Instant Download Earths Evolving Systems 2nd Edition Ebook PDF PDF Scribd

Earth's Evolving Systems 2nd Edition
(eBook PDF)
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/earths-evolving-systems-2nd-edition-ebook-pdf/
5.8 Speciation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.9 Evolution and the Fossil Record. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.9.1 Comparative anatomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.9.2 Cladistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.9.3 Microevolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.9.4 Macroevolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.10 Mass Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.11 Biodiversity Through the Phanerozoic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
CHAPTER 6 Geologic Time and Stratigraphy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2 Relative Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.3 Absolute Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.4 Evolution of the Geologic Time Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.5 Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.5.1 Lithocorrelation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.5.2 Formations and facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.5.3 Biostratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.5.4 Integrating different stratigraphic datums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.6 How Complete Is the Geologic Record? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.6.1 Unconformities and diastems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.6.2 Sequence stratigraphy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.7 Why Is Sea Level So Important? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
PART II T
he Precambrian: Origin and Early Evolution
of Earth’s Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
CHAPTER 7 An Extraordinary Beginning: Hadean and Archean. . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.2 Origin of the Universe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.2.1 Early observations and theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.2.2 The Big Bang: from hypothesis to theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.2.3 The inflationary universe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.3 Origin of Matter and Forces of Nature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.4 Formation of the Solar System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.5 The Hadean: Origin of Earth and Moon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.5.1 Earth’s earliest evolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.5.2 Origin of the Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.6 The Archean: Beginnings of a Permanent Crust. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.6.1 Shields and cratons: cores of continents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.6.2 Gneiss terranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.6.3 Greenstone belts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.6.4 Microplate tectonics and differentiation of the early crust . . . . . . . 188
Contents vii
7.7 Climatic Evolution of the Inner Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.7.1 Habitable zone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.7.2 Faint young sun. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.7.3 Weathering and tectonism on the inner planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
CHAPTER 8 Origins of Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

8.1 Life as a Geologic Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.2 Early Theories of the Origin of Life: Spontaneous Generation
and Panspermia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.3 What Is Life? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.3.1 Basic traits of life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.3.2 Composition of life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.4 Chemical Evolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.4.1 Early theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.4.2 Hydrothermal vents and the pyrite world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
8.4.3 The RNA world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.4.4 Autocatalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.5 Origin of Eukaryotic Cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.6 Precambrian Fossil Record and Molecular Clocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.7 Is There Life on Other Planets?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
CHAPTER 9 The Proterozoic: Life Becomes a Geologic Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

9.1 Significance of the Proterozoic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.2 Appearance of Modern Plate Tectonics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.3 Sedimentary Rocks and Continental Shelves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.4 Oxygenation of Earth’s Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9.4.1 Appearance of oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9.4.2 Stages in the oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.4.3 Rise of ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.5 Snowball Earth: Earth Out of Balance?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.5.1 Previous hypotheses for Snowball Earths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.5.2 Snowball Earth reexamined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
9.5.3 How could a Snowball Earth have occurred in the first place?. . . . 242
9.5.4 Why were there no Snowball Venuses? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.5.5 Why didn’t Snowball Earths recur after the Precambrian? . . . . . . . 245
CHAPTER 10 L ife’s “Big Bang”: The Origins and Early Diversification

of Multicellular Animals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.1 Enigma of Multicellular Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
10.2 Stages of Life’s Big Bang. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
10.2.1 Ediacara fauna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
10.2.2 Trace fossils and early hard parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.2.3 Burgess Shale and the “Cambrian explosion” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
10.3 What Do These Faunas Tell Us? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
viii Contents
10.4 Why Did Metazoans Appear?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
10.4.1 Snowball Earths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
10.4.2 Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.4.3 Predation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.4.4 Food. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
10.4.5 Changes in biogeochemical cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
10.4.6 Ecologic and genetic mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
10.4.7 Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
10.5 Molecular Clocks and the Fossil Record of Early Metazoans . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
PART III The Phanerozoic: Toward the Modern World . . . . . . . 275

CHAPTER 11 The Early-to-Middle Paleozoic World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
11.1 Introduction: Beginnings of the Phanerozoic Eon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.2 Tectonic Cycle: Impacts on the Hydrosphere, Atmosphere,
and Rock Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.2.1 Sea level, CO2, and sedimentary facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.2.2 Ocean circulation and chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
11.3 Tectonic Cycle and Orogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
11.3.1 Physiographic provinces of the Appalachian Mountains. . . . . . . . 287
11.3.2 Orogenic episodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
11.4 Impact of Orogeny on Earth Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
11.5 Diversification of the Marine Biosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
11.5.1 Plankton and microfossils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
11.5.2 Benthic ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
11.5.3 Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
11.6 Marine Realm Invades the Terrestrial Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
11.6.1 Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
11.6.2 Fish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
11.6.3 Amphibians and the invasion of land. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
11.6.4 Land plants and the “greening” of the continents. . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
11.7 Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
CHAPTER 12 Late Paleozoic World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

12.1 Introduction to the Late Paleozoic Era. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
and Rock Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
12.3.1 Alleghenian and related orogenies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
12.3.2 Ancestral Rockies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
12.3.3 Sonoma orogeny. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
12.4 Impact of Orogeny on Earth Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Contents ix
12.5.1 Plankton and other microfossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
12.6 Diversification of the Terrestrial Biosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
12.6.1 Terrestrial floras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
12.6.2 Terrestrial floras and oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
12.6.3 Invertebrate life on land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
12.6.4 Vertebrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
12.7 Multiple Causes of Extinction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
CHAPTER 13 Mesozoic Era. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
13.1 Introduction to the Mesozoic Era. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
and Rock Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
13.2.1 Rifting of Pangaea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
13.3.1 Eastern North America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
13.3.2 Cordilleran Orogenic Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
13.3.3 Orogenic episodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
13.4 Orogeny, Sea Level, and Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
13.5.1 Plankton and microfossils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
13.5.3 Marine vertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
13.6.1 Plants and insects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
13.6.2 Vertebrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
13.6.3 Evolution of flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
13.6.4 Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
13.7 Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
13.7.1 Late Triassic extinctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
13.7.2 Late Cretaceous extinctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
CHAPTER 14 The Cenozoic Era: The Paleogene Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
14.1 Introduction to the Cenozoic Era. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
14.2.1 Europe and Asia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
14.2.2 The Pacific Rim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
14.2.3 Gulf and Atlantic coastal plains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
14.3 Tectonic Cycle: Impacts on Climate, Ocean Circulation,
and Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
14.3.1 Climate and ocean circulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
14.3.2 Ocean chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
x Contents
14.4.1 Microfossils and other invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
14.4.2 Vertebrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
14.5.1 Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
14.5.2 Early evolution and diversification of mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
14.5.3 Archaic mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
14.5.4 Climate change and mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
14.5.5 Diversification of modern mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
14.5.6 Birds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
14.6 Extinction: Glaciers, Volcanoes, and Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
CHAPTER 15 The Cenozoic Era: The Neogene Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
15.1 Introduction to the Neogene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
15.2 Tectonics and Sedimentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
15.2.1 Europe, Asia, and Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
15.2.2 Central and South America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
15.2.3 Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
15.2.4 Western North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
15.2.5 West Coast of North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
15.2.6 Evolution of the San Andreas Fault system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
15.3 How Was the West Widened? Evolution of the Basin and Range . . . . . . . . 466
15.3.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
15.3.2 Hypotheses for the formation of the Basin and Range. . . . . . . . . . 467
15.4 Climate, Ocean Circulation, and Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
15.5 The “Ice Ages”: Evolution of a Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
15.5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
15.5.2 The eccentricity of James Croll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
15.5.3 Precession of the equinoxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
15.5.4 Milutin Milankovitch and obliquity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
15.5.5 Planktonic foraminifera and the oxygen isotope curve . . . . . . . . . 477
15.6 Neogene Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
15.6.1 Marine life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
15.6.2 Land plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
15.6.3 Terrestrial vertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
15.6.4 Evolution of humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
15.7 Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
PART IV Humans and the Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

CHAPTER 16 Rapid Climate Change During the Holocene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
16.1 Introduction to the Holocene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
16.2 Beginning of the Holocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
16.2.1 Sea-level rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
16.2.2 Younger Dryas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Contents xi
16.3 Rapid Climate Change on Millennial Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
16.3.1 Rapid climate change involving the oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
16.3.2 Rapid climate change on land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
16.4 Rapid Climate Change on Centennial Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
16.5 Rapid Climate Change on Interdecadal to Multidecadal Time Scales. . . . 514
16.6 Climatic Modes and Climatic Irreversibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
CHAPTER 17 The Anthropocene: Humans as an Environmental Force . . . . . . . . 524

