Te sugiero que revises los siguientes temas:

* General Introduction: Language and Interlanguage. Los nuevos caminos del análisis
contrastivo.

Language and linguistics. Comparing and contrasting languages. Correspondences between

languages. Los nuevos caminos del análisis contrastivo.

* Phonemes

Comparing Systems. Consonants with different articulations. Unshared consonants. General

comparison of consonants systems. Dialect variations. Lleísmo y yeísmo. Distinción, seseo,
ceceo y ceseo.

Two vowel systems. Diphthongs and triphthongs.

* Basic notions of grammatical description.

The grammar of language. Morphology: morphemes, allomorphs, and rules. Syntax: word order,
constituency, and function.

* Parts of Speech (Contrastive Analysis: choose ONE part of speech; compare and contrast
Spanish and English; provide a thorough explanation)

Nouns. Verbs. Adjectives. Adverbs. Pronouns. Prepositions and conjunctions.

Linguistics is concerned with the nature of language and communication. It deals both with the
study of particular languages, and the search for general properties common to all languages or
large groups of languages.

Interlanguage (IL) is a linguistic system used by second language learners. Learners create this
language when they attempt to communicate in the target language. Interlanguage is affected
by the learner's native language as they use their native language knowledge to understand and
organize the second language or to compensate for existing competency gaps.

If someone wants to learn a foreign language, he will obviously meet with many kinds of
learning problems dealing with its sound system, vocabulary, structure, etc. This is
understandable since the student learning the foreign language has spoken his own native
language, which has been deeply implanted in him as part of his habit. Very often, he transfers
his habit into the target language he learns, which perhaps will cause errors.
__________________________________________________________________________
Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying
their differences and similarities with the assumption that the different elements between the
native and the target language will cause learning problems, while similar elements will not
cause any problems.

The goals of Contrastive Analysis can be stated as follows:

- To make foreign language teaching more effective.
- To find out the differences between the first language and the target language based on
the assumptions that: (1) foreign language learning is based on the mother tongue, (2)
similarities facilitate learning (positive transfer), (3) differences cause problems (negative
transfer/Interference), (4) via contrastive analysis, problems can be predicted and
considered in the curriculum.

Contrastive analysis compares and contrasts two language systems. Languages share the
same basic architectural blueprint (organization, and features) ex, languages have similar
components, types of rules, units (words, phrases, components or constituents of a sentence) ,
constraints of these units, function of the system and cognitive bases(knowledge, competence
of the language). What differs is the details of a layout and furnishings.

Contrastive analysis carries out parallel descriptions of language a and language b. Language a
is also called source language SL, ex english. Language b is also called target language.

Correspondences between languages

We have to consider 3 general categories

- SL has a feature “x” that matches closely with an x in TL.

x (any phrase, word, sound) may be a universal rule of language : all languages have verbs,
pronouns, etc. and a syntactic unit and they also have constraints in grammar usage.

x may be shared because languages a and b are linguistic relatives that inherited x from their
common ancestors: pather, itis (inflamacion)

x may be shared because of later linguistic and cultural influences. potato maze, tomato: words
in spanish taken to english culture

x may be shared as a coincidence, that is english and spanish have a ch sound for no special
reason

- SL has a feature x that resembles a feature in TL to some extent but differs in form,
function, frequency, distribution or condition on usage. for example the use of stress.
English words that have orthographic stress only because of their origin: café. fiancé
 - SL has a feature x which TL lacks. Spanish distinguishes ser o estar, tu/usted, the
sounds r and rr don’t exist in english because it has other distinction, english
distinguishes make and do his her and sounds b and v.

PHONEMES

Vowels:
- Four vowels shared by English and Spanish: [i], [e], [o], [u]
- English has more vowel distinctions:
- English distinguishes a front [æ] (sack) from back [ɑ] (car); Spanish [a] is between these
two.
- English has another vowel: schwa /ə/ (short, mid central vowel).

Consonants:
- [t] and [d] dental in Spanish but alveolar in English.
- Distributional difference: Spanish [t] and [d] occur before the glide [j] (as in tierno), but in
English it does not happen.

In one way, Spanish is less phonotactically constrained than English, since it has more GV
(glide vowel) combinations that occur more freely after consonants. E.g. /pw/ of puerta, /trw/ of
trueco, /plj/ of pliego.

