Chapter 4 (Secondary Data)

Q1. A) Difference Between Primary and Secondary Data

Primary Data Secondary Data
Definition Primary data are those that are Secondary data refer to those data
collected for the first time. that have already been collected
by some other person.
Originality These are original because these These are not original because
are collected by the investigator for someone else has collected these
the first time. for his own purpose.
Nature of Data These are in the form of raw These are in the finished form.
materials.
Reliability and These are more reliable and These are less reliable and less
Suitability suitable for the enquiry because suitable as someone else has
these are collected for a particular collected the data which may not
purpose. perfectly match our purpose.
Time and Collecting primary data is quite Secondary data requires less short
Money expensive both in the long terms of time and money; hence it is
time and money. economical.
Precaution and No particular precaution or editing Both precaution and editing are
editing is required while using the primary essential as secondary data were
data as these were collected with a collected by someone else for his
definite purpose. own purpose.

B) Advantage and Disadvantage of Secondary Data

Advantages of Secondary Data:
Ease of access The secondary data sources are very easy to access. The Internet has
changed the way secondary research works.
Low cost or free The majority of secondary sources are absolutely free for use or at
very low costs. It saves not only your money but your efforts.
Time-saving As the above advantage suggests, you can perform secondary
research in no time.
Allow to generate Reanalyzing old data can bring unexpected new understandings and
new insights from points of view or even new relevant conclusions.
previous analysis
Anyone can Secondary data research can be performed by people that aren’t
collect the data familiar with the different data collection methods. Practically,
anyone can collect it.
 Disadvantages Secondary Data:
Might be not Secondary data is not specific to the researcher’s needs due to the
specific to your fact that it was collected in the past for another reason. That is why
needs the secondary data might be unreliable for your current needs.
You have no The secondary data might lack quality. The source of the information
control over data may be questionable, especially when you gather the data via the
quality Internet.
Biasness As the secondary data is collected by someone else than you,
typically the data is biased in favor of the person who gathered it.
This might not cover your requirements as a researcher or marketer.
Not timely Secondary data is collected in the past which means it might be out-
of-date. This issue can be crucial in many different situations.
You are not the Generally, secondary data is not collected specifically for your
owner of the company. Instead, it is available to many companies and people
information either for free or for a little fee. Your current and potential
competitors also have access to the data.

Q2. A) Discuss the Classification of Secondary Data

Secondary data may be classified as either internal or external.

1. Internal data are those generated within the organization for which the research is being
conducted. This information may be available in a ready to-use format, such as information
routinely supplied by the management decision support system. On the other hand, these
data may exist within the organization but may require considerable processing before they
are useful to the researcher.
For example, a variety of information can be found on sales invoices. Yet this information
may not be easily accessed; further processing may be required to extract it.
2. External data are those generated by sources outside the organization. These data may
exist in the form of published material, Computer database, or information made available
by syndicated services.
Externally generated secondary data may be more difficult to access, more expensive, and
more difficult to evaluate for its accuracy, in comparison with internal secondary data.
These factors mean that, before collecting external secondary data, it is useful to analyze
readily available internal secondary data.
a) Online databases: Databases, stored in computers, that require a
telecommunications network to access.
b) Internet databases: Internet databases can be accessed, searched, and analyzed on
the Internet. It is also possible to download data from the Internet and store it in the
computer or an auxiliary storage device.
c) Offline databases: Databases that are available on diskette or CD-ROM.
d) Syndicated services(sources): Information services offered by marketing research
organizations that provide information from a common database to different firms
that subscribe to their services.
B) Criteria of Evaluating Secondary Data
1. Specifications & Methodology: The specifications or the research design used to
collect the data should be critically examined to identify possible sources of bias.
Such design considerations include size and nature of the sample, response rate and
quality, questionnaire design and administration, procedures used for fieldwork, and
data analysis and reporting procedures.
2. Error & Accuracy: The researcher must determine whether the data are accurate
enough for the purposes of the present study. Secondary data can have a number of
sources of error or inaccuracy, including errors in the approach, research design,
sampling, data collection, analysis, and reporting stages of the project.
3. Currency: (when the data were collected): Secondary data may not be current and
the time lag between data collection and publication may be long, as is the case with
much census data. Decisionmakers require current data; therefore, the value of
secondary data is diminished as they become dated.
4. Objective: (the purpose for which the data were collected): The objective for
collecting data will ultimately determine the purpose for which that information is
relevant and useful.
5. Nature: (the content of the data): The nature, or content, of the data should be
examined with special attention to the definition of key variables, the units of
measurement, the categories used and the relationships examined. If the key
variables have not been defined or are defined in a manner inconsistent with the
researcher’s definition, then the usefulness of the data is limited.
6. Dependability: (how dependable are the data?): An overall indication of the
dependability of data may be obtained by examining the expertise, credibility,
reputation and trustworthiness of the source. This information can be obtained by
checking with others who have used the information provided by the source.
 Chapter 5 (Research Design Qualitative Research)
Q3. A) Define Research Design
A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research
project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure
or solve marketing research problems.
B) What are the Components of a Good Research Design?
Typically, a research design involves the following components, or tasks:
1. Define the information needed.
2. Design the exploratory, descriptive, and/or causal phases of the research
3. Specify the measurement and scaling procedures.
4. Construct and pretest a questionnaire (interviewing form) or an appropriate form for
data collection.
5. Specify the sampling process and sample size.
6. Develop a plan of data analysis.