17.1 Introduction: From Geohistory to Geopolitics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
17.1.1 Climate, history, and the modern world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
17.2 Examples of Human–Climate Interactions During the
Last Millennium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
17.3 Brief History of the Growing Dependence on Fossil Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
17.4 Alternative Energy Sources and Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
17.4.1 Wind, geothermal, and solar energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
17.4.2 Hydroelectric power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
17.4.3 Nuclear energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
17.4.4 Methane gas hydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
17.4.5 Biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
17.4.6 Automobiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
17.5 Consequences of Fossil Fuel Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
17.5.1 Carbon dioxide: Temperature rise and ocean acidification. . . . . . 538
17.5.2 Sea-level rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
17.5.3 Storms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
17.5.4 Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
17.5.5 Precipitation patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
17.5.6 Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
17.6 Biodiversity and Extinction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
17.7 Closer to Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
17.8 Why Should We Care, and What Can We Do?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
xii Contents
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION:
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR AND STUDENT
As the title indicates, Earth’s Evolving Systems attempts to Part I: Earth Systems: Their Nature
bridge the gap between traditional historical geology texts
and the study of Earth’s systems. The response to the first and Their Study
edition of Earth’s Evolving Systems has been quite gratifying, Major changes were made to Chapters 1–6 to improve the
especially given the recent emphasis by a National Science flow of the material in Part I:
Foundation–sponsored webinar by the American Geophys-
ical Union and American Geological Institute in October nnChapter 1: A brief discussion of Vladimir Vernadsky, the
2015 entitled “Geoscience Workforce and the Future of founder of Earth systems science, has been added. The
Undergraduate Geoscience Education.” The respondents to discussion on the nature of historical sciences such as
this webinar emphasized at the outset the complex, dynamic geology has been improved by eliminating Chapter 18
linkages among Earth’s systems, the role of “deep time” (and from the first edition and incorporating certain elements
thus the role of the scale of time in understanding process), of that chapter into Chapter 1.
the origin and evolution of life, climate change, and energy nnChapter 2: As before, much of the discussion of Earth’s
resources. All of these topics were emphasized in the first history revolves around the framework of the tectonic
edition of Earth’s Evolving Systems and continue to be empha- cycle. Plate tectonics has therefore been moved from
sized in the second. Chapter 6 to Chapter 2.
Nevertheless, there is always room for improvement, nnChapter 3: The discussion of the interactions among
and I have attempted to respond positively to reviewers’ Earth’s systems has been simplified, and the introduc-
comments on the first edition. This has of course involved tion and discussion of specific stable isotopes have been
some compromises, given each instructor’s approach to his pushed back to the chapters where they are explicitly tied
or her particular course and research and teaching interests. to the geologic record. A new section has been added to
Chapters have been updated with information on significant this chapter, “How Does the Tectonic Cycle Affect Other
advances that have been reported in the literature over the Earth Systems?” which describes the effects of the tec-
past several years. Themes stated at the beginning of each tonic cycle on sea level, ocean circulation, the hydrologic
chapter are now restated or rephrased, in some cases as “big cycle, and major lithologies.
concept” questions, which are highlighted at relevant points nnChapters 5 and 6: Chapter 5, which presents evolu-
in the text margins of the chapters. As before, each chapter tion, remains largely unchanged, but it now precedes
is followed by a summary that provides a detailed overview Chapter 6, which deals with geologic time and stratig-
of the chapter. raphy. Discussion of iterative evolution has been moved
The following key points about the second edition are from Chapter 14 to the section on marine organisms dur-
applicable to all chapters: ing the Paleogene.
nnAs in the first edition, a major theme of the text is the
method of multiple working hypotheses and debates, Part II: The Precambrian: Origin and
among them the origin of the theory of plate tectonics, Early Evolution of Earth’s Systems
the origins of the atmosphere and life, the tectonics of the
western United States, human evolution, and the recog- nn
Chapter 7: Chapter content has been updated to reflect
nition of Milankovitch cycles. the most recent research.
nnDiscussion and contributions and photos of some major nn
Chapter 8: A few reviewers questioned the relevance of
women scientists to the earth sciences, such as Marie a chapter on the origins of life in an Earth science text.
Tharp and Lynn Margulis, have been included in the rel- However, I believe that life’s origins are among the most
evant chapters. fascinating chapters in Earth’s history and that this is
nnAn extensive list of references is provided at the end of when the initial, fundamental interactions among all of
each chapter, along with a list of key terms and review Earth’s systems began to occur. Life has been a geologic
questions. In addition, a second set of questions, called force throughout much of Earth’s history, as empha-
“Food for Thought,” is provided to stimulate students to sized throughout the text. The study of the interac-
think beyond the chapter material. tions between life and Earth therefore serves as a bridge
xiii
between the biologic and inorganic worlds. Furthermore, Part IV: Humans and the Environment
like evolutionary theory, origin of life studies present via-
ble alternatives to Creationism. A new paragraph at the nn
Chapter 16: As before, Chapter 16, which is on rapid
beginning of the chapter now reiterates the rationale for climate change, sets the stage for the Gordian knot of
retaining Chapter 8. natural versus anthropogenic climate change and its
nn
Chapter 9: Chapter content has been updated to reflect sociopolitical implications for future climate and energy
the most recent research. resources, which are discussed in Chapter 17.
nn
Chapter 10: The discussion of the origins of various nn
Chapter 17: As explained in Chapter 1, the initial study
important fossil phyla has been augmented. of Earth systems was a response to anthropogenic effects.
Humans are now a major, if not the most important, geo-
logic force on the planet. The emphasis on the environ-
Part III: The Phanerozoic: Toward the ment and “sustainability” at many academic institutions,
Modern World including my own, does not diminish the importance of
historical sciences, such as geology, in addressing these
nn
Chapters 11–15: Chapters on the Phanerozoic con-
problems. In fact, the inclusion of chapters on anthro-
tinue to use the tectonic cycle as a basic framework for
pogenic impacts and their potential resolution is a prime
understanding the history of the Earth. Many figures
opportunity to make historical geology not just an exer-
in these chapters have been replaced and sections on
cise in the “past” but to make it “contemporary” and “rel-
various taxa augmented with multiple photos and new
evant” and to potentially awaken students’ latent interest
artwork.
in the history of Earth and its lifeforms. Consequently,
nn
Chapter 15: The section on human evolution in Chapter
I have occasionally tied certain portions of Chapters 16
15 has been completely revised and reviewed by two pro-
and 17 to examples from the geologic record.
fessional paleoanthropologists.
Ron Martin
Newark, Delaware
August 10, 2016
xiv Preface to the Second Edition: For the Instructor and Student
THE STUDENT EXPERIENCE
The second edition of Earth’s Evolving Systems: The History nnMajor Concepts and Questions Addressed in This
of Planet Earth was designed with numerous features to cre- Chapter—Every chapter opens with a list of questions
ate an engaging learning environment for students and to that will be addressed throughout the chapter. Students
enhance their experience with the text: should review this list prior to digging into the chapter to
help guide their focus. The new text design also incorpo-
rates icons identifying where in the chapter each concept
is addressed to help guide study and review.
TER
CHAP
ction: arth’s
1.1 W
h
t ro d u of Eart y Study the H
In E
gating
h? istory
I n v e s t i A Earth’s Evolvin
the pre
sen
apter
te m s in Th
is Ch g System have no
Sys
Earth w
s sed the histo , the natural s is a faster th b
ddr e g how ry of th process bout the histo an t
ions A uest portant
to unde
rstandin
vast inte ese proc es
esses an that have sha
ry of th
e
of hum
an po
and Q ic tim e im rvals o
f time. d p a
rations e g
epts is geolog ract? erent du
history Geo th e ir inte d it , and ri c ulture
Conc E Why s systems inte t on diff of the E
arth and logy is the scie ractions throu a
Major Earth’ esses ac plants fi
erent proc of Why its nce tha gh red b
history Because should we be life preserved
di ff
h? F How e?
do
and the t studie le u m
y of Eart e? systems as s the (oil
e histor ems aris u concern (Figure and
A Why
study th
nce of Ea
rth syst
work?
of tim
do we st ud y Earth’s changed nderstanding ed abou fossils. 1.2).
sc ie
does it G How teractions? te ho t Earth
and how lls us about h w the Earth
did th e
ow ho w r basic ’s history
B H
stem, an
d are ei
th their in The bu
t is a sy d what humans ow natu changes ? rnin
C Wha ems, an Earth co ral process and ha esp
Ea rth’s syst affect n
a s ecially
nfronts gas trap carbo
e
us with tural processes. es affect huma
t ar
D Wha teristics? not ima
charac gin e ve Th n s s so lar ra
be unaw e. Many natura nts and possib e history of th ing the
atm
Earth are of th l process ilit e
e Evolu
tion of activitie em exc es act so ies that we can out carb osphe
and th s p ep sl - o n
al it y
unaware reserved by ro t for the geolo owly we would tempera dioxid
ut line 1.4 D
irection gic reco tu
ter O System
s l Scien
ce
System
s th
We assu at Earth’s env ks and fossils.
c rd of th rent (an re would
Chap as an H
istorica olving iro eir d
ry of Ea
rth?
d What 1.5 G
eology d y of Ea
rth’s Ev m
streams, e that landscap nments are co
Most p
eople a But hum more co
e Histo ems, an d St u n re a
1.1 Why St
udy th
aj or Ea rth Syst 1.6 M
ethod an a
typicall nd coasts—do
es—mo
untains, stantly changin dented ns have b
the M y so slo g. ra
1.2 W
hat A re
terist ic s?
Earth Sy
stems equivale w and su not change bec valleys, rivers will be te, and n
r Charac ience of btle ause the an of the ra
Are Thei of the Sc
nt
millions to many, man they take pla changes d atmosp p
The O rig in s
ss of years y ce are here. In id
BOX 1.
1
Time an
d Proce process down to human genera over time spa have in
creased ct,
fa
eologic es are so millenn tions; fr ns
1.3 G they occ in ia a om ma trial Rev about
ur excep frequent or su nd centuries. A ny olu
concentr tion (Figu
S t, again dden, w lso, som
B c ie n tists ha , to e w
ve only look at the geo ould not know
e through
a tio ns in ga
s
how log th
ation once
encompasse
d an
affected strongly chan
recently
begun to ic record. bles are e glacial ice o
asazi civiliz
ht. The An during what is called
the Lit tle —and st ges in a p a re c o rd
ged droug s. However
,
ary beg il E a p re c A s of the
ult of prolon civilization flourished es in the sides of cliff n of innings l affect—huma rth’s environm iate just the use
age surf of fossil fuels
as a res
ly, possibly dence, the Anasazi ive citi bustio
nk
ed sudden built extens e to the com and civ th ents ha
e “Ancient
Ones” ) civ iliz ation vanish
sed on arc he ological evi
agr icu
et today. Ba e Anasazi adopted an ce indicates that mo
ltu ral lifestyle and global change—du
der n ilization rough the ori ind, from our ve ace tem
p
e Anasazi (th Arizona me Th sing eviden
s—and gins of evolutio lo nger co erature,
lorado. Th Mexico, and and Central America. America. perhaps an n- n
Verde Natio
nal Park, Co Colorado, Utah, New
ngs at Mesa r Corners region wh
ere s as far sou
o ilarly, increa
th as Mexic ation disappeared. Sim over the world, inc
luding North
their co cient settleme far as sc sidered by mo
zi cliff dw elli Fou other civ iliz ati on
ngs, and the ir civ iliz
ht in differe
nt reg ion s all
llapse— nts ientists
The Anasa gland in the traded with g behind their dwelli ged droug right up the 21st c an
area the siz
e of New En out 900–1300, and
timum fro
m ab t 1280–130
0, leavin
from abou , leading to more intens
e heat waves
and prolon 8
to century tell, th
human
Climate Op
the Anasa zi be gan to disperse
cipitatio n pa tte rns 3 generati and be
fossil fuels—
will alter pre ons, env
National Par
k Service. 7 iro
Courtesy of
11:02 am
26/10/16
5
ns)
ndd 3
n (billio
ASS04.i
CH01_P
44 57162_
978128
4
tio
Popula
2 xv Advan
ces in
medicin
Railroa
ds and
ste
1 Neolith Industri
ic agric al Rev
ult
the sea. se of the dinosa ct was the prim t the end of th after the m layers that pr ns are erate. In
Th ur ary caus e impact(s esumab associated with deed,
sphere is e sudden inject s and other ta e of the mineral
as
). More
im
ly settle
d ou one or
thought io xa the Cre semblages and portant, well-de t with the du
to have n of dust high on land and in taceous microte veloped st
caused into Eart the shoc Pe kt
rapid gl sh
h’
obal cool s atmo- ked min riod. The inte ites occur at th ocked
ing, whi den incr er ns e
ch ease in in als could only ity of metamor end of
generate te have oc phism
d during nse pressures curred of
an impa and by a su
ct (see C temperatures
nn
Featured Boxes—Many chapters contain boxes BoX 13 hapter 3
and Box
like thos
d-
e
.3 Late 13.3).
providing greater depth on special topics. Cretace
ou s extin
Most m
ass extin ctions
to the te ctio and th
ctonic cy ns appear to be e scien
extinctio cle. How somehow tific Me
primarily
ns involv
ed —
ever, th
e La te Cretac
related thod
from—an and may well
ed)
eous Initially
ontinu
occurren impact, have re high co , a da rk
ce of sh as indica sulted nc sedimen
thod (C
ocked m en ta ry layer
(Box Fi
gure 13 ineral as ted by the near Gub tration of the containi
elemen
tific Me
certainl .3A semblag bio, Italy ng a
y arouse ). Whereas the es The iridi
um laye
, almos
t by acci
t iridium
was foun
cien
hypoth s our im impact r de d
ag hy m al nt
d the s
esis cam inations pothesis ass extin so occurred (see Ch
scientifi e to be widel , ho w the ct io n at the at ap ter 1).
c co y about 65 end of th the time of the
how scie mmunity is also accepted by th and man
million
ye ars ago, e Cr et aceous
ntific in a prime e y other during w Pe
Moreove vestigat exampl orga hich dino riod
ion wor e of not norm
paved th
r, the co
rroborat ks (see
Chapte ally foun nisms became saurs
e way fo ion of th r 1) have co d in rock extinct.
r the ac e hypoth . m e s of Eart Iri dium is
i- impacts the man from only two
ave orig as impo ceptance esis h’s crus
tle so t and co
ght to h e plan-
of geolog rtan of extrater , w hich is en ur ce s: uld
u ic, climat t—even extrao restrial extrater riched in volcanoes fed
th o radically ic, rdin restrial by
s, are mitiv altered— and biospheric ary—agents iridium body. Th iridium
ny-iron
, or from
n of pri
laye e hypoth
ns unques once an change in iridium r was generate esis was an
s and sto recrystallizatio present portio
tioned ac d for all— . It also d by a m that the
n ceptance ea . The im
w it h ir o d re
gradual
change of Lyell’s rth scientists dust clou pact pres eteor en
lo n g g a n e a r to that Eart to a dogma d into Ea umably riched
a eltin orites a
pp h system broader doctrin of slow, cooled rth’s stra threw a
y the m olar rate (see s e th e pl anet, ca to sp here that gigantic
nated b rial. Iron mete
processe that reco
of the s Chapte s va gn of sunlig us in g extinct su ddenly
r 1). ry throug ized ht also
e origin ally “dirty h time an shut do ion; the
a te causing
etary m
wn mar blockage
. fr o m th d in a stran
gelove ine phot
id cores ft over are basic
characte ocean osynthes
r r of the
of astero ought to be le 7.14). Comets (either water o which th same na (n amed aft is
ere was me er the
a sudden in a famous m
Also th ( F ig u r e s o f ic e a seous
isotope
ratios to , strong ovie) in
e ts u c le u y a g Box Figu much lo sh
wer valu ift in carbon
are com of a n ded b s, re 13.3
system .” They consist surroun name kometeo B). es (see
A predic Chapte
w b a ll s e ) a n d soot n c e th e m ig h t if an im
pact wer
tion mad
e from th
r 9;
sn o x
dioConcept id tail (he Reasoning ucleus extinctio e respon e hypoth
carbonnn trailing and omet’s nurtesy of RonnsMartion.fChecks—As
si bl es is was th
frozen lo n g , g h a c mil- the wor
ns, an iri
dium la
e for the
yer shou La te Cretac
at
e and a ired”). Althprogress te ld in rock
ou n reach ythe
Co
the s of ld be eous
envelop ong-hastudents il cathrough a tefrdomchapter they tested th
e hypoth exactly the sam found all over
a n in g “l in s iz e, the ta poin s it ts
g e anwera
o ff by
all over
the
where th world, on land
esis by
explorin
g for
e age. Sc
ientists
me 1 0 will
k m encounter T
. un h ae m tathese
i ildep questions, b lo
). Tw h nis which will e rocks and in de the iridium laye
1 to lesnibgle thts ndn (M duesxtico vpe articles was corr were of ep-sea r
be only om 1 3 e.3 Ers Ainpos etdin athem
teencourage thto e mYuscato ta
pause lt ne rn
iz e dti
aand assess their is now kn
oborated
: the La
th e right ag
e. The hy s,
co re
k ilE ionpaizc ma. oAf n aio te Cretac
onXsFoIGf UR nstaisctseooufs im
pothesis
slumps . into
own no
liO
B t ostr f Ceuab magrienneato
from St t only fro eous iri
di
econassematerial. evns Klin m Gubbi um laye
cCore grasp of
ortm hthe fahsyudbro on observed
t (Steve o, Italy, r
theanLadte ain
Denmar
bsu yn lo dn g
, th e nim p re
s s
io en nts o BOX FIGU
an aste RE 13.3A An ar
k; El Kef, n’s Cliff
) near Co
but also
carted w n refu ti Mimbral Tunisia,
is sebcytiothe let radia nd our sun
roid with © Gl0ck/S
in north penhag
ite isslo ola tist’s visu hutterStock
s tend
, Mexico en ,
roadtuthced d and ultravio tenseio
Earth. alizatio , Inc.
(to nam Africa; an
sth famous
onaispth nt specie is in
n of the
- nastim , na was impact and inte
nsively
e only a
few of th El
d
g t differe
lala of many de
eoxrpp o la r w in q u e
itcatan in re th a lm ep-sea studied
localitie
e more
e s is Y u s o re a cores (s
es Th g sptaars ct the 0°C, eanic ee Box Fi s), as w
helium. youenim ough t to ud, which 412
s low as mass. The oc ale provinces
, gure 13 ell as in
net.impact isthth
.3B).
ng froemof thdiffere oratpcslo can be a
Chapte
p at a dis-
emanAat tithe tibm
r 13 M
o , th e O rh u p o le s w a te r
esozoic a ll e r sc la n d
n s in , pe e eac h re s m n
veseaeewnay. Trhuto origreintsate tem th ho
Era
eor- ust llhoaw unamis olar soy,sthe it around cterize e or mo encroac
on amshaC ea
ets teapdpone odr th mo edge of thses sMexicto
ro ’s orb s uter to chara cterized by on cean currents living closer to
978128
445716
(continue
s)
c
Hceao,Cf kthe o
om e a f P lu a
2_CH13
ra t o s
yon at roaereddiameter rt turn ch where differen e realm specie correspond to
_PASS0
nera o meri
noinhnaAlgfoCrclaeysersinonfer solar
2.indd
havloecgaeted farrbheigh, th
412
an th or osfo Natio nan n s chapter

