specification.
4. Remove the steering wheel lock and re-centre the steering wheel with
the engine
running.
5. Recheck the toe values with the steering wheel centred. If the toe
values are not
the same repeat this procedure.

Steering wheel lock

Once you have the toe set, be sure to tighten the tie rod sleeve
clamps in the position shown in the Figure below.

position the tie rod sleeves to ensure proper

clamping force
It is also important to watch the position of the studs in the tie rod
sockets. They
should be straight up and down as in the Figure below to allow full
rotational
movement. If you accurately adjusted the thrust angle, locked the
steering wheel in
the straight-ahead position and set the toe correctly, the steering
wheel should be
centred when you road test the vehicle. It is not uncommon when
road-testing after
a wheel alignment, to find a steering wheel slightly off-centre, but
that is simple to
correct.
 Correcting an Off-Centre Steering Wheel
Occasionally after a wheel alignment the steering wheel may be slightly off
center.
This can be corrected without setting up the alignment machine again. This
procedure is only to be performed when you have confirmed the total toe
measurement is within specification. To correct an off-centre steering wheel
without
changing the total toe, you must toe one side in and the other side out
exactly the
same amount. When road-testing, note which way the steering wheel is off
centre and adjust the individual toe settings to compensate.
A simple rule is to toe in the high side. For example, if the steering wheel is
high on
the left, then the left wheel has to be toed in and the right side has to be
toed out
exactly the same amount (Figure in slide 144).
•J

correcting an off center steering wheel

After toe adjustments are complete, turn the steering system through
its full travel in both directions to be sure there is no interference
between the steering system and any other vehicle components.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) How can an off-centered steering wheel be corrected
without changing the total toe?
 Objective Five
Describe a road test procedure to verify alignment or
alignment problems.

Final Road Test

No wheel alignment is complete until you have road-tested the
vehicle. You should travel the same course you drove during your
pre-alignment inspection.
When road-testing a vehicle for any concern, you are obliged to
obey all traffic laws
and use common sense regarding road and traffic conditions. On
the straight flat
road surface point the vehicle straight and relax your grip on the
steering wheel. If
there is no traffic, you may even momentarily remove your hands
from the wheel.
When it is safe to do so, relax your grip on the wheel and brake the vehicle to a
stop.
It should come to a stop without pulling the steering wheel to one side. With your
grip still relaxed, moderately accelerate to make sure no torque steer is present.
Drive straight down the section that has dips or bumps in the road and the vehicle
should track straight, the suspension should recover from the bumps quickly and
not
feel mushy.
Finally, put the vehicle through several left and right hand turns. You should feel
comfortable and the vehicle should be predictable and easy to control. The
steering
wheel should return to centre after making a turn and the vehicle should tend to
want to go straight without any memory steer. Body roll should not be excessive
and
there should not be any tire squeal.
Student Discussion (Student and Instructor)
 End of Chunk
1) Why should the vehicle be road tested?