The Origin

of the
Universe
MARKDALE I. OLARTE
BIOLOGICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT
Introduction

 Any explanation of the origin of the Universe should be consistent

with all information about its composition, structure, accelerating
expansion, cosmic microwave background radiation among others.
Structure, Composition, and Age

 The universe as we currently know it

comprises all space and time, and all
matter and energy in it.
 It is made up of following:
 4.6% baryonic matter ~ “ordinary” matter
consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons:
atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, nebulae, and
other bodies.
 24% cold dark matter ~ matter that has gravity
but does not emit light.
 71.4% dark energy ~ a source of anti-gravity; a
force that counteracts gravity and causes the
universe to expand.
Structure, Composition, and Age

 Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the three most abundant elements.
Structure, Composition, and Age

 Stars which are the building block of galaxies are born out of clouds
of gas and dust in galaxies. Instabilities within the clouds eventually
results into a protostar
 protostar ~ the hot core of a future star as thermonuclear reactions set in.
 Most stars such as the Sun belong to the so called “main sequence stars”. In
the cores of such stars hydrogen atoms are fused through thermonuclear
reactions (nucleosynthesis) to make helium atoms.
 Energy produced from this reaction are enormous. Nucleosynthesis requires
very high temperature. The minimum temperature for H fusion is 5x106 0C.
Structure, Composition, and Age
Nucleosynthesis
Structure, Composition, and Age

 The remaining dust and gas may end up as they are or as planets,
asteroids, or other bodies in the accompanying planetary systems.
 A galaxy is a cluster of billions of star and clusters of galaxies form
superclusters. In between the clusters is practically an empty space.
 This organization of matter in the universe suggest that it is indeed clumpy at a
certain scale. But at large scale, it appears homogeneous and isotropic.
 Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 billion years old.
 The diameter of the universe is possibly infinite but should be at least 91 billion
light-years (1 light year = 9.4607 x 1012 km).
 It’s density is 4.5 x 10-31 g/cm3.
Expanding Universe

 In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced

his significant discovery of the
“redshift” and its interpretation that
galaxies are moving away from
each other, hence as evidence for
an expanding universe.
 He observed that spectral lines of
starlight made to pass through a prism
are shifted toward the red part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., toward
the band of lower frequency; thus, the
inference that the star or galaxy must
be moving away for us. (see Doppler
Effect)
Expanding Universe

 Red shift as evidence for an

expanding universe. The positions of
the absorptions lines for helium for
light coming from the Sun are
shifted towards the end as
compared with those for a distant
star. Thus evidence for expansion
contradicted the previously held
view of a static and unchanging
universe
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The Doppler Effect
The redshift is due to the Doppler effect phenomena similar of that of sound waves: to a stationary
observer, the frequency or pitch of a receding source decreases as it moves away.
Cosmic Microwave Background
 There is a pervasive cosmic
background (CMB) radiation in
the universe. Its accidental
discovery in 1964 by Arno
Penzias (right) and Robert
Woodrow Willson (left) earned
them the physics Nobel Prize in
1978
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)
It can be observed as strikingly uniform faint glow in the microwave band
coming all directions-blackbody radiation with an average temperature of
about 2.7 degrees above absolute zero.
Theories of the
Origin of the
Universe
Non – Scientific Thoughts
Ancient Egyptians
Ancient Egyptians believed in many
gods and myths which narrate that the
world arose from an infinite sea at the
first rising of the sun.

The sun rises over the circular mound of creation as goddesses pour
out the primeval waters around it
Creator God
“Mhombo”
The Kuba people of Central Africa tell
the story of a creator god Mbombo (or
Bumba) who, alone in a dark and
water-covered Earth, felt an intense
stomach pain and then vomited the
stars, sun, and moon.

Mbombo, also called Bumba, is the creator god in the religion and
mythology of the Kuba of Central Africa. In the Mbombo creation
myth, Mbombo was a giant in form and white in color.
Scientific Thoughts
The Steady State Theory
 proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle, suggests that the universe has
always been there and will always be present. It also conveys that the universe always looks the
same in any time or space but continuously expands while simultaneously creating matter,
maintaining the density of the universe; hence, the name Steady State.