is 1 kilomete1,000 timees in d te r rie a it y
especiall hus, in the m
riSummaries—Each undarie t water concludes with
ater. to nce up to andeinpto tloth y g ra v
agned b nd redmepovoes into muds toaround it in g th e
s. T es w hose bo etween adjacen
, n C d s s e in c a bulleted list of the key concepts addressed
.o
ta n is a v b
CthaeribsubnC e a n d a
Whe sea bsotattrso,mcom s ranegllinipgtifrcal o cksstieoth e ts o m rb it m p ro it y
bon- ey r in d salin
onnosr- g u p thdeistant ry d e h ri. hly
bleig s it cs .o
c Bfceirrocauula n la nd occu mperature anin the ts . chapter. th ro u gh time
in r ta e c o ti ri s
eyyderoanlo
ripplapnets o m y d deeocpslipph e have te a d
s, eethdhim ssguic c sortnf edth
e oa aetm eanvesubgegeensted to w-
in
changes pinging on the
co change cles.
s. ogTrt eednth rlynycle ve also tonic cy ts
24/10/16
vapor y ia rahm , pegoicpocla iotas ha ion during tec

11:42 am
psyoso1terl
.mD . J u lem hs by dlerodth
to lo
t wh o
a vue ld b eh e a
fr on ms ; ho m a s s e s im ti v e b o f p lan
sn g e theats ’s nod c c s
caen. dBy la
th e2e.sH
rg ubonlowcaakt rea th — liwk e
a teth r,ocsoem u la
o ti
c
n o
t onbf?eEeanrtfo hu
re a b out T h e se distin changed posit different kind for tens
steodem?nts uch anvrm ceirin atifa ulate)? ra
c
E).tios
a ave any er
eles aarnd, sreeindlaim cme thoceehafo
i— toncuirr(D ce /H 13.3 nents h ns of m ne anoth -
acnod nta
h adtmdbariyjovaersts rosuule rfnaain
e o(cB
peos-h ed
y aonroxsFgeig a lbedo? as conti cess, populatio parated from o eir own distinc
of 3 . e W
sd it e
a e d e -t
lac fluence Ea rt h ’s ro e s e th ial
dpelapyo hatircavduaesriu eo steuthrisupm In th e p b e c o m e v o lv in g m a rs u p
he evise4r,.tim
Wtheein e oceha’ns.
s in r of doo
m. als have f years, tinctive ,
th 5ic. eHth owosdeo othf Eart rex and
the crate and anim ds of millions o xample, the dis n, for example “slides”
7 . T.
s dre r e t c a twoin which a slab slshowinlyg the slab
1 9 9
C k u n , fo e n
phere
tw W .
e h ra s ti n in to
Alv a re z,
g C h to a n d fl o f a c o n b io ta
m
s nin s o le slide,
fr o a g g er, pu ng por-
is
the Bio
n tin sin nt
reaso
d
tive fau
ity
act is de
rive
alia. Rif hat was onn cweitha basofdo it; (3) gr av
deaof a
s th g ce
spreadin om the descen
di
the imp n d o n urstr inwsn. thIte siw
i
n fr
t a t aesr f A y ) suectrio
irtesbhtu’srlasiuhbyrfpuaocthe erashisthe’ru
r a n o w
3.5 ConCep
e an d a fte th n a a
fau Summ evolution tectonics rebaly nnteaiwn bu o f ly be ga
ocild-e a n d ofthe fo
it; an d rm
(4
ures of th e planet
a p h y : d r t s tio ns d to theeory of plateepaenraeste is,dor