On the other hand, Spanish is in 3 ways more phonotactically restricted than English:
1. Consonants ending a word: the only consonants that commonly end a word in Spanish
are the coronals /d s n r l θ/. Others are rare in final position and if they occur, words are
pronounced without that final consonant.
2. Clusters of two or more consonants at the end of the words are frequent in English but
forbidden in Spanish. E.g. sixths, glimpsed, etc.
3. Initial clusters of /sC/ are common in English but forbidden in Spanish. Spanish adds an
initial /e/.

TWO VOWEL SYSTEMS

It's easier for English speakers to learn Spanish vowel distinctions than viceversa. For Spanish
students of English, the contrasts between beat and bit, pool and pull, boat and bought, cat, cot
and cut are difficult; because of the tense/ lax contrast not used in Spanish, where all vowels
tend to be tense. English students easily perceive the Spanish contrast in piso/ paso/ pozo/
puso.

DIPHTHONGS:

DIALECT VARIATIONS
In English, vowels show a great deal of dialect variation, while consonants are rather stable and
uniform. In Spanish the consonants vary more. There are 2 points at which the set of Spanish
Phonemes varies:

YEÍSMO: fenómeno por el que pronunciamos de idéntica manera las grafías ‹y› y ‹ll›, es decir,
con el fonema /ʝ/. La pronunciación es variada según diversos factores, pero lo más frecuente
es la pronunciación [ʝ].

- la grafía ‹y› representa stricto sensu /ʝ/

- la grafía ‹ll› representa stricto sensu /ʎ/
- el yeísmo hace que tanto ‹y› como ‹ll› se pronuncien /ʝ/

LLEÍSMO: lo mismo al revés.

SESEO: Consiste en pronunciar las letras c (ante e, i) y z con el sonido que corresponde a la
letra s; así, un hablante seseante dirá [serésa] por cereza, [siérto] por cierto, [sapáto] por
zapato.

CECEO: Consiste en pronunciar la letra s con un sonido similar al que corresponde a la letra z;
así, un hablante ceceante dirá [káza] por casa, [zermón] por sermón, [perzóna] por persona. El
ceceo es un fenómeno dialectal propio de algunas zonas del sur de España y está mucho
menos extendido que el seseo.

THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE

The `Grammar' of Language.

The term GRAMMAR has been used in many ways: for the study of letters, for morphology and
syntax, for the entire structural framework of language and for the proprieties of cultivated
usage, as in `Watch your grammar.' In this book, it will be used mainly in the second sense,
morphology and syntax, i.e. the structure of words and the structure of phrases and sentences.

Morphology: is the study of the internal structure of words and forms a core part of linguistic
study today. It studies morphemes, allomorphs and rules. Its basic unit of study is the
morpheme.

A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning in a language. It can be defined as the smallest,

meaningful, morphological unit in a language that cannot be further divided or analyzed.
Because morphemes are the building blocks of word and phrase formation, they are also called
FORMATIVES.

Affixes Morphemes that express syntactic properties such as person, number, tense,
and case are classified as INFLECTIONAL; those that derive a new word from
another one are classified as DERIVATIONAL. On the basis of these notions,
the morphology of the word prehistórico can be described as follows:
Let's consider the following word: pre + histór + ic + o. A morpheme is the smallest unit of
meaning in a language.
Pre is a derivational morpheme, a prefix meaning before; histor is the stem; ic is a derivational
suffix forming and adj. from a N ; o is an inflectional suffix for masculine gender.
The stem history is a version or allomorph of historia : / istórja + iko/ = / istóriko/

Morphological structure of “prehistórico”

ADJECTIVE

STEM SUFFIX

STEM SUFFIX

PREFIX STEM

PRE HISTOR(IA) IC O

The stem histor can be regarded as a variant form or ALLOMORPH of historia.

And just as phonological rules derive allophones from phonemes, morphological

rules such as the following change morphemes and account for their

allomorphs.

/istorja/ ® /istor/ / ______ + ik +

Rules?

SYNTAX:

Syntax is the arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the
formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts.

WORD ORDER:

Word order in Spanish is very flexible, while in English the prevailing word order is
subject-verb-object (SVO). In Spanish the phrase "Juan hit me" can be expressed as either "Me
pegó Juan" or "Juan me pego." As a result, a Spanish speaker learning English might transfer
the flexible word order of Spanish to English to produce "Mo hit Juan" or "Juan me hit"

Another syntactic difference between English and Spanish is in the use of pronouns. In English
pronouns are required after the subject is introduced while in Spanish pronouns are commonly
dropped. In Spanish, it is normal for object pronouns (as opposed to nouns) to come before the
verb. And sometimes Spanish speakers will even put the subject noun after the verb. E.g. Lo
escribió Cervantes.