Q4. A) Difference Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research.

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Discover Ideas, Used in Exploratory Test Hypotheses or Specific Research
Research with General Research Objects Questions
Small Samples Often in Natural Settings Large Samples to Produce Generalizable
Results (Results That Apply to Other
Situations)
Unstructured, Free-Form Structured Response Categories Provided
Identifying pattern in participant behavior Using numeric methods and statical
and respondent analysis
Develop an initial understanding Recommended a final course of action

B) Rational for Using Qualitative Research Design

It is not always possible, or desirable, to use fully structured or formal methods to obtain
information from respondents. People may be unwilling or unable to answer certain
questions. People are unwilling to give truthful answers to questions that attack their
privacy, embarrass them, or have a negative impact on their ego or status. People may be
unable to provide accurate answers to questions that tap their subconscious. The values,
emotional drives, and motivations residing at the subconscious level are disguised from the
outside world by rationalization and other ego defenses.
1. Preferences and/or experience of the researcher. Some researchers are more
oriented and temperamentally suited to do this type of work.
2. Preferences and/or experience of the research user. Some decision-makers are
more oriented to receiving support in a qualitative manner. This orientation could
come from their training but it could also be due to the type of marketing decisions
they have to take.
3. Sensitive information. Respondents may be unwilling to answer or to give truthful
answers to certain questions that invade their privacy, embarrass them, or have a
negative impact on their ego or status.
4. Subconscious feelings. Respondents may be unable to provide accurate answers to
questions that tap their subconscious.
5. Complex phenomena. The nature of what respondents are expected to describe may
be difficult to capture with structured questions.

Q5. A) Define Total Error

It is the variation between the true mean value in the population of the variable of interest
and the observed mean value obtained in the marketing research project.
Total error is composed of random sampling error and non-sampling error.
1. Random sampling error occurs because the particular sample selected is an imperfect
representation of the population of interest. Random sampling error is the variation
between the true mean value for the population and the true mean value for the original
sample.
2. Non-sampling errors can be attributed to sources other than sampling, and may be
random or non-random. They result from a variety of reasons, including errors in problem
definition, approach, scales, questionnaire design, interviewing methods, and data
preparation and analysis.
i. Response error arises when respondents give inaccurate answers or their answers
are mis-recorded or mis-analyzed. Response error is defined as the variation
between the true mean value of the variable in the net sample and the observed
mean value obtained in the marketing research project. Response errors can be
made by researchers’ error, interviewers’ error or respondent’s error.
ii. Non-response error A type of non-sampling error that occurs when some of the
respondents included in the sample do not respond. This error may be defined as
the variation between the true mean value of the variable in the original sample and
the true mean value in the net sample.
B) Discuss the Research Error
Response Errors made by the researcher include surrogate information, measurement,
population definition, sampling frame and data analysis errors.
• Surrogate information error may be defined as the variation between the
information needed for the marketing research problem and the information sought
by the researcher. For example, instead of obtaining information on consumer choice
of a new brand (needed for the marketing research problem), the researcher obtains
information on consumer preferences because the choice process cannot be easily
observed.
• Measurement error may be defined as the variation between the information sought
and information generated by the measurement process employed by the researcher.
While seeking to measure consumer preferences, the researcher employs a scale that
measures perceptions rather than preferences.
• Population definition error may be defined as the variation between the actual
population relevant to the problem at hand and the population as defined by the
researcher. The problem of appropriately defining the population may be far from
trivial, as illustrated by the case of affluent households.
 • Sampling frame error may be defined as the variation between the population
defined by the researcher and the population as implied by the sampling frame (list)
used. For example, the telephone directory used to generate a list of telephone
numbers does not accurately represent the population of potential consumers due to
unlisted, disconnected and new numbers in service.
• Data analysis error encompasses errors that occur while raw data from
questionnaires are transformed into research findings. For example, an inappropriate
statistical procedure is used, resulting in incorrect interpretation and findings.
C) Discuss the Interviewer Error
Response errors made by the interviewer include respondent selection, questioning,
recording and cheating errors.
• Respondent selection error occurs when interviewers select respondents other than
those specified by the sampling design or in a manner inconsistent with the sampling
design. For example, in a readership survey, a non-reader is selected for the interview
but classified as a reader of The European in the 15–19-year-old category in order to
meet a difficult quota requirement.
• Questioning error denotes errors made in asking questions of the respondents or in
not probing, when more information is needed. For example, while asking questions
an interviewer does not use the exact wording given in the questionnaire.
• Recording error arises due to errors in hearing, interpreting and recording the
answers given by the respondents. For example, a respondent indicates a neutral
response (undecided) but the interviewer misinterprets that to mean a positive
response (would buy the new brand).
• Cheating error arises when the interviewer fabricates answers to a part or the whole
of the interview. For example, an interviewer does not ask the sensitive questions
related to a respondent’s debt but later fills in the answers based on personal
assessment.
D) Discuss the Respondent Error
Response errors made by the respondent comprise inability and unwillingness errors.
• Inability error results from the respondent’s inability to provide accurate answers.
Respondents may provide inaccurate answers because of unfamiliarity, fatigue,
boredom, faulty recall, question format, question content and other factors. For
 example, a respondent cannot recall the brand of toothpaste purchased four weeks
ago.
• Unwillingness error arises from the respondent’s unwillingness to provide accurate
information. Respondents may intentionally misreport their answers because of a
desire to provide socially acceptable answers, to avoid embarrassment, or to please
the interviewer. For example, to impress the interviewer, a respondent intentionally
says that they read The Economist magazine.
Q6. A) Define Focus Group
An interview conducted by a trained moderator among a small group of respondents in an
unstructured and natural manner. The main purpose of focus groups is to gain insights by
listening to a group of people from the appropriate target market talk about issues of interest
to the researcher.