mou
s
ahfeear
inegd to intion of a plat ort
e.
ctonth
rent feat
ics,ediffe ce of stages ca Atlan-
lled the
o g r E a
ewenocuet foor the alsopslaopchveehereyr.poth oemnothrme ous
th e r n e a re p le a n s s ouitiall s, and
ai n ybuildu ds u p p
at e te en
Red a, Not
itooe g e r s o la is s
e u
s is ? nThe regio
th t or og
in
m nt
d to on pl a se qu Se
v F n ou s
tthewpaast two cetntho
of
a n arrang ffects
to y,
1teant B
se
or moeare
ab ie Ba in lle
Pawnscgiean-ea thcaenr on
s ri es ur n n ed Va ).
rly idea ses anth
. aeo bic cyaclde: eEast Acevfrani- ican Rift re (Himalayas
d th
3 . 5 d flevoid
a n i m
driingin cinacpluabdleingoEa
e n at-tm
La p
iffergfr
in othe ce
infg. eHvypidedincally over ti n pleenof
be ro tu
, and su wever; many ch
have
nthtln
th th K a u ,m d e n o
lea
h
wh1ic. Wh nvtiosto is to a l f p
rt h s iv o
type changedofloth ae rc o am
a n d e n
re; explo ta
ex ct
is p Torhe emsode ern sedticim
O
, Pary
e te
eyo tu
ra fic ho whi
pmeens nta
im ci s,
a
pr , down
y Earth
w a s
eo xpflop lin
odppo g s e d
insnuem r pala bn ly e tsin ,
the atm ben
o s p h e
tobioth e c e l d ri ft
existethntists workoanf dcthoofinnratidinoaectnivtaity leOdf hthesse,ysitteism
ei r de ve to
. m
s edan d
Oceean
va lle ys become
pteftr.valleys
seaway
or au lacogens the Amazon
enolualignvhining
k.
thcoisme fa ae dwriorld’s major rives rsoccurred a nunimng
Alfr all rift chile such as
orethpere
ber of
both Hfeoa wc fode dust intodrite havigeehtota mallest esis overy aicnlebuoildninEg.arttal drift—basesdtth part of be
r
on
reu re ?m and riosaflhth ypnonth
us, and
sev-
a s 2.th nid e ts
iu c h om
o n s a
e te
d th e s h The disc moucnt
ic y en th e la r e me of th ctonic cycle ha ch cycle span
final teropf lair cisep ocuom sm p p eht.g? from organisms
rtin n
cesto’s hypothesisisofcthuatsspaedvedinthe , Wegener’s
of co nt in w ay fo so
ory, ea
ore their ia, amouonutsy misb t c a
u rb
hir eordneato
e fo r e a , rl
e ypEnlaagn
ra o f th ethteeori
e d
e te
flow. Th ng Earth’s hist and
h q p hth b ns
res dteforEvaert owever, is basic ofl evid
er ly
ishme igio
h opfre w ao r W en
nvatsrietw
eg
y il
en ce —
ctonics.
In iti al
he coul
d du ri
illion ye
ar s. l m ar
ntinenta e. There are
gi
plate te cized because ts drift. s
d a times
.aW
o engesologhHisesitsp
p s o f In v o 3
lc n T t s o u rc
to
n e
is sm s ) h a le s . H h ro n m e ndred m onic cycle, co
reagnfoorrgita T dly criti ake continn
a
ra H impoein es and w
of al hu h tim
to m atian
ry d
rt planet.
theo er throug tive an
the tect
13.47; atmosp(lhiv the largest tre ted over the eory of
modern
pothesis a mechanismreatlle
was roun
’
Based on daries casn ch isntaningeental marginse: thacose along
Figure vol- y m
etifennytlye, corntginents un(ortil the ewprorock ofesesHnofaresergaflyoorwithintweocsivbae.siocPaftysspeivseps coecntieinacenscutamlulmataregisedimenontgalthonegPathcific
nn
gin of
to u s DCah rweCk in s
’ s
th hy as tm y ry s pl at e o
bo s
un y s te of co ns , lik ei r
bacteria niformly distrib ne osf o i hairlneg . 2
ean: or
e not iden
nce of th nent u rs reto a Cn 3 . 5 Consequ ained “fixed” d h e
are not n waspatcoarn a d ned rang e n
ttemr ovae continenctsteseriaflsootirc nic the Atlathnteic pOaceertmic u- like thos uction, volcanis ,
th ss al
nti ed . pa an , e m
n subco nion h
rem aos
a certain live minds) op
é u th e
ob7s .5C (see Chapte
e r v a o
ti o n C e r 5 ). s — h a s n T the
h e 19fl50 u s,xwhi oecch m
f haprnism to of cm
th e h aga ratic ovided fersmto
ne
re ns. Activ e,dareis
argins,
sites of
subd
d Moon
in
er the R o r spesceieveral mwah ssich it ca spreadin 60
g as a m
s,ed the b deytectio reading and“nich
n pr e” ar gi
s’ste mofkeafirs.n e basic
catego-
t to o n is m — n - i rm in sp term had eluded e c Ooce s y
an ring
into thre or trenches),
h ti
n in within o te e -
r
g a n ir e ed sem. Ttahl drift th s’s an n
a
oo
o u v o lu o rg a te d n v d e 19 afl at
in ua
rthq lati o assifie d
h
th
e
tcainuocsean
th e f c h
t li
p l factors it ath e
In
typehoas beeneim syofstecontineng alssopcoecrrie
n at ea flo
m is to es cl
rgybo)unrdaries ociated with and transfor
r
n or d a
l agenhtic dis-
ob
s atwbe H an ar e se m,
ea
ed
stripes ecniosm
u
rr
l
co obor
iridium Each menvironmonneta e visao toth le ra
hinthethmeechaSe oinf aguyots, heathfloicw afl ne
oind, ennnePlriatese:ncoicnvheregesnto(aiaf sstethd ewith riftingof),mid-ocean ridgpeess:.
ust, and rhaps lc a n is s ?
ldier im It t
s paces the bteiormgs of th aet reledastot
is th s e o g ra p w it c tiro spnread ( fo
merteo
1. V ical o hichwn kin . t e e n r
retittehsas’ttosolafrgea ea
oo
pe of pehxytisnctidouncse. W
er.fu
leegoens rab
afl
out the lyanbdythth
n
formatio e deestru
of trctoiopn of tose diffehreontm.” Thdievergent (assmcieatded wasith offset selves of three intyental
oo oc s
nge and hus, an rminction inavree istaecekoeBnnosxid13.3). omn lar roW
. 5 .
re 1pgro e a th lymdaeste s extinu htu (s fr o
ti d pcean riraesng
view rimriadg ,
e rco“w ntinh eno ts einats wpolar
can bennConve
dwiahich gra arem asso
undaeriti c exampl
em
es are th e, Japan), cont onal
7 u
ra 1 e rent
t. T a n d ra m u s o p ld e p te r rotrw ib e fi n -o gs,tho of appa nnd rg
t boe d collisi
impac m a gis Resarpecieto make sense
ia th o w e h d d id in
y rgene
ac k 2 . D fa c to rs C re ta c e s ct ie it
s . e T
d in C rt
g h th toe s e-
m
. e u n it
m continenta.l It is volcanic th e s e arc (for e Cascades), an
th e b e n ta l e L a te s
n ut gs g
p ee
ra m m to -E
in a
in p
c hheam streno f
ch th
es gan
a c o m is la
a re e,ath
fesre diag focrtoth
be pl
e m of th ula r edepterorm enet rasiz isio
tees. oTf hb pmsuen ship positionsng of en knownfoasododw ebe an paral-
so am
at brok systems on
mifethodyrteaanrst fa
al
specuc,rviewessha. t hadha arcg(for
ex
e c o tr ib usti Cie
c oannlctiofifc ti d
n o s e p
c re
ts sth e olon ; cht if fe rewn antderi
c
be
in oadring to pr ucecthies inhais(Hblaim
e
ndin
it
alayas). of convergent
plate bo
undaries ation
rm
d the fo folds:
apse of J stilim li o p toit a it ff resepdir e avti d sequa foodd tly r sp re
e s p is an
out 0 om
m eceateurse liothneyseisars anodf th Tnhdis,
en seafl oo
edde to ics.rganize th integral com
e type s es
ofsorogen as faults and ents,
r, point , be th1e0 kt m
Conin - The thre rent tyw peesb
cieds iabm
nn
s. aOgon. la st “linksdr” ift wryasofipwplsatethtectaon
n
howeve n s 0 n spein 0 .8tobsilyn
o o snpeyceie ars t o recognized asysanteatmEasrt.h’s lith- n lealin thes dia ffend es such
structur ons without co
ntin
eru p ti o a bf o d u t
if fe 1 re h e fi
a srs pt h 3o .8
f e bail
c li
h Etso nm . uA s ti othneo s h ic s is
n d e c o sow th
cof fo is ts o d c h aj or geologic id
alym, pl e
scollisi sions.
ss u re o ri sn g
s u thc .9
ri s to
ti c d ep a n
la n re la ct on
ate te ies staem We kn
s )o ns of m
p y r at
ust with
le fi dw duay t te
e cahbaorauc kanuosewn
3 alse H anad opn-. da y, pl
mofuEa nrtith’s sy d uppetirmons.
os ip an
lal plates sthhat are md
t m tle
oved by eneris
ar cs on
glaynd) ntinent–cosnthinoen t co lli
w r pieces of fossilsor,
cr
oiccacluprraeth trentcdhto
nn To
ingbto anaim s th andsepairnatire in:4to2 am om
cpo nent creustit can real oesr. co mid occurs, smalle (rock type,
, ss te ry b is
e c T
a nh e
d H
tr a h r 11 e n e
(the rg fo ocean ri(dg e d and y
p ra ents
opfroEcaertshse oals nt e is
to oot.n n,ewwhaicte24/10/16
er
Tosofheabout 15 largrr
sm to -o o As orog geoolrg es es
an-ns) called micro een inthe larger
ur
imhp’sohrtisa w
d id
nwgesedaflooinr are le inents.f th.e fo nn
ph en at nt
qusitpeirahti re
e an at m Th ogic fe co
t p
fa hll a s
ise f Eoart E as rt
s h
d u e atos re
gne rc Po n canmt borif ath yceloars
te s e ls o b e
uc tioan ofa the plates n
ne
fe re t v thlse moan
conte tle
o n e g stinu
diro ctpiveof ctio
tic dire rosa - iched be
tw
can aForming po r p be
od
firarsin pliaetesr, lo thye am dcohxlo ygne pmecilialiollny th e pr
rtionshe dasifthenosph
of er e of
edlidsfrinmoneagm
r paleom hsano
ag ne nd w
use
meakneaum e abnesgin
pe foim rw nu oumts5, 4e0s Esonth(“ at,tim foer 3.24e).ovTer tharm e sso
isidpanatedsaEa rth’ ts (autotr
oicpterr es can rgy cle beca
neinsgalionf it Eaortfhoto Figurpleates mh ov
- onic cy
th th rgaanbis zo eic
c ie ( e rg
antley, e anattoutheter)r flu
generait y. P la n exot
ntth e
inen s . ene rved the tect
tsis involved
ic time based on
in
n ts
e th
o c e ir th
ib u oo
ti f n hd a enr en ros p la n d ned
o at (e th ne m
ich cocommu re at n -hotos No one ha y n
co s ev er obse
a r- ge ol og
re s e th btr r. M e Po o n fo
how iron andonither in a
Be p e c nt s of ther
methdeis d vfoesrssilesnotef th
ov
In tudes— idely
ck el -r
viewed ring ed n) to
as m n
mmbeninse but it can be piecic settings.
am ou ed to ge
stock.
satrlseotchaffe e th
s cfrt oth goeo ri ertela tiy.
ntl an ld. ection cethllsearebwaesidseelha.yveDbeuen prop) osd of th ceoim ion,ce onne tecton
© Datacra
ft/age foto
h ere firslat rg a p p
a enadr choignh
sis
n d more w h- isms to netic fie
c unvr at hypothes
(o ovresp : (1roslabu-cers itstocopmro pletd u moder
o m 1 0 to a g
to o ,
s h w o hree n w
”)
in btee g
m in p eto ra te
u r y to p ic a
m u s t 1
w 7
it 9 d u cners) plates, se
n A lth ou ghcco
o ve
d
ra l
b y p
r la
actu n alts
ly m
pullsherelyw
re st of h wate obse at
itsl ab r rv ions of
a byprod-
n g e fr n t
li vlie fe b e e e yo o n ing th e
u s e e se afl oo th e
d a s
usaend M factors that
ed
o tails ra lls” and might mppale re, tend to th is
ligexhpltaiwn hich a descth
ho w th sl ab
ospin new ah fo rm
eaisd relea
s e
a oe fxap e a n s —
gin n —o f bEe acrtah
e r fr o m to
o m
ending
e adgtm e-push, the h
w ic
ab h is s tored in
irty sno
wb e oc lita
eaonp: oOri perature and
oth s are pull,xide fr
in (2 ) ri
geshnes,
sl
unlight
or in th —ohre H c oasdm s p e c ie b o n d io wnward;
nd it do spreradainngd cento xsypu
er
fr o m s d ioxide is
y other ousf tsasuga Energy
hi
arbon
be
ted T f tem e.
distrib7u.5 ter extremes o a n n g le . s c rvoirs
a u n cr re a
s t, m c h le coc ea
h e e re
rea y contra nmenta
l m pm
16 5:34
o
e atmos
p
ugar, w
h the rese
stand g th e s e asons. B rant of enviro mic to, certain14/10/ uct into th bonds of the s d sequestered in occur at the
h le e mical an ores
ange wit or narrowly to ated in, or end any tropical the che osphere Herbiv sumers
xvi Thechte Student
n o to pic,Experience b e c o n centr le ra n c es. M a n d a re e n o u t of the atm rganic matter. econdary con ivores
s
xa tend
to
arrower
to pic tak do rs. S herb
These ta use of their n nd corals are
stenoto and dea produce er level above lthough
c a a s of living ediately above e x t h igh m id .A
b e insec ts , have it m at the n the p y ra s, it is
areas plants, of Earth
.
nds to level im ) occur pex of ss varie 25/10/16
3:37 pm
t h ion migh r anc
oist air ice. Wit product case, ou olved, d
iffere
s and m -
ight
warm, m as snow and isphere, ng with In either s hominids ev e same habitat
precipit
ate
e no rt hern hem an, which, alo ed in nn
ri gh t. A d in th A si a and even
s in th er beg , result u p iste
ave coex umber of tim
es to globe
ice cap eep Wat m Water might h ross the d to
ort h A tlantic D Antarctic Botto ceans. - ig ra te d an
m an s sp read ac
n tr ib u te
N of po tab have m urope. As hu ave co
duction ation of the dee sheets were es e might h mals an
d
the pro o xy gen er e ice se to th tu ally to E olocene, they s of large mam
g h
n
en
nn
increasi orthern hemis aned in resp
p o n
Key Terms List—A list of the key terms from
th’s su rf ac e. du ri n g th eH
iffere n t sp ec ie nn
Review Questions—These end-of-chapter ques-
After th ey waxed and
w
ing Ear nt ise of d
nn n reach ght to represe the dem irds.
lished,
th
f
each chapter is provided to help students review
so la r radiatio
ar e th ou o cc u r at flig h tless b tions are great for homework assignments or self-
o n that
amount radiatio diation
Cycles
new vocabulary.
of solar es of solar ra tricity (or “ellip t
tic- guided study.
k o vi tc h cycl s: (1 ) eccen e cy cl e abou
Milan t period letes on
three d
ominan at comp
orbit th
y” ) o f Earth’s
it
species on
opic visi
esis stereosc
overkill
hypoth
stRe
repsirrvihine ew s Questions e tectonism contrib
uted to the growth
er ms isotopes 5. How might hav
Key T solstice
ox yg en from of Earth?
Gulf Stre
am summer gene events differ of glaciers ove r bot h pol es
e and retreat of
Pacific p
late
1. How italdoridge Paleogene and Neo eogene and Neo- ence for the advanc
haplorh
ines supraorb er? Ma ke a chart labeled Pal list 6. What is the evid from land? From the
r precess xes eac h oth cha rt glac iers
aquife
ge Provi
nce
olocene e equino termingenations n the left side of the northern hemisph
ere
d R an H
precess
ion of th e across, and dow l movements, (b)
sea
Basin an d-graben (a) con tine nta deep sea? frequencies
ses horst-an
Primates
tilt the following :
ulse atmospheric CO2, (d) ocean circ
ulation, thre e major Milankovitch
C3 gras ca plate r p 7. How do the three fre-
Ju an de Fu nde Rift
o ve