One further topic defies rational explanation, and certainly has no equivalent in any other
language. The most mystifying construction in Spanish word order for an English speaker, and
for any other speaker foreign to Spanish for that matter, is the use of the impersonal “se”, a
dominant and widespread feature of the Spanish language.

Perhaps the most common use of “se” in Spanish is to de-emphasize the agent of the sentence.
All this means is that the speaker does not specify who or what is doing the action. In English
we use the pronouns “one” or “they” and passive constructions to accomplish this same goal.
(That is why many Spanish grammar explanations referred to this use as the “passive se.”)

Ejemplo(s):

--Si se estudia mucho, se ganan buenas notas.

If one studies a lot, good grades are earned. [No specific person is studying or earning grades.]

--Se dice que la economía va mejor

They say that the economy is going better. [The speaker does not mention who says this.]

CONSTITUENCY

Sentences and phrases are actually formed by attaching constituents to each other in a
hierarchical construct. A constituent is a word or group of words that form a unit built around a
head (nucleo). They can be made up of words, phrases, and even entire clauses.

But there are other two important aspects: sentence structure and the functions of the parts.
Concerning the structure, the units join together into two main parts or constituents : NP
(sintagma nominal) +VP (sintagma verbal).

So, for the sake of generalization : a sentence consists of 2 constituents : NP and VP, and they
in turn consist of N+V with their optional companions.

NOUN PHRASE SYNTAX AND MORPHOLOGY

A noun with its adjacent modifiers, if any, constitute a NP. Since pronouns and NPs occur in the same
position and with the same functions, linguists generalize and call these NPs, too.

FUNCTIONS: NPs have 5 main functions in Spanish and English: Subject, Do, IO, PA (Predicative
Attributive or Subjective Complement) and OP ( Object of Preposition):

El caballo comenzó a correr . The horse started to run. Subject

Ayer vimos el caballo. Yesterday we saw the horse. DO

Le di heno al caballo. I gave the horse hay. IO

El animal más bello es el caballo . The most beautiful animal is the horse. PA

Está encima del caballo. It 's on the horse. OP

ELC: Unit 1. Los nuevos caminos del análisis contrastivo.

Read the set of photocopies and answer these questions using your own interpretation, please:

1. ¿Por qué surge el término de interferencia o transferencia negativa, y qué significa?

2. En el ámbito de la Lexicología existen dos situaciones opuestas, cuáles son? Considerando lo
estudiado en Lingüística, cite ejemplos correspondientes a este tema.
3. Respecto del análisis morfosintáctico y del enfoque actual,¿ cuál es la gran diferencia?
4. En lo que se refiere a Fonología se dan dos tipos de situaciones en el análisis contrastivo. Cite
ejemplos de acuerdo a lo estudiado en Lingüística o en otras asignaturas.
5. Respecto de la Lingüística Aplicada a la enseñanza de lenguas, existen factores que dieron lugar a
la crítica sobre la aplicabilidad del análisis contrastivo. En no más de 10 reglones refiérase a
ellos y dé su punto de vista y cite ejemplos considerando Inglés y Español.
6. Existe una nueva tendencia respeto del tipo de análisis contrastivo debido a nuevos enfoques.
Refiérase brevemente a ellos. (a, b, c de pág.7,8,9 y 10) y cite la relación de lo que dice el autor
de este artículo con lo estudiado en Lingüística, especialmente en la teoría de Noam Chomsky.