B) Characteristics of Focus Group

The major characteristics of a focus group are summarized.
1. A focus group generally includes 8 to 12 members. Groups of fewer than 8 are
unlikely to generate the momentum and group dynamics necessary for a successful
session. Likewise, groups of more than 12 may be too crowded and may not be
conducive to a cohesive and natural discussion.
2. A focus group should be homogeneous in terms of demographic and socioeconomic
characteristics.
3. The participants should be carefully screened to meet certain criteria. The
participants must have had adequate experience with the object or issue being
discussed.
4. The physical setting for the focus group is also important. A relaxed, informal
atmosphere encourages spontaneous comments. Light refreshments should be served
before the session and made available throughout.
5. Although a focus group may last from 1 to 3 hours, a duration of 1.5 to 2 hours is
typical. This period of time is needed to establish rapport with the participants and
explore, in depth, their beliefs, feelings, ideas, attitudes, and insights regarding the
topics of concern.
6. Focus group interviews are invariably recorded, often on videotape, for subsequent
replay, transcription, and analysis. Videotaping has the advantage of recording facial
expressions and body movements, but it can increase the costs significantly.
 7. The moderator may have a central role in the analysis and interpretation of the data.
Therefore, the moderator should possess skill, experience, knowledge of the
discussion topic, and an understanding of the nature of group dynamics.
C) Discuss the Advantage and Application of Focus Group
Advantages of Focus Groups

1. Synergism: Putting a group of people together will produce a wider range of

information, insight, and ideas than will individual responses secured privately.

2. Snowballing: A bandwagon effect often operates in a group interview, in that one

person’s comment triggers a chain reaction from the other participants.

3. Stimulation: Usually after a brief introductory period, the respondents want to express
their ideas and expose their feelings as the general level of excitement over the topic
increases in the group.

4. Security: Because the participants’ feelings are similar to those of other group members,
they feel comfortable and are therefore willing to express their ideas and feelings.

5. Spontaneity: Since participants are not required to answer specific questions, their
responses can be spontaneous and unconventional and should therefore provide an accurate
idea of their views.

6. Serendipity: Ideas are more likely to arise out of the blue in a group than in an individual
interview.

7. Specialization: Because a number of participants are involved simultaneously, use of a

highly trained, but expensive, interviewer is justified.

8. Scientific scrutiny: The group interview allows close scrutiny of the data-collection
process, in that observers can witness the session and it can be recorded for later analysis.

9. Structure: The group interview allows for flexibility in the topics covered and the depth
with which they are treated.

10. Speed: Since a number of individuals are being interviewed at the same time, data
collection and analysis proceed relatively quickly.
 Disadvantages of Focus Groups

1. Misuse: Focus groups can be misused and abused by considering the results as
conclusive rather than exploratory.

2. Misjudge: Focus group results can be more easily misjudged than the results of other
data-collection techniques. Focus groups are particularly susceptible to client and
researcher biases.

3. Moderation: Focus groups are difficult to moderate. Moderators with all the desirable
skills are rare. The quality of the results depends heavily on the skills of the moderator.

4. Messy: The unstructured nature of the responses makes coding, analysis, and
interpretation difficult. Focus group data tend to be messy.

5. Misrepresentation: Focus group results are not representative of the general population
and are not projectable. Consequently, focus group results should not be the sole basis for
decision making.