turn level, (c) ite compensation duc e clim ate change? Do all
C4 gras
se s
eville Rio Gra s gen, (f) plankton, (g) calc interac t to pro or warming?
Lake Bo
nn
reas Faul
t ungu(e)lateoxy terrestrial animals. ays acc entuate glaciation
Coast R
anges San And ls ce terrestrial plants, and (i)
ti(h) que nci es alw
moths wintedepr so
th, continent(s) of
m am N ev ad a America or another Why or why not? resemble that of
Cocos p
late
vitch cy
cles Sierra 2. On a map of North formed dur- evolution of humans
theory Milanko rigin wobble owing features that
foll 8. How does the se? What factors con
trib-
diluvial single o pothesis the world, find the ed: Ama- the hor
raines ecies hy discuss how they form other taxa, suc h as
cific R is e m o
olution single sp ing the Neogene and Peninsula, Aral luti on of humans?
East Pa gional ev azon River, Arabian uted to the evo
for human evo-
city multire ti nc ti o n zon rain fore st, Am
ain Range, Coast erent hypotheses
ce nt ri es is Sixth Ex ge, Cascade Mount 9. Evaluate the diff knesses: multire-
ec hypoth hypoth
esis Sea, Basin and Ran nt Range, Greater ngt hs and wea
plate slab gap ey, Fro lution for their stre
Farallon obliquity Ranges, East African
Rift Vall
, and turnover pul
se.
othesis Isthmus of Pan- gional, single species
R an ge rica hyp ifornia, Himalayas, n a species and a rac
e?
Fro nt
Out of Af Antilles, Gulf of Cal Grande Rift, San And
reas diff eren ce bet wee
ia l er ratics e ama, Mis siss ipp i Riv er, Rio 10. What is the on Earth about 10,
000 to
glac terchang e growth s, and Yellowstone
hotspot. hap pen ing
erican In to th ra Nev ada 11. What was
Great Am tribute d Fau lt, Sier of the Himalay on as
11,000 years ago?
ism con effect of the uplift
t h av e tecton s of Earth? tr ea t 3.of What was the also Cha pte r 2.)
h re e
ns 5. How
mig pole and bal climate? (Se Panama
Q u estio from gl
ver both
aciers o idence for the
advance d? From the glo
la n 4. at was the effect of the
rise of the Isthmus of
in the oceans?
v i e w d if fe r o f ev rs fr o m Wh
on land and
Re ev en ts - is th e gl ac ie al clim ate and life
ne
d Neoge Paleogene and list
Neo 6. What n hemisphere frequen
cies on glob
gene an t norther kovitch
do Paleo e a chart labeled de of the char or Milan ? Do all three
fre-
1. How er? M ak e le ft si
ts, (b ) se a d ee p se a?
thre e m aj
ange ming?
each oth , and down th tal movemen ulation, . H o w do the rio
e u d
ce cl imate ch iation or war 11:49 am
ro ss nen circ 7 nepPro d e glac 24/10/16
gene ac ing: (a) conti , (d ) ocean pensation : T hin Nra
e te eoctgeto ac centuat o f
ra s
o w
nn
Food for Thought—More in-depth than the Review
the foll atmospheric C 2(g) calcite com Than
O
l e im Ceal nos.zoic E
quencies hy not?
alw ay
ans rese
mble th
at
trib-
nn
Sources and Further Reading—The list of refer-
)
level, (c , (f) plankton an
,
terrr1es5tria ent(s) of of hum ors con ought:
Chda(ip)te Food for Th and Outside of Class
w
n Questions, the Food for Thought activities are great
9 6 , n Why or the evolution hat fact ences for the chapter is a great place for students to
oxy ge 4 p la n ts co n ti es rs e? W
o- er Activities In
(e) ial ther r- do eh o
te rr es tr o r an o ed d u 8 . H o w as th evrth tion of the west-
dep th , (h )
rth m er ica at fo rm
for individual or group assignments in or out of the
A ure s th ma- other ta x a, su ch
no f h u m an s?
for h u m an Fu begin additional research into special topics. 3. Describe the tect
onics and sedimenta multiple
n a m ap of No following feat ey fo rmed: A l th e evolutio t hypotheses se s: m ultire- eses des crib ed in the Sta tes in term s of the method of
2. O e th ra uted to ren es oth ited
d, find th d discuss how 496n Peninsula, A the diffe ngths and wea ulse.
kn
1. Construct a tab
le of the hyp ern Un
s (see Chapter 1).
the worl
Neoge n e anclassroom. They will challenge students to think criti-
S0,2.A ra
ind d b ia
ge, C o as t
9. E va lu at e
st re ver p ?
text for the origin
of the Bas in and Ran ge. List the
wo rkin g hyp oth ese
ates later affect
ing the 81re28st44,57A16m2_azCHo15 Riv
n _P ASer
ntain Ran Greater r their d turno d a race e a heading at ptation in early prim
in fo
97 as ca de Mou
cally about the material presented in the chapter.
an ge , lution fo gle species, an een a species an ,000 to otheses down the left side and plac mn bot h 4. How did preada ?
n ra ange , C ron t R si n et w 1 0 hyp tha t colu hum ans
zo
in and R an Rift Valley, F , Isthmus of P
an- gional, differen
ce b
arth ab
out ce.” Include in the evolution of so hotly debated?
Sea, Bas as at is the g on E the top titled “Eviden Soe u forces inferred from
the il record of humans
East Afr
ic
, Himalay n Andre
as
10. Wh was happenin the geologic evidF enc andrcthe es eaancolumn titled “Suc- 5. Why is the foss eses for human evo
lution,
Ranges, ulf of California Grande Rift, Sa t. h at u
therrigh t plac d diff eren t hyp oth
,G io e hotspo as on 11. W years ag
o? evidence. Then, to ther 6. Of the
favor and why?
Antilles ssippi River, R sto n ,0 0 0 two R e
colua dmn s underneath do you
issi d Yell o w imalay 1 1
cess of the Hypoth
esis ” wit h ing Range wh ich one ing of Plesiadapis
ama, M adas, an uplift of the H ons of the Basin and ificance of the find
erra Nev e
Alroy,
each of the maiennJ. regi 2001 7. What is the sign ope?
Fault, Si the effect of th apter 2.) am a for . A mul(N) and Southern (S).
thern tispecies ov in both North Am eric a and Eur
was so Ch us of Pan emphasized in the29 textd-:PlNor
eistoc ans are based
3. What climate? (See al rise of the Isthm e oceans?
ene meg er it sati erki ll sitori
sfac ly new species of hum
esis2,, 18ind93icat e wheth afaunal mulatio
n of th8. Quite frequently, fragment.
For each hypAoth ment such as a jaw
–189 massdoe
global fect o f the an d in th sfaw , B. 6.
the regi on (+), extins not
ct e
le foss il frag
was the
ef n d et hin
e wit. 20 Re io n. Science, on a ard, W Le sing from a
life on la
al on
4. What al climate and explains the evidMenc iddle Aw 02. (0), maior nscon tradicts it (–). an
. R. 20
ent 02.new
ire species be inferred
one Bawayldridgor the oth
as er
h, Ethiopia of H om o er Ho w can
w as a drivin Fo od See Chapter 4 for
o n gl o b exp lain it e, . Nhod of mu ec ltip
tu s frle g foss
ry rce in hu
fo il? fo(Hi
r th nt:
ou gh
inW.term
S. 20s04 of. the met ature, 41 om Bour
sing leAmfrag an, nta
ericme t: Dieta
Discuss your resu A jolts 6, 317– i, 287(6):1 par m ry chan
urne y throug pte Geology 320. Monaste tion of 06–115ts.) an evolution. ge
othtory
eses (see Chah tw r 1). of the A
merican the Cuv15 ky, rela
ier’srscor R. 1996 . Scientifi
working hyp Bower,
. Cam bridge, olbito llion yenge
cha ar s fast er: Southwest: 0( 5, . Out of c
t- nor ma lly B.cau ses sea leve UK: Cam of plate-tect
s of M on
A ugust 3)
, arid Afr
2. Wh e wes ich 19 99. DN br
theidmo ge U vemniveent
on ic hi astersky 74 –75. ic a. Scienc
ta ti on of th anc le and
News,eat
retr 155(of6, glac A’s evor
iers olutiona rsity Pres s- , R. 19
99. The e News,
: en ip e th e
ught d sedim ethod of madv u lt Fe s. A
f Class
Bower, bruary ry dilemm mericas killing
onics an B. 20 6):8 of fie
r Thoand Outside o
a. Scienc Science
m continents? News, 1501. Fossil skull di 8–90. News, 15 their most ch lds: What robb
e the tect in terms of the ). e
d f o . Describ s 1 ctBower, B. 9(12, March 24 versifies family
Murphy, 6(23):36 arismat
ic mam ed
Foo Activities In
3 ed S ta te C h ap te r
la te r af fe J. B., Opp
lig
0–361. mals?
ern Unit ypotheses (see early primates
e 2002 ), 180. tr ee. Scienc A. 1999 er,
e r ed in th our earl . Evolution’s su e . Mantle G. L., Brimhall,
Furth d es cr ib g h in y Sc ie pl G .
yp o th es es
. L ist the w o rkin ap ta ti on
at Br
ed ?
un et
an cestors.
Sc
rp rise: Fo
ss
nt ist, 87(2
):
um es and H ., and H
yn
the h Range ad , M. et ience New il Ni, Xiju 14 m ountains es
did pre otly deb
find up 6–153.
table of the Basin and ans? al. 20 n, et . Americ ,
eading at
roots
4. How lution of hum of humans so h evolution,Miocene of 02. A new hom 162(2):19.
s,
struct a and earl al. “The oldest an
1. Con of lace a h n both the evo
fo r th e origin le ft si d e and p co lu m e fo ss il record es fo r human 145–15
1.
Chad,
central
inid from
th e U
y
(2013):6 haplorhine ev known primat
text
es down
the in that the is th
5. Why different hyp and why?
othes Cerling, A frica. N pper 0–64. olution. e skelet
Include ed from apis T. E., C ature, Pastor, ” Natur on
hypothes ed “Evidence.” of Plesiad and Manthi,hritz, K. L., Jablon
J., and e, 498.74
es inferr
418,
c- e r extinctio Moen, R. A
the forc lumn titled “Su 6. Of th one do you favo of the finding
52
e to p titl ce an d 4 to F. K. 20 ski, N. G
., ns. Natur . 2004.
th en co th which ce 1 13 Le Ro
gnifican
Ec
t place a
Ma in . Diet
gic evid undernea
akey, M berts, R. e, 431, 63 ol
the geolo hen, to the righ two columns is the si urope? ased
bem y of Scie Kenya. Proceedi of Theropithec . G., G. et al. 9–640. ogy of ice-age
ge a and E f humans are .1 en 2001. N
7. What North Americ
megafau
.T ith and Ran ecies o agm2225 t. 71 nces, www.pna ngs of the Nat us from na ew ages
for the la15.7 Extinction 497
evidence Hypothesis” w s of the Basin n (S ). b o th n ew sp a ja w Cfrhe 110 s.org/cg ional Aca years ag : Continent-w st Aus
e on uther in ently, ch as stero,mSt a i/d oi/10.10 d- o. Science, id e
292, 18 extinction abou tralian
cess of th f the main regi hern (N) and So actorily e frequ ment su be inferred tafrrsal foeprhen G. B., et al 73/pnas Ruddim
an, W.
r ea ch o xt : N o rt er it sa tisf 8. Quit ngle fossil frag sp ec ie s
ap te r 4 s and affin . Oldest A tla nt
F., and
M
88–189
2. t 46,000
fo
ized in th
e te eth
icate wh gion (+), does
not on a si an entire new (Hint: See Ch mates. Proceedi ities of Paleocen own euarchon kn ic pa
years. In leoclimate chan e, A. 1976.
cI ntyr
emphas ypothesis, ind re ). ca n ss il ? 11 2. ng s of e Pu rg ta n R. ge N or
icts it (– How ry fo 5( th at s
hin the 2015):14 eN or M. Clin over th theast
h agmenta 87–149 ational Academ ius to Pri- gation of
Late Qua e and J. D. H e past 600,00 24/10/16
For each e evidence wit er (0), or contrad multiple single fr rrelation of par
ts.) Dayton,
L. 20 2. y of Scie climatol ternary ays (eds 0
th th of hunters. 01. Mass extin nces,
explains ne way or the o of the method
ogy pa .)
C u vi er’s co Sc ie nc ct io ns Boulder, (pp. 111–14 leoceanography , Investi-
it o rm s Demenoc e, 292, 18 pinned CO: Geo 6) . Specia and pale
ex p la in lts in te 1). the al , B. 19 . on So nd er, L. J., lo gical So l Pu blicatio o-
your resu 02.indd P.497 ice age
Chapter change faster: f 9781284457162_CH
15_PASS Scie nce, 331, 2011. Climate States: H and Jones, C.
ciety of
America. n 145.
Discuss ypotheses (see o
a level to vements Gibbons 540–54 and hu ow the H
h 2 man ev west was . 1999. Weste
working rmally causes se iers or the mo , A. 20
11 . Skelet
olution. Earth an
d Pl anetary w id rn U
h no t of glac
paleo-pu
on Stringer Sciences ened. Annual Re nited
2. Whic
zzle. Sc , C. 2003
d retrea Guo, Z. ience, 33 s present an Stuart, . Out of , 27, 41
7–462. view of
n ce an T. et al. 3, 1370 ex qu A Et hi
adva 22 Myr 2002. –1 372. is ite . J., Kosints op ia. Natur
ti n en ts? ago infe Onset of Asian ter, A. ev, P. A
.,
e, 423, 69
co n N ature, 41 rr ed from de sertifica tion
M . 20 04. Plei H ig ham, T. 2– 695.
Imbrie, 6, 159–16 lo
ess depo tion by dynamic stocene . G., an F
J., and 3. sits in Nature, s in to d Lis-
tery. Sh Imbrie, K. P. 19
China. 431, 68 giant deer and Holocene extin
ort Hill 79 Tattersa 4–689. woolly c-
Leakey, s, NJ: En . Ice ages ll, I. 1997 mammot
R. and slow Pu : So lving the entific A . O ut of Afr h.
terns of Lewin, blishers mys- merican ica agai
life and R. 1995. The Si . Tattersa
ll, I. 20
, 279(4)
:60–67.
n … an
d again?
ay Dell. n future49 of7human Extinction: Pa
Doubled the xth American 00. Once w Sci-
e were
M. G Extinctio
Leakey, kind. N t- Tavaré, , 282(1) not alon
ew York :56–62.
1er5n.7Afr . et al. 2001. New : S., Marsh
tin, R. all, C. R.
e. Scient
ific
ica show hominid D. , Will
Nature, s
410, 43 diverse middl genus the age 2002. Using th , O., Soligo, C
Leakey, 3–440. e Plioce from east- of the la e fossil ., and M
M. G., Sp ne 11 :49 am
lin m at es st co re co rd ar-
oor, F 24/10/ 16 ea ges. . Nature, m mon an to estim
S. C., K
iarie, C ., Dean, M. C., Templet
on, A.
416, 72
6–729.
cestor of
extant pr
ate
from K ., and Le Feibel, R. 2002 i-
oo akey C. S. Nature, . Out of
nomic di bi Fora in nort , L. N. 2012. N , Antón, Ve kua, A.
416, 45
–5 1. A fr ic a again
versity in hern ew foss and agai
early Hom Kenya conf ils et al. 20
02 n.
o. Natur ir m D manisi, . A new
e, 488, 20 taxo- Georgia sk
1–204. Wilson,
E. O. . Science, ull of early H
297, 85 omo from
Belknap 1992. The dive –89.
Press. rsity of
life. Cam
497
498 bridge,
MA:
2.indd Chapte
_PASS0 r 15 Th
2_CH15 e Cenozo
445716
978128 ic Era: Th
e Neoge
ne Perio
978128
445716 d
2_CH15
_PASS0
2.indd
xvii
498
The Student Experience