From left to right : Thomas Gold (1920–2004), Herman Bondi (1919–2005) and
Fred Hoyle (1915–2001)
The Steady State Theory
 This theory first explained that the cosmic background radiation is a
result of a supernova. But after a thorough research, it was proven
that it is equal in any direction of the universe and could not only be a
result of many supernovae.
 The Steady State Theory is so simple that it was widely accepted even
before the proposal of the Big Bang Theory. The discovery of the
cosmic background radiation significantly supported the explanations
given by the Big Bang Theory, which led many scientists to reject the
Steady State Theory.
The Big Bang Theory

 The most accepted theory about the origin of the universe is the Big
Bang Theory. Georges Lemaître, a Belgian priest, is considered as the
first proponent of the Big Bang Theory. The theory was supported by
other scientists such as Edwin Hubble, Arno Penzias, and Robert
Wilson who presented pieces of evidence to support it.
 The Big Bang Theory states that the universe started as a
“singularity”—an area predicted to be in the core of a black hole
with a very high temperature and density, which compressed matter
with its intense gravitational pressure.
The Big Bang Theory

 The theory rests on two ideas: General Relativity and the

Cosmological Principle.
 In Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, gravity is thought of as a distortion of
space-time and no longer described by a gravitational field in contrast to the
Law of Gravity of Isaac Newton. General Relativity explains the peculiarities of
the orbit of Mercury and the bending of light by the Sun and has passed rigorous
tests.
 The Cosmological Principle assumes that the universe is homogeneous and
isotropic when averaged over large scales. This is consistent with our current
large-scale image of the universe. But keep in mind that it is clumpy at smaller
scales.
Gravity as distortion of Spacetime in Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity
Gravity as distortion of Space-Time continuum in Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity
“Hubble Ultra Deep Field”
“Hubble Ultra Deep Field”
The Evolution of the Universe
Evolution of the Universe according
to Big Bang
1. From time zero (13.8 billion years ago)
until 10-43 second later, all matter and
energy in the universe existed as a hot,
dense, tiny state. It then underwent
extremely rapid, exponential inflation
until10-32 second later after which and
until 10 seconds from time zero,
conditions allowed the existence of only
quarks, hadrons, and leptons.
2. Then, Big Bang nucleosynthesis took
place and produced protons, neutrons,
atomic nuclei, and then hydrogen,
helium, and lithium until 20 minutes after
time zero when sufficient cooling did not
allow further nucleosynthesis.
Evolution of the Universe according
to Big Bang
3. From then on until 380,000 years, the
cooling universe entered a matter-
dominated period when photons
decoupled from matter and light could
travel freely as still observed today in the
form of cosmic microwave background
radiation.
4. As the universe continued to cool down,
matter collected into clouds giving rise to
only stars after 380,000 years and
eventually galaxies would form after 100
million years from time zero during which,
through nucleosynthesis in stars, carbon
and elements heavier than carbon were
produced.
Evolution of the Universe according
to Big Bang
5. From 9.8 billion years until the present, the
universe became dark-energy
dominated and underwent accelerating
expansion. At about 9.8 billion years after
the big bang, the solar system was
formed.
Oscillating Universe Theory

 The Oscillating Universe Theory, also referred to as the Pulsating Theory, discusses
that the universe is expanding and will contract once all the energy after the Big
Bang is used up. This theory, proposed by Richard Tolman, can be described as
the combination of the Big Bang and the Big Crunch.
 The Big Crunch occurs when the universe expands and eventually reverses, then
collapses causing a singularity or the formation of another Big Bang. The
Oscillating Universe Theory suggests that once the universe reverses and attains
the point of singularity, another universe will be born. This is referred to as the Big
Bounce. Tolman theorized that the universe may be first in the cycle and could
be a result of a previous Big Bounce event.
 Just like in the Steady State Theory, scientists discovered many loopholes in the
Oscillating Universe Theory because it was said that for the universe to collapse,
energy must be present. This theory suggests that the universe will collapse on its
own after it reaches its full expansion, which violates some laws of physics.
Origin of the Solar
System
NEXT PRESENTATION
Introduction