Application of Focus Group Study:

1. Understanding consumers’ perceptions, preferences, and behavior concerning a product
category
2. Obtaining impressions of new product concepts
3. Generating new ideas about older products
4. Developing creative concepts and copy material for advertisements
5. Securing price impressions
6. Obtaining preliminary consumer reaction to specific marketing programs
The Methodology applications of focus groups include:
1. Defining a problem more precisely
2. Generating alternative courses of action
3. Developing an approach to a problem
4. Obtaining information helpful in structuring consumer questionnaires
5. Generating hypotheses that can be tested quantitatively
6. Interpreting previously obtained quantitative results
Q7. A) Define Dept Interview
An unstructured, direct, personal interview in which a single respondent is probed by a
highly skilled interviewer to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and
feelings on a topic. Depth interviews are an unstructured and direct way of obtaining
information. A depth interview may take from 30 minutes to more than one hour.
B) Depth Interview Technique
Laddering: A technique for conducting depth interviews in which a line of questioning
proceeds from product characteristics to user characteristics.
✓ QUESTION: Why do you buy Maybelline cosmetics?
✓ ANSWER: “I buy Maybelline cosmetics because it is a good brand name at a
reasonable price.”
Hidden issue questioning: A type of depth interview that attempts to locate personal sore
spots related to deeply felt personal concerns. Respondents were questioned about
fantasies, work lives, and social lives to identify hidden life issues. The answers indicated
that glamorous, historic, elite
Symbolic analysis: A technique for conducting depth interviews in which the symbolic
meaning of objects is analyzed by comparing them with their opposites.
“What would it be like if you could no longer use airplanes?”
Responses like, “Without planes, I would have to rely on e-mail, letters, and telephone
calls” were received. This suggests that what airlines sell to the managers is face-to-face
communication. Thus, an effective ad might be one that guarantees that the airline will do
the same thing for a manager that Federal Express does for a package.
C) Discuss the Advantage and Application of Dept Interview
Advantages of Depth Interview

• Depth interviews can uncover greater depth of insights than focus groups.
• Its attribute the responses directly to the respondent, unlike focus groups, where it is
often difficult to determine which respondent made a particular response.
• Its result in free exchange of information that may not be possible in focus groups
because there is no social pressure to conform to group response.
Disadvantages of Depth Interview

• Skilled interviewers capable of conducting depth interviews are expensive and difficult
to find.
• The lack of structure makes the results susceptible to the interviewer’s influence, and
the quality and completeness of the results depend heavily on the interviewer’s skills.
• The data obtained are difficult to analyze and interpret, and the services of skilled
psychologists are typically required for this purpose.
• The length of the interview combined with high costs means that the number of depth
interviews in a project will be small.

Application of Depth Interview

The primary use of depth interviews is for exploratory research to gain insights and
understanding. Depth interviews can be effectively employed in special problem situations,
such as those requiring:
1. Detailed probing of the respondent
2. Discussion of confidential, sensitive, or embarrassing topics
3. Situations where strong social norms exist and the respondent may be easily swayed by
group response (attitude of college students toward sports)
4. Detailed understanding of complicated behavior
5. Interviews with professional people (industrial marketing research)
6. Interviews with competitors, who are unlikely to reveal the information in a group
setting (travel agents’ perceptions of airline package travel programs)
7. Situations where the product consumption experience is sensory in nature, affecting
mood states and emotions (perfumes, bath soap)

Q8. A) Define Projective Technique

An unstructured and indirect form of questioning that encourages the respondents to project
their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding the issues of concern.
In projective techniques, respondents are asked to interpret the behavior of others rather
than describe their own behavior.
In interpreting the behavior of others, respondents indirectly project their own motivations,
beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into the situation.
B) Discuss Different Types of Association and Completion of Projective
Technique
As in psychology, these techniques are classified as association, completion, construction
and expressive. Each of these classifications is discussed below:
1. Association techniques: An individual is presented with a stimulus and asked to respond
with the first thing that comes to mind. Word association is the best known of these
techniques. In word association, respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a
time, and asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind. For example, in
the department store study, some of the test words might be: “location,” “parking,”
“shopping,” “quality,” and “price.”
2. Completion Techniques: In completion techniques, the respondent is asked to complete
an incomplete stimulus situation. Common completion techniques in marketing research
are sentence completion and story completion.
i. Sentence completion: Sentence completion is similar to word association.
Respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. Generally,
they are asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind, as illustrated in the
department store patronage project. Example: Aarong is most liked by..
ii. Story Completion: In story completion, respondents are given part of a story enough
to direct attention to a particular topic but not to hint at the ending. They are required
to give the conclusion in their own words. The respondents’ completion of this story
will reveal their underlying feelings and emotions.
3. Construction technique: A projective technique in which the respondent is required
to construct a response in the form of a story, dialogue, or description. The two main
construction technique are 1) Picture response technique 2) Cartoon tests
i. Picture response technique: A projective technique in which the respondent is
shown a picture and asked to tell a story describing it.
ii. Cartoon tests: Cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the
problem. The respondents are asked to indicate the dialogue that one cartoon
character might make in response to the comments of another character.
4. Expressive Techniques: Respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation
and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation. The
respondents express not their own feelings or attitudes, but those of others. The two main
expressive techniques are role playing and third-person technique.
i. Role Playing: In role playing, respondents are asked to play the role or assume the
behavior of someone else. The researcher assumes that the respondents will project
their own feelings into the role.
ii. Third Person Technique: In third-person technique, the respondent is presented
with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third
person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This third person
may be a friend, neighbor, colleague, or a “typical” person.