Desarrollo

1. El término de interferencia o transferencia negativa surge debido a la dificultad que se puede

generar en algunas áreas y potencial enconamiento de errores a la hora de aprender una lengua
diferente a la que es nativa. esto significa que hay que hacer distigciones especiales entre la
lengua que los estudiantes estan aprendiendo y su lengua materna. por ejemplo los no nativos
suelen tener errores en pronunciacion, uso de estructuras y errores gramaticales frecuentes.
2. En el ámbito de la Lexicología existen dos situaciones opuestas, cuáles son ?Considerando lo
estudiado en Lingüística, cite ejemplos correspondientes a este tema
3. Respecto del análisis morfosintáctico y del enfoque actual, la gran diferencia es que los modelos
diceñados originalmente no necesariamente son utiles con otros idiomas aparte del ingles.
 4. en cuanto a la fonologia hay dos enfoques: el tradicional de corte taxonomico-descriptivo y el
generativista.
5. La Lingüística Aplicada a la enseñanza de lenguas se puso en tela de juicio la aplicabilidad en
problemas practicas de la enselanza. 1) no todos los errores de deben a interferencias de la
lengua madre, 2) no se puede hacer un analisis exhaustivo entre dos lenguas. 3) no tiene en
cuanta otras variables linguisticas como la comunicacion. 4)hay veces que es deficil demostrar el
error porque suena raro para el nativo porque no lo usa cotidianamente. 5) diferencias
linguisticas no son necesariamente una dificultad del lenguaje, 6) el analisis contrastivo no
enseño nada a los profesoresque no hayan aprendido en clase.
6. La nueva tendencia se traslada al campo del discurso y las convenciones textuales, enfocandose
ne las cualidades textuales como la coherencia discursiva. Ademas, el concepto original de
analisis contrastivo es sustituido por el estudio de transferencias. finalmente, siguiendo la teoria
de chomsky, se busca establecer un conjunton de propiedades unicversales de todas las lenguas,
de esta forma la informacion que tengan los hablantes acerca de la lengaua sera tacito e
interiorizado.
● retorica contrastiva: Área de estudio dentro de la lingüística aplicada, desarrollada sobre
todo en Estados Unidos desde finales de la década de los 60 del siglo pasado, que se
ocupa de los procesos y problemas que implica la escritura en una segunda lengua.
Partiendo de una concepción del lenguaje, y de la comunicación escrita en particular,
como fenómeno cultural, la retórica contrastiva entiende que cada lengua posee
convenciones estilísticas particulares y modos propios de estructurar el discurso. El
análisis comparativo de las pautas retóricas características de distintas culturas y géneros
textuales permite una mayor comprensión de la interferencia de la primera lengua en el
proceso de escritura en una segunda lengua. Se trata, por lo tanto, de un área de
extraordinaria relevancia en ámbitos como la traducción o la enseñanza de lenguas.

COUNT / COUNTABLE NOUNS

Count nouns are called like this because their referents are discrete and stable enough to be counted in
quantity: one book, two books, etc. Other entities occur not as self-contained things that can be counted
but as shapeless substance or abstractions: water, soil, peace, air, gravitation ,etc ; these are mass nouns
which can be counted by imposing form or measure on them: a cup of milk, a piece of bread, three bars
of soap ( 3 panes de jabón), etc. These words are called counters ( cup, liter, bar, piece, etc.).These
plural mass nouns are used to indicate :a ) Servings: two cups of tea, please! ; Types of substance: sugars
and salts in chemistry ; c) For metaphorical senses: take the waters.( hacer las paces).

DIFFERENCES IN MASS/ COUNT NOUN CLASSIFICATION

A) ENGLISH SPANISH

A piece of furniture Un mueble / unos muebles

A slice of toast Un tostado/ unos tostados

A bolt of lighting Un rayo / unos rayos

An item of news Una/s noticia/ s

A piece of candy Un dulce / unos dulces ( bombones)

A bit/ piece of advice Un / os consejo/s

An item of information / business Información/ informaciones / negocios

A piece of luggage Equipaje/s

A stick of chalk/ gum Tiza/s , chicle/s

A round of applause Aplauso /s

GENDER

Entities are clearly of either male or female sex. This natural distinction is the origin of the
masculine/ feminine distinction in Spanish (el niño /la niña); ( the boy - he, the girl - she) in English.
In Indo-European languages , gender becomes blurred when extended to the large realm of
sexless things. In Proto-Indo European, the distinction became grammaticalized and all nouns-
sexed or sexless- came to be classified as MASCULINE, FEMININE or NEUTER (Latin for “neither”).
Latin inherited this setup, but as it passed on to Spanish ,the neuter fell out ( neuter “ lo /esto
“,etc. evolving in another direction). Latin neuter included some obviously sexed creatures and its
masculine and feminine already swarmed with sexless things and abstractions ( Spanish: la mesa, el
coraje, etc. ).English went a step further by dropping the gender distinction entirely except for sexed
referents; something that is sexually neither a he nor a she is an it.

In Spanish we use nouns marking their gender in agreement with their modifiers ( la sal blanca y no*
la sal es blanco).

Gender is partly predictable. One clue is orthographic / phonemic; that is how the noun ends.
According to traditional rules, the “o” signals masculine and “a”,feminine.