 Any hypothesis regarding the origin of the solar system should

conform to or explain both large scale and small scale properties of
the solar system.
 Natural forces created and shaped the solar system. The same processes
(condensation, accretion, collision and differentiation) are ongoing processes.
 The orderly structure of the Solar System (planets located at regular intervals) and
the uniform age of the point to single formation event.
THE MILKY WAY GALAXY
The Milky Way and The
Solar System
 The solar system is
located in the Milky Way
Galaxy – a huge disc
and spiral-shaped
aggregation of about at
least 100 billion stars and
other bodies

Source: http://www.hdwallpapersact.com/wp-content/gallery/milky-way-galaxy/sky-
night-stars-the-milky-way-galaxy-from-earth.jpg
The Milky Way and The
Solar System
 Its spiral arms rotate around a
globular cluster or bulge of
many, many stars, at the
center of which lies a
supermassive blackhole

Source: https://theglobalscientist.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/fig1.jpg
The Milky Way and The
Solar System
 Its spiral arms rotate around a
globular cluster or bulge of
many, many stars, at the
center of which lies a
supermassive blackhole

Source: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/content/dam/news/photos/000/719/71981.jpg
The Milky Way and The
Solar System
 The Milky Way galaxy is about
100 million light years across (1
light year = 9.4607 x1012 km
 The solar system revolves
around the galactic center
once in about 240 million
years

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Milky_Way_Arms_ssc2008-
10.svg/2000px-Milky_Way_Arms_ssc2008-10.svg.png
 The Milky Way and The Solar System

 The Milky Way is part of the so-called Local Group of galaxies, which in turn is part of the Virgo Supercluster of galaxies.
for closer view click link:..\..\..\Pictures\Saved Pictures\Earth's_Location_in_the_Universe_SMALLER_(JPEG).jpg
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 The solar system comprise the Sun, eight planets: Terrestrial Planets (Mecury, Venus, Earth, Mars)
and Jovian Planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune), the dwarf planet Pluto, satelllites or moons, asteroids
and minor bodies such as those in the Kuiper belt and interplanetary dust.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 The ASTEROID BELT lies between Mars and Jupiter. Meteoroids are smaller asteroids. They are
thought of as remnants of “failed planets” – one that did not form due to disturbance form the
Jupiter’s gravity.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 The Kuiper Belt lies beyond Neptune (30 to 50 AU, 1 AU = Sun-Earth distance = 150 million km) and
comprise numerous rocky or ice bodies a few meters to hundreds of kilometres in size.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 The Oort Cloud marks the outer boundary of the solar system and is composed mostly of icy
objects.
Large Scale Features of the Solar
Planets
 1. Much of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated at the center
(Sun) while angular momentum is held by the outer planets.
 2. Orbits of the planets are elliptical and are on the same plane.
 3. All planets revolve around the sun.
 4. The periods of revolution of the planets increase with increasing
distance from the Sun; the innermost planet moves fastest, the
outermost, the slowest;
 5. All planets are located at regular intervals from the Sun.
Small Scale Features of the Solar
System
 6. Most planets rotate prograde (counterclockwise when viewed
from the Earth’s North Pole.
 7. Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials with high melting
points such as silicates, iron , and nickel. They rotate slower, have thin
or no atmosphere, higher densities, and lower contents of volatiles -
hydrogen, helium, and noble gases.
 8. The outer four planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are
called "gas giants" because of the dominance of gases and their
larger size. They rotate faster, have thick atmosphere, lower densities,
and fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium and ices (water, ammonia,
methane).
Element Abundance on Earth
Meteorite, and Universe
Elemental Abundance on Earth
Meteorite, and Universe
 The table below shows the abundance of elements across bodies in
the solar system as compared to abundance in the universe:
 Except for hydrogen, helium, inert gases, and volatiles, the universe and
Earth have similar abundance especially for rock and metal elements.
 The sun and the large planets have enough gravity to retain hydrogen and
helium. Rare inert gases are too light for the Earth’s gravity to retain, thus the low
abundance.
 Retention of volatile elements by the Earth is consistent with the idea that some
materials that formed the Earth and the solar system were “cold” and solid;
otherwise, the volatiles would have been lost. These suggest that the Earth and
the solar system could be derived from materials with composition similar to that
of the universe.
Theories of the
Origin of the
Solar System
The Nebular Theory