Chapter 6 (Survey and Observation)

Q9. A) Define Survey
A structured questionnaire given to a sample of a population and designed to produce
specific information from respondents.
Respondents may be asked a variety of questions regarding their behavior, intentions,
attitudes, awareness, motivations, and demographic and lifestyle characteristics. These
questions may be asked verbally, in writing or via a computer, and the responses may be
obtained in any of these forms. Typically, the questioning is structure. ‘Structured’ here
refers to the degree of standardization imposed on the data collection process.
Structured data collection: Use of a formal questionnaire that presents questions in a
prearranged order. In a typical questionnaire Fixed-alternative questions: Questions
that require respondents to choose from a set of predetermined answers.

B) Why Survey method is Better Than Observation method

The survey method has several Advantages:

• First, the questionnaire is simple to administer.

• Second, the data obtained are reliable because the responses are limited to the
alternatives stated.
• The use of fixed-response questions reduces the variability in the results that may be
caused by differences in interviewers.
• Finally, coding, analysis, and interpretation of data are relatively simple.
Disadvantages of Observation Methods:

• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined because little is known
about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
• Selective perception can bias the data.
• Observation is often time-consuming and expensive
• It is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior such as personal activities.
• Finally, in some cases the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in
monitoring the behavior of people without their knowledge or consent.
• To sum up, observation has the potential to provide valuable information when properly
used.

Q10. A) Define Observation

Observation Methods are the second type of methodology used in descriptive research.
Observation involves recording the behavioral patterns of people, objects and events in a
systematic manner to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest.
B) Explain the Term
Structure VS Unstructured Observation:
• For structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed
and how the measurements are to be recorded, such as when an auditor performs a
stock or inventory analysis in a store.
• This reduces the potential for observer bias and enhances the reliability of the data.
• Structured observation is appropriate when the phenomena under study can be
clearly defined and counted.
• For example, suppose that the researcher wished to measure the ratio of visitors to
buyers in a store. The reason for such observations could be to understand the amount
of browsing that occurs in a store.
• Structured observation is suitable for use in conclusive research.
• In unstructured observation the observer monitors all aspects of the phenomenon
that seem relevant to the problem at hand, such as observing children playing with
new toys and trying to understand what activities they enjoy the most.
 • This form of observation can be used when a research problem has yet to be
formulated precisely and when flexibility is needed in observation to identify
essential components of the problem and to develop hypotheses.
• Unstructured observation is most appropriate for exploratory research.
Disguised VS Undisguised Observation:
• In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware that they are being observed.
It enables respondents to behave naturally, since people tend to behave differently
when they know they are being observed.
• It may be accomplished by using one-way mirrors, hidden cameras, or inconspicuous
mechanical devices.
• In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware that they are under
observation.
• For example, they may be aware of the presence of the observer. Researchers
disagree on how much effect the presence of an observer has on behavior. The
observer effect is minor and short-lived. The other position is that the observer can
seriously bias the behavior patterns.
Natural VS Contrived Observation:
• Natural observation involves observing behavior as it takes place in the
environment.
• For example, one could observe the behavior of respondents eating fast food at
Burger King.
• In contrived observation, respondents’ behavior is observed in an artificial
environment, such as a test kitchen set up in a shopping mall.
• The advantage of natural observation is that the observed phenomenon will more
accurately reflect the true phenomenon.
• The disadvantages are the cost of waiting for the phenomenon to occur and the
difficulty of measuring the phenomenon in a natural setting.
Q11. A) Classification of Observation
Observation Method may be classified by mode of administration as personal observation,
electronic observation, audit, content analysis and trace analysis.

1. Personal observation: An observational research strategy in which human observers

record the phenomenon being observed as it occurs. For example, a researcher might record
the time, day and number of shoppers who enter a shop and observe where those shoppers
‘flow’ once they are in the shop.
2. Mechanical observation: This type of observation involves the use of mechanical or
electronic devices to record data automatically. Examples include cameras, sensors, or
other technological tools that capture and document events without the constant presence
of a researcher.
3. Audit: Audits involve systematic examinations or inspections of records, processes, or
activities to ensure accuracy, compliance, or performance. This can include financial
audits, where financial records are scrutinized for accuracy and adherence to regulations.
In a pantry audit, the researcher takes an inventory of brands, quantities, and package sizes
in a consumer’s home, perhaps in the course of a personal interview. Pantry audits greatly
reduce the problem of untruthfulness or other forms of response bias. However, obtaining
permission to examine consumers’ pantries can be difficult, and the fieldwork is expensive.
4. Content analysis: Content analysis is an appropriate method when the phenomenon to
be observed is communication, rather than behavior or physical objects. It is defined as the
objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of a
communication.
5. Trace Analysis: Trace analysis involves examining traces or remnants of activities or
events that individuals leave behind. This could include analyzing footprints, artifacts, or
other physical evidence to gain insights into past behaviors or occurrences.
 Chapter 11 (Sampling)
Q12. A) Difference Between Sample and Censes
Sample Census
A sample is a subset of individuals or A census involves collecting data from
elements selected from a larger population every individual or element in a population.
to represent it in a study.
Samples are used in statistical research Census is conducted when it's important or
when it's not practical or feasible to collect
necessary to gather information from every
data from the entire population. unit within a population.
Sampling is often more cost-effective andCensuses can be logistically challenging,
time-efficient than conducting a census. time-consuming, and costly, especially for
large populations.
The accuracy of inferences from a sample Provides a complete and accurate picture of
depends on the representativeness of the the entire population, leaving no room for
sample chosen. sampling error.