nn
New and Revised Art and Photos—The art in this
second edition, including over es150 new images and
of plate
ese typ
1). Thbeen
150 revised illustrations,
orm (Fig
ure 2 has
.2 significantly improved
an floor.
or transf nd on the oce
to
at
support
convergent, students
ies are al
so fou as they absorb new information.
n, th
directio e is boundar aries ith riftin
g.
opposite bound ciated w
t plate
n
t in the lt from where o ge n are asso uce rift valleys
on
of the fa u Div e r oun d a ri es
prod 2.21).
ed plate b crust occurs to ridges (Figure
o n ly associat D iv ergent o f th e -o ce an t o f m antle
com m ially b y riftin g of m id vemen
is also ro ck s, espec olds Initially, ong the crests e u pw ard mo e fo rm ation of
no f ing. F al k th d th n-
ormatio is: fold land or ns mar ading an are exte
rogenes anticlines the nt margi loor spre te boundaries with
uring o . In - Diverge volved in seaf nt pla sociated
n cl in es 7
th .
e 1o ld
n ets
ia l in iv er ge b e as Neptune ic
and sy foTlda,bwlit
eh pla
ater us, d nd to Uranus Volcan
is of the e yotuunregesstof them loor crust. Th in nature and te Saturn 49,500 island
arc
main ax ticline, an M adjothr feapposite seaf
rp u ll -a p art, Ju pi ter 51 ,2 00
an
e of the clines just th and the
eo sional, o Ea rth
Mars
0 120,540 1%
388%
syn ld, 142,80 40
Venus 1,720%
des. In n te r o f the fo ger than M er cury 56 6,794
0%
941%
1, 46 0%
e ce un 12,7 1,12 1.6
ward th syncline are yo 12,104 53% 9,430% 1.2
e 4,878 X 31,780%
xis of th Folde d rock
F
95
au
%lt 10.7% 0.7
–0 .7 2
0.67
) 38 % X 1. 3
m the er (km 29
Diamet tio n to Eart
h 82% 3.9 0.43
97 .9
re la 5. 5% 5. 52 0. 41
iclines Diamet
er in 5.24 1.026 26.7
tl y la tio n to Earth 5. 43 0. 99 7 3. 1 11 8%
quen Mass in
re –243 25.2 92%
another /cm ) 58.6 23.4
3
ensity (g 17 7. 4 107%
D (day s) 253%
during n period tation
0.0 % 38
Rotatio
axis of ro X
Inclin ation of
rees)
91%
e tor (deg 38%
s becom to equa relation
to
ion
lie avity in mpsuren.ss
ome to Su rface gr d byEaco
rth and
lts ueetwzeeen the ion
rust fau Earth ental ry ro cks sq
or the dis
tance be
Morrison
Format
ance Se
a
worth.
ith im mica un it,
ing Sund West/Wads 610).
ciated w (a)AUS=edastrono agmen-
d their fr Jupi- Retreat
d thrustin
g
Evolution,
2nd ed. Bel
mont, CA:
Figure 23.
16A (p.
der jects an g an Geology and
ing. Un d of
ed
continu sion with other obpiter’s size, perhap ted the
s Foldin
an G ro up
The Changi
ng Ear th: Exploring
p re s- stea collir a Francisc er, R. 1997.