 Independently thought by, Emmanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and

Pierre – Simon Laplace.
 The nebular theory states that solar system originated from a nebula – a gas
cloud made of hydrogen particles.
 This disruption created areas of high density, and as these areas were
formed, gravity acted, pulling other materials to it. The denser the nebula
became, the more heat it produced that resulted in the formation of the
Sun.
 At first, the Sun looked like a disc (imagine a CD), and as it rotates, most of its
mass fused in the center. As the Sun forms, the remaining particles that were
not sucked up by the Sun formed as rings. These rings of particles rotated
and combined to form planets. As it forms, the denser materials, such as iron
and nickel, sank and the less dense materials, such as gases, floated to the
atmosphere of the formed planets.
The Nebular Hypothesis
The Encounter Hypotheses

 Comte de Buffon’s (1749) Sun-comet encounter that sent matter to form

planet
 James Jeans’ (1917) sun-star encounter that would have drawn from the
sun matter that would condense to planets.
 T.C. Chamberlain and F. R. Moulton’s (1904) planetesimal hypothesis
involving a star much bigger than the Sun passing by the Sun and draws
gaseous filaments from both out which planetisimals were formed
 M.M. Woolfson’s capture theory is a variation of James Jeans’ near-collision
hypothesis. In this scenario, the Sun drags from a near proto-star a filament
of material which becomes the planets. Collisions between proto-planets
close to the Sun produced the terrestrial planets; condensations in the
filament produced the giant planets and their satellites. Different ages for
the Sun and planets is predicted by this theory.
The Protoplanet Hypothesis

 The Protoplanet Hypothesis is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis.

Just like the nebular theory, protoplanetary theorists Carl von
Weizsäcker and Gerard Kuiper believed that the solar system started from a
nebula.
 About 4.6 billion years ago, in the Orion arm of the Milky Way galaxy, a
slowly-rotating gas and dust cloud dominated by hydrogen and helium
starts to contract due to gravity
 As most of the mass move to the center to eventually become a proto-Sun,
the remaining materials form a disc that will eventually become the planets
and momentum is transferred outwards.
 Due to collisions, fragments of dust and solid matter begin sticking to each
other to form larger and larger bodies from meter to kilometer in size. These
proto-planets are accretions of frozen water, ammonia, methane, silicon,
aluminum, iron, and other metals in rock and mineral grains enveloped in
hydrogen and helium.
The Protoplanet Hypothesis

 High-speed collisions with large objects destroys much of the mantle

of Mercury, puts Venus in retrograde rotation.
 Collision of the Earth with large object produces the moon. This is
supported by the composition of the moon very similar to the Earth's
Mantle.
 When the proto-Sun is established as a star, its solar wind blasts
hydrogen, helium, and volatiles from the inner planets to beyond
Mars to form the gas giants leaving behind a system we know today.
Advancement/Information on the
Solar System
 Pluto’s Status

 In 1930, Clyde Tombaugh discovered

Pluto as the ninth planet in the solar
system. However, the discovery
of Kuiper Belt (an area after Neptune
that contains asteroids, comets, and
other celestial bodies) questioned
the status of Pluto as a planet.
 Pluto’s Status

 In 2005, Eris, a Kuiper Belt object, was

discovered to be 10 percent bigger
than Pluto.
 At first, Eris was suggested as the tenth
planet in the solar system.
 Its incapability to clear its orbit due to
lack of gravity led to classify it as a
dwarf planet together with Pluto. Other
dwarf planets are Ceres in the Asteroid
Belt and Makemake and Haumea both
in the Kuiper Belt.
 Dwarf planets are celestial bodies that
orbit the sun, have enough mass to
assume a nearly round shape, and
have not cleared its orbit due to lack of
gravity.
 Planet X