B) Discuss The Sampling Design Process

The Sampling Design Process involves several key steps:
1. Define the Target Population: Clearly identify and define the specific group or
population that the research aims to study.
2. Determine the Sampling Frame: Create a list or framework that includes all the
individual elements or units within the target population. This serves as the basis for
selecting the actual sample.
3. Select a Sampling Technique(s): Choose a method for selecting individuals from the
sampling frame. Common techniques include random sampling, stratified sampling, or
cluster sampling, depending on the research goals and constraints.
4. Determine the Sample Size: Decide on the number of individuals or elements to include
in the sample. This is influenced by factors such as desired level of precision, available
resources, and the variability within the population.
5. Execute the Sampling Process: Implement the chosen sampling technique(s) to select
the sample from the sampling frame. This involves reaching out to or including specific
elements based on the defined method.
Q13. A) Discuss the Probability Sampling with Graphical Presentation
A Graphical Illustration of Probability Sampling Techniques:

Simple Random Sampling (SRS) A probability sampling technique in which each

element in the population has a known and equal probability of selection. Every element is
selected independently of every other element and the sample is drawn by a random
procedure from a sampling frame.
Systematic Sampling A probability sampling technique in which the sample is chosen by
selecting a random starting point and then picking every ith element in succession from the
sampling frame.
Stratified Sampling A probability sampling technique that uses a two-step process to
partition the population into subpopulations, or strata. Elements are selected from each
stratum by a random procedure.
Cluster Sampling First, the target population is divided into mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive subpopulations called clusters. Then, a random sample of clusters
is selected based on a probability sampling technique such as simple random sampling. For
each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the sample or a sample of
elements is drawn probabilistically.

B) Discuss the Non-Probability Sampling with Graphical Presentation

Convenience Sampling A nonprobability sampling technique that attempts to obtain a
sample of convenient elements. The selection of sampling units is left primarily to the
interviewer.
Judgmental Sampling A form of convenience sampling in which the population elements
are purposely selected based on the judgment of the researcher
Quota Sampling A nonprobability sampling technique that is a twostage restricted
judgmental sampling. The first stage consists of developing control categories or quotas of
population elements. In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on
convenience or judgment
Snowball Sampling A nonprobability sampling technique in which an initial group of
respondents is selected randomly. Subsequent respondents are selected based on the
referrals or information provided by the initial respondents. This process may be carried
out in waves by obtaining referrals from referrals.

A Graphical Illustration of Nonprobability Sampling Techniques:

 Chapter 8,9 (Measurement & Scaling)
Q14. A) Define Measurement and Scaling
Measurement means giving numbers or symbols to features of things or events in a smart
and meaningful way. It includes setting rules for how we give these numbers and deciding
what units we're using. Measurement helps researchers turn things into numbers so they
can compare and analyze them using math.
Scaling is about putting variables into categories based on how we measure them. These
categories decide what math we can do with the numbers and how much sense those
numbers make.

B) Discuss The Scale Characteristics and Level of Measurement

Scale characteristics refer to the properties associated with different measurement scales.
These characteristics include description, order, distance, and origin. Let's discuss each of
these in detail with examples:
1. Description: Description refers to the ability of a scale to accurately label and categorize
different attributes or values. For example, in a nominal scale, which is at the description
level, you might measure the colors of cars. Each color (red, blue, green, etc.) is distinctly
labeled, but there is no inherent order or ranking.
2. Order: Order signifies that the scale not only categorizes values but also establishes a
meaningful order or ranking among them. For example, an ordinal scale demonstrates
order. For instance, a survey might ask participants to rate their satisfaction with a product
on a scale of 1 to 5. While the numbers represent an order, the intervals between them may
not be uniform.
3. Distance: Distance refers to the property of a scale where the intervals between
consecutive points are consistent and measurable. For example, the temperature measured
in Celsius or Fahrenheit is an example of a scale with distance characteristics. The
difference between 20°C and 30°C is the same as the difference between 30°C and 40°C.
4. Origin: Origin involves having a true zero point on the scale, allowing for the
computation of meaningful ratios. For example, A ratio scale exhibits origin characteristics.
For instance, measuring the weight of objects where zero represents the absence of weight.
The ratio of 20 grams to 10 grams is meaningful, indicating that one object is twice as
heavy as the other.
C) Discuss The Primary Scale of Measurement
The primary scales of measurement, also known as the four levels of measurement, are
nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Let's discuss each of these in detail with examples:
1. Nominal Scale: The nominal scale represents the most basic level of measurement. It
involves assigning numbers or labels to categories or groups without implying any inherent
order or meaning. For instance, giving numbers to players on a team or labeling blood types
(A, B, O).
2. Ordinal Scale: This scale introduces a sense of order. Numbers or labels are assigned
to represent a rank or position, going from lowest to highest. However, the gaps between
these ranks aren't always the same. Think of satisfaction ratings (very dissatisfied,
dissatisfied, neutral, satisfied, very satisfied)
3. Interval Scale: This one has equal gaps between the numbers, making it more precise.
But it doesn't have a real zero point, so zero doesn't mean the absence of something. For
example, temperatures in Celsius or Fahrenheit show an interval scale.
4. Ratio Scale: This is the most advanced scale, combining the features of interval scales
with a true zero point. The zero point indicates the absolute absence of the variable being
measured. For example, height, weight, and time are examples of ratio scales.