Bull´s statistics on gender classification according to noun ending:

-n : ( excluding “ción/ sión”) : 96.3% M ( masculine)

-o : 99.7 % M

-r : 99.2 % M

- s : ( excluding “tis/ sis”) : 92.7 % M

-e : 89.2 % M

-l : 96.6 % M
-a : 98.9% F (feminine)

-d : 97 % F

ción / sión : 100% F

sis / tis : 99.2 % F

The other criterion for gender is meaning. They are masculine / feminine pairs:

El mango / la manga handle / sleeve

El barco / la barca ship/ small boat

El cargo / la carga position, job / cargo, load, charge

El cuchillo / la cuchilla knife / cleaver

El fruto / la fruta fruit ( metaphorical ) / fruit ( food)

El huerto / la huerta vegetable garden / farming area

El hoyo / la hoya hole / pit

El leño / la leña log / firewood

El marco / la marca framework / mark – brand

El partido / la partida party – match – game / departure

El puerto / la puerta port / door

El velo / la vela veil / sail - candle

There are also homonymous pairs with different gender:

El canal ( channel) la canal / canaleta / zanja) - ( gutter / ditch )

El capital ( money ) la capital ( capital city )

El cólera ( cholera ) la cólera ( anger / rage)

El coma ( coma) la coma ( comma)

El cometa ( comet) la cometa ( kite)

El corte ( cut) la corte ( court)

El cura ( priest ) la cura ( cure)

 El frente ( front ) la frente ( forehead)

El orden ( order/ la orden ( order / command)

arrangement)

El papa ( Pope) la papa ( potato)

El parte ( communiqué) la parte (part)

El pendiente (pendant) la pendiente ( slope)

NOUNS

In English and Spanish, a noun is a word that refers to and names a person, place, thing,
concept, entity. Grammatically, a noun can serve as the subject of a sentence or the object of a
verb or preposition. Nouns can also be described by adjectives or replaced by pronouns.

Similarities:

Singular and plural

In both languages nouns are inflected for number. The singular ending is “zero
morpheme”(nothing) and the plural is a suffix or suffixes. (-s/-es).
In both languages some nouns are not pluralized. These words are called “mass nouns,” that is,
nouns that don’t have a plural form and can’t be used in plural or with plural verbs. Mass nouns
are singular in form.
Mass nouns cannot be counted; thus, they are also called uncountable nouns or non-count
nouns, which are common nouns that cannot combine with an indefinite article-a or an- and
cannot be modified by a numeral without specifying a unit of measurement.
Eg. Information, peace, education, etc.

Categories
Since Spanish and English both come from Indo-European, both share the same categories:
- Proper nouns (sustantivos propios): refer to a specific thing or being. As in English,
Spanish proper nouns are typically capitalized. E.g. America, Barcelona, Sofia, etc.
- Common nouns (sustantivos comunes): A common noun refers to things, being or
concepts without referring to a specific one of them. E.g. humano (human), bike
(bicicleta), etc.
- Collective nouns (sustantivos colectivos): are used to represent a group of individual
nouns. E.g. enjambre (swarm), rebaño (flock), equipo (team), etc.

Countable and Uncountable nouns

Differences
1. Spanish nouns have a gender

While assigning gender to objects is something that is common in other languages, it’s almost
unheard of in modern English.
In the Spanish language, every noun is considered to be either masculine or feminine, and the
articles “the,” el (masculine) or la (feminine), will often accompany the noun to demonstrate
which gender the noun is. Another clue is orthographic/phonemic, namely, how the noun ends.
According to traditional rules, the “o” signals masculine and “a”,feminine.
Bull´s statistics on gender classification according to noun ending:
-n : ( excluding “ción/ sión”) : 96.3% M ( masculine)
-o : 99.7 % M
-r : 99.2 % M
- s : ( excluding “tis/ sis”) : 92.7 % M
-e : 89.2 % M
-l : 96.6 % M
-a : 98.9% F (feminine)
-d : 97 % F
ción / sión : 100% F
sis / tis : 99.2 % F

2. In English it is very common for nouns to function as adjectives.

Such nouns are called attributive nouns. For example, in "dog leash," "dog" is an attributive
noun. While Spanish connects the descriptive noun to the main noun using a preposition, often
de. Thus a dog leash is either correa de perro (literally, leash of dog) or correa para perros
(leash for dogs).

3. Possessive nouns don’t exist in Spanish

In English, all you have to do is slap an apostrophe “s” to the end of a noun and presto, you’ve
made it possessive: “Adam‘s jacket.”
This isn’t the case in Spanish; to specify belonging in Spanish, most often de is used to connect
the possession to its owner. To say “Adam’s jacket,” for example, we would say la chaqueta de
Adam, which translates literally to “the jacket of Adam.”