 Recent observations by two astronomers, Mike Brown and Konstantin Batygin, led to the
speculation that a ninth planet is present in our solar system. They discovered six clustered
objects in the Kuiper Belt and stated that this clustering is due to the presence of a planet
enough to put them in place. Calculations and observations have been done to claim that
a Planet X exists. However, other astronomers stated that until it is seen, the claim for the ninth
planet in our solar system is still in question.
Exploration to Mars
Mars Rover Missions
 Since 1970s, NASA has been deploying Mars
Exploration Rovers to examine the nearest
planet to Earth, Mars. They examined materials
of Mars’ lithosphere and assessed if the
weather condition is viable for the survival of
life.
 Its mission was focused on the physical
characteristics of the planet. It aimed to
collect data on how the planet formed its
rocks and soil and whether or not water has
been responsible for the weathering and
erosion of rocks. The rovers examined the rocks
and analyzed that it had sedimentary rocks
that can be formed if rocks are soaked for a
long time in the water.
 Based on the data collected, scientists believe
that Mars had water in the past, and this water
sustained some microorganisms.
 Since January 2014, rovers started digging for
fossilized evidence of ancient life.
The Mars One Program

 The Mars One Program aims to land the first humans on Mars and
establish a human colony on that planet by 2027.
 In 2014, the program chose astronauts that will be sent to Mars. Plans
of landing rovers and establishing communication satellites were also
formulated. The target is that by the year 2022, the first crew will start
its travel to Mars and will reach it after a year, and by 2035, the
colony will have twenty crew and will be able to sustain itself.
This view from the Mast Camera (Mastcam) on NASA's Curiosity Mars rover shows two scales of ripples, plus other
textures, in an area where the mission examined a linear-shaped dune in the Bagnold dune field on lower Mount
Sharp in March and April 2017.

Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
A view from the "Kimberley" formation on Mars taken by NASA's Curiosity rover. The strata in the
foreground dip towards the base of Mount Sharp, indicating flow of water toward a basin that
existed before the larger bulk of the mountain formed.
Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
The dark, rippled surface of a linear dune is visible at the center of the view and receding into the
distance to the left. The bedrock of the Murray formation, made from sediments deposited in lakes
billions of years ago, is in the foreground, along with some components of the rover. The location,
called "Ogunquit Beach," is on the northwestern flank of lower Mount Sharp.
Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN)
Sophisticated measurements made by a suite of instruments on the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution, or
MAVEN, spacecraft revealed the ups and downs of hydrogen escape – and therefore water loss. The escape rate
peaked when Mars was at its closest point to the sun and dropped off when the planet was farthest from the sun.
The rate of loss varied dramatically overall, with 10 times more hydrogen escaping at the maximum.
Titan’s Water
 Titan is Saturn’s largest moon. Astronomers
studying the Titan’s composition lead to the
discovery that liquid substance is present on
the moon in the form of liquid methane.
Below is an image that was taken from the
shutter-snapping Cassini spacecraft which
shows the most detailed look at one of the
famous lakes on the surface of Titan.
 The discovery of Titan has been a
breakthrough since it is the only known
celestial body in our solar system that has
liquid substance on it, aside from Earth.
 It was also discovered that the Titan is
undergoing chemical processes, the same
processes that the Early Earth have
undergone. If the Sun became large enough,
it will receive the same amount of solar
energy we are receiving, thus, making the
possibility for life’s survival possible.
Rossetta’s Comet

 Rosetta is a space probe built by the European

Space Agency and launched on 2 March 2004.
One of its mission is to rendezvous with and attempt
to land a probe (Philae) on a comet in the Kuiper
Belt. One of the purpose of the mission is to better
understand comets and the early solar systems.
Philae landed successfully on comet
(67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko) on 12 November
2014. Analysis of the water (ice) from the comet
suggest that its isotopic composition is different
from water from Earth.

Illustration of Rosetta Space station and Philae

lander
Rossetta’s Comet
 That is, the ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the water
from the comet was determined to be three times
that found for terrestrial water. This makes it very
unlikely that water found on Earth came from comets
such as comet 67P, according to the scientists.

Illustration of Rosetta Space station and Philae

lander