D) Discuss The Comparative Scale of Measurement

Comparative scaling involves comparing one item with another in terms of a particular
characteristic, without assigning specific numerical values to the degree of difference. For
example, in marketing, a researcher might ask respondents to compare different brands of
a product (e.g., smartphones) in terms of features, pricing, or overall satisfaction.
Respondents may provide rankings or preferences without assigning numerical values.
Types of Comparative Scales:
1. Paired Comparison: Respondents compare two items at a time and choose which one
they prefer or consider better.
2. Ranking Scales: Respondents rank items in order of preference without assigning
specific values.
3. Constant Sum Scaling: Respondents allocate a fixed number of points among different
items based on their perceived importance or preference.
While these techniques provide valuable insights into preferences and perceptions, they
lack the precise measurement characteristics found in other scales like interval or ratio
scales. Comparative scales are more about understanding the relative differences between
items rather than assigning exact values to those differences. They are particularly useful
when researchers want to explore preferences, opinions, or choices in a qualitative or
ordinal manner.

E) Discuss The Non-Comparative Scale of Measurement

The values on a non-comparative scale cannot be compared in terms of more or less, higher
or lower, or any other form of meaningful sequence.
1. Continuous Rating Scale: In a continuous rating scale, respondents provide a rating by
marking a position on a continuous line or scale. This type of scale allows for a wide range
of responses without distinct categories.
2. Itemized Rating Scale: An itemized rating scale presents respondents with specific
categories or points on the scale and requires them to choose the most appropriate one. It
is a more structured approach compared to continuous rating scales.
There are different types of itemized rating scales, including Likert, semantic differential,
and Stapel scales.
i. Likert Scale: The Likert scale is one of the most common itemized rating scales.
Respondents express their level of agreement or disagreement with a statement
by choosing from a set of response options, typically ranging from "strongly
agree" to "strongly disagree."
ii. . Semantic Differential Scale: The semantic differential scale helps understand
what people think or feel about things. People pick a spot on a scale between two
opposite words to show their thoughts or feelings. Using pairs of adjectives like
"happy" and "sad," respondents mark their perception of an event on a scale
ranging from happy to sad.
iii. Stapel Scale: The Stapel scale is a simple scale that uses just one word to describe
something. People then pick a spot on the scale to show what they think about that
thing. "Rate the product on a scale from -5 to +5, where -5 is extremely
unfavorable, 0 is neutral, and +5 is extremely favorable."
F) Discuss Three Criteria of Good Measurement
The three major criteria for evaluating measurements are reliability, validity, and
sensitivity.
1. Reliability: Reliability means how much we can trust a measurement to be the same
every time we measure something. If a scale is reliable, it will always show the same weight
for an object when we weigh it in the same way.
2. Validity: Validity is about how well a measurement shows what it's supposed to. A valid
measurement truly represents the thing it's trying to measure. For instance, if a test says it
measures how smart someone is, it's valid if the scores match up with other signs of
intelligence and really show how smart the person is, not something else.
3. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is like how well a tool can notice little changes in what it's
checking. If a tool is super sensitive, it can pick up even tiny differences. Think about
medical tests - if a test is really sensitive, it can find people who have a sickness, even if
it's just starting or not causing big problems yet.
 Chapter10 (Questionnaire and Form Design)
Q15. A) Define Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a set of written or printed questions designed to gather information or
opinions from individuals. It is a structured tool commonly used in research, surveys, or
assessments to collect data from respondents. Questionnaires can be administered in
various formats, including paper, online, or through interviews, and they serve as a
systematic way to gather standardized information from a targeted group of people. The
questions in a questionnaire can cover a wide range of topics, and the responses are
typically analyzed to draw conclusions or insights related to the research objectives.
B) Discuss The Objective of Questionnaire
Any questionnaire has three specific objectives.
1. Making Questions Understandable: The first goal is to turn the needed information
into specific questions that people can and will answer. It's a bit tricky because how you
ask a question can affect the answers you get.
2. Encouraging Participation: The second goal is to make the questionnaire interesting
and motivate people to take part. We want them to finish the interview, as incomplete
answers don't help much. A good questionnaire can keep people engaged and boost the
chances of getting responses.
3. Reducing Mistakes in Answers: The third goal is to reduce mistakes in the answers,
known as response error. This happens when people give wrong answers, or their answers
get recorded or analyzed incorrectly. A well-designed questionnaire can help minimize
these mistakes
Q16. A) Discuss The Structure and Unstructured Questionnaire
Structured Questionnaire: Structured questionnaire is a formal set of questions with
predetermined choices for answers. It has a fixed format, and all respondents get asked
questions in the same way. A structured question may be multiple choice, dichotomous, or
a scale. For Example,
 Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months?
Definitely will not buy ___________Yes Definitely will not buy (1)
____Probably will not buy ___________No Probably will not buy (2)
____Undecided ___________ Don’t know Undecided (3)
____Probably will buy Probably will buy (4)
____Definitely will buy Definitely will buy (5)
____Other (please specify)