he com so great that in planletm veals’s ove e of Ju it preven and Wicand
im y, becaus ply so strong at was already
eso J. S.,
: Monroe,
m e w al at iv el en was si Data from
ly beco and a hanging tatioisn.tyApltee arna rn e sel field
m
debris th (a)
re f th itatio ey aret e om asteroid
s fractu tacular folds o ter’se grAav lp s, th plan fr ve orig
inated
. Sp ec ; in th at ion of a t to ha pres-
es worl d rm t th gh s. First, high
Inc.
ngl fo ou utterstock,
r th e t. ar e no t Clemens/Sh
ets are no
© Marcel
ove presen teroids n reason
nges all u re 2 .20). In deed, as s for two mai ithin large plan found on
Fig et w (a)
appes ( fra la s
rie rge plan pica lly form
e fr agments
at co l-
boundsure mint erinalmve
om s that ty Meteorites ar g asteroids, th
plate rite s. in been
n- bodies, includ meteorites have ars,
pes of
eteoco
presenh acti errestrial me ye
ated witof extrater genigt,ure 7.13). So ately 4.5 billionout the
nd aries associ riEazertdh wasithdiv
Earth (F approxim from ab
e plate bou
b e catego lided rically dated at meteorites date . Second, strong
h n
argins ca
ar
radiomet these particul lar syst
em
nental m indicatin
g
rmation
of the so
the fo
time of
rface
Axial su
line
Hinge
.
/Thinkstock
© Hemera
(b)
Limb Anticlin
e
A nticline
on tock, Inc.
e Morris
hutters
© Corlaffra/S
e ic. (a) Th
Synclin e Jurass
er ica during th Formation.
orth Am orrison
ine
rior of w
estern N
posure
of the M
tion
379
m are a. (b) Ex dimenta
=10.
age.cfm?ID
to botto the inte
ilfield.slb.co
m/DisplayIm
(c)
Inc.
tterstock, . From top (b) en tation in e Sundance Se l, and Se
m
Sea Leve
l d/S hu es di th
/www.glo
ssa ry.o
e ce nt ra © Shi fte
m et eorit eo rites. ic s, and se th at fil led ge ny ,
p:/ Th of et on t Oro
nclines.
m: htt pe s m s, tect e wes
Data fro
es, NASA/JPL. 7.13 Ty , iron, sh d sttsoney Seaway from th 13.4
es and sy axis. In anticlin
anee
Courtesy of Figure thrust
-iron 13.17 se shed 11:42
f anticlin its t ic storm stoneyed
ghn:ly-fold een thrust ove
r Figure which is molas 24/10/16
Th e features o e is known as with the oldes ) en t a gigant io n o hiow