Unstructured Questionnaire: An unstructured questionnaire is more flexible. It lets

people answer in their own words. These questions are good to start with because they let
people share general thoughts. Unstructured questions don't guide people, so they can say
whatever they want. This helps in exploratory research. One problem is that interviewers
can influence answers. Whether they write exactly what's said or just the main points can
affect the data. If exact reporting matters, tape recorders should be used. The following are
some examples;
• What is your occupation?
• What do you think of people who patronize discount department stores?
• Who is your favorite political figure?

B) Discuss The Classification of Structure Questionnaire

Structured questions in a questionnaire come in various types, each serving a specific
purpose in gathering information. Here are three common types: multiple-choice questions,
dichotomous questions, and scale questions.
1. Multiple-Choice Questions: Multiple-choice questions present respondents with a
question and a set of predetermined answer options. Respondents choose the most
appropriate response from the given list.
Example: "What is your preferred mode of transportation?
a) Car b) Bus c) Bicycle d) Walking
2. Dichotomous Questions: Dichotomous questions offer two response options, typically
in the form of "yes" or "no," or true/false.
Example: "Have you ever traveled abroad? a) Yes b) No"
3. Scale Questions: Scale questions measure the intensity, frequency, or agreement level
on a continuum. Respondents choose a position on a scale that represents their opinion or
experience.
Examples: Likert Scale, "Please rate your satisfaction with the product on a scale from 1
to 5, where 1 is very dissatisfied and 5 is very satisfied."

Q17. A) What Are the Factors of Individual Questionnaire Content?

The factors of individual question content are:
1. Is the Question Necessary?
Before including a question in the questionnaire, it's essential to assess its necessity.
Determine if the information sought from the question is crucial for achieving the research
objectives. Avoid including questions that do not contribute significantly to the study's
goals. For Example, if conducting a survey on customer satisfaction with a product,
consider whether asking about the respondent's favorite color is relevant to the study's
purpose.
2. Are Several Questions Needed Instead of One?
Instead of asking a single broad question, consider whether breaking it down into multiple
specific questions would provide more detailed and insightful information. This approach
can help in obtaining a more nuanced understanding of the respondent's perspective. For
example, rather than asking, "How satisfied are you with our service?" consider breaking
it down into specific aspects like responsiveness, product quality, and overall experience.
B) How Will You Choose Questionnaire Wording?
Question wording is the translation of the desired question content and structure into words
that respondents can clearly and easily understand. Deciding on question wording is
perhaps the most critical and difficult task in developing a questionnaire. We offer the
following guidelines:
1. Define the Issue: Clearly understand and define the topic or issue you want to explore
with the question. A well-defined issue helps in crafting precise and relevant questions. For
example, instead of a vague question like "How do you feel about the product?" specify
the aspect you're interested in, such as "What do you think about the product's durability?"
2. Use Ordinary Words: Use language that is familiar and easily understood by the target
audience. Avoid technical jargon or complex terms that might confuse respondents. For
example, instead of using industry-specific terms, use everyday language that your
audience is likely to use and understand.
3. Use Unambiguous Words: Choose words that have clear and specific meanings to avoid
any confusion or misinterpretation by respondents. For example, instead of using vague
terms like "good" or "bad," specify the criteria for evaluation, such as "effective" or
"ineffective."
4. Avoid Leading Questions: Frame questions in a neutral way that doesn't steer
respondents toward a particular answer. Leading questions can introduce bias into the
responses. For example, instead of asking, "Don't you agree that the new policy is
beneficial?" ask, "What are your thoughts on the new policy?"
5. Avoid Implicit Alternatives: Ensure that respondents are aware of all possible response
options and not influenced by implicit alternatives embedded in the question. For example,
instead of saying, "Do you prefer option A or not?" provide explicit choices, such as
"Which option do you prefer, A or B?"
6. Avoid Implicit Assumptions: Be mindful of any assumptions inherent in the question
that might influence respondents' answers. Keep questions neutral and unbiased. For
example, instead of assuming a positive outcome, ask open-ended questions that allow
respondents to express their true opinions.
7. Avoid Generalizations and Estimates: Frame questions in a way that elicits specific
and concrete information rather than broad generalizations or estimates. For example,
instead of asking, "How often do you usually exercise?" ask, "On how many days per week
do you engage in physical activity?"
8. Use Positive and Negative Statements: Use a mix of positively and negatively framed
statements to avoid response bias and encourage thoughtful responses. For example,
instead of consistently phrasing questions positively, include some negatively framed
questions to capture a more balanced perspective