fsh b rm ation, r input
9 lin e, o n (b es ct ve win g Fo meltwate
ure 2.1 se
pr ha
e or sync of the anticlin the youngest
re
Alps sho
Y
ot might (a) Cross s of rocks that
T DA ly weak
PRESEN
anticlin axis and pira ta red spds of yeu
ter’s ars. e 2.20 block and Ar n to of the
Relative
tion of an away from the f the anticline
Ocean
theJust re Fig r ch)ea
Pho y
cc
re ur7.s:12 nd e hu ge n es . (b /16 5:3
4 pm
arm circulat
ion ma
ip o tego persist
Fi u ed fo the
r hu ps. Th nning: Hadea napp 14 /10 W
strata d und in the core just the opposi thattahafos un d along f in the Alary Be gis are called
rily
tempora p if
, o ck w or sto gh
fo es st ra axis in
rd ger ro slo
ata being limbs. In synclin ncline and the ay. The ter 7 e, An Extryo aoun ion en ou
g. Circulat there is r input
d sy rther aw Ch’ ap rfac e foldin lly
meltwate
extensiv
eventua
s crest an er of the strata fa 8 rt h s su
rature
g
7 Ea vels alon
to
l to1 the
nt ger than
returns
d the ce tra
Elevator , whether go
ing 379 by
ip towar ncline are youn remain paralle gle.
d normal on
S02.ind e shor t-
Tempe
th
same pa n 57162_CH13_PAS
ati Possibl pse
evapor g of g
e sy ight an an on, mixin
axis of th e or syncline m
w 44 xin lla
at and mi r Evapor
ati term co
rface up or do28
9781
in th the su over la
nd 3:36 pm meltwate
an anticl plunge benea 2.indd
178
Rising
se a level 25/10/16
ger tim
e
ht _PASS0
or it mig on81ic28s445716
2_CH07
stablis
h for mu
ch lon
ct 97
Plate Te Cold to re-e
unable
apter 2
ation
n Circul
Ch Ocea
40 MAX r inp ut
ACIAL d meltwate
LAST GL in crease ion
Greatly Circulat with
es
collaps
Warm d
increase r
ne meltw ate
dd 40 Limesto Ocean input at
the
SS04.in
Time
ion
H02_PA circulat end of a
7162_C One wa
y unable
to interva
l
rature
lish glacial
Land re-estab
for much e
Tempe
rm
longer
tim Long-te
e
collaps
Shale
one ion State

Sandst Circulat , 148 (Figure
1A).
yZ Ocean . Nature, 409
Localit One wa
y
Cold D. 2001. Gla
cial hiccups
: Paillard,
(a) yY
Data from
rse
Localit ator, can reve
the elev one or, you al
rast to (b) e elevat your initi
Localit
yX In cont on ly move
in
ceton, NJ: e yo u are on th ly return to No rth
lation rs Prin tim n on th e
ks. Any
to re.
Miscorre g escala Our Futu
Change, and ss. Figure 14.1 (p.
151).
r, you ca production in
in directio
n. upt Climate
Ice Cores, Abr Princeton Univers
ity Pre
es is loop wor ke the escalato DW re sh old
assum ster of NA a th
, if you ta function
s
e:
How a hy ,
chin
t exceed e lower
Ma
-Mile Time
y, R. B. 200
0. The Two
ops. (a) However ) stability as a ater inpu ay state) to th e) when
Limesto
ne (a) Data from: Alle eresis lo way you came. rature : If meltw t-d lin
Time and hyst the (tempe p (present day) erturbed presen mode (upper r modern
Rock = Cl im at e modes t and go back op fo r climate es . To e (u np e w ar m
cu r un de
16.19 od od th
any poin ) Hysteresis lo sic climate m warm m g up) to could oc meltwat
er
Figure much at (b o ba e upper hed line pointin d cold modes large influx of
Shale n pretty path, as shown. lantic has tw from th as m an a n much
directio w At g down) return (d moderate war nce like rvals whe
by a ne ern North hed line pointin ate can only disturba ring glacial inte
position e m od im e m or e h la rg er
2 (p. 48). Ocean.
Th
jumps (d
as
slows. Cl th of thes kes a m
uc
ppened
du
Figure 3.1 ree Atlantic ulation e), where NADW tly. Note that bo in part A, it ta what ha
oks/Cole. Bro
es, the th ean circ en tors umably
ed. Pacific
Grove, CA:
level ris value, oc e (solid blue lin orated suffici e escala is is pres
Sandst
one Life Through
Time, 3rd
) As sea e ages of od ap ): Like th time. Th
lution of Ear
th and
t the sa m e. (a
e, but th ns colder m has mixed or ev ial maximum nger periods of
Geology: Evo no h tim tio er glac r lo
e ar e thro ug orre la meltwat m (last ation fo en released.
orical
2000. Hist
nroe, J. S. and tim ts exist (b) Misc ed instead to s. Botto DW form
Land R., and Mo at rock ronmen posed. us condition wn modern NA er would have
be
(b) Data from
: Wicander,
trating th d. All three envi the rocks are ex bites that are cks
ns, illus ar lo of the ro ut do el tw at
d Heinr
ich
an d formatio , move landw e ar ea in which tinctions of tri ho w the ages to sh
volumes
of m
ryas an
be tw een faci
es
an d lim estone
, di ff er s over th
pres en t the ex
sc us sio n). No te greater
the Yo unger D
ce ale, ns ts re di sh-
e differen sandstone, sh ized as formatio and orange do phy” for further , too, do atic thre
6.9 Th
Figure represented by hich are recogn rrows). The re
d
ostratig
ra 16.1). So ch a clim at freshen-
“6.5.3 Bi Figure with su
ns w
formatio types of rocks, nsidered equa
l (a section io n. n- which ts. nf ronted su ggest th t the last
the e co rrelatio
n (s ee
me fo rm at ic relatio r , such as
th at ev en ht be co
Recent
da ta ou
over ab land and
each of d time ar e lines for co en within the sa ratigraph t occurs ger Dryas, clim e
ate We mig future.
rock an te tim y the st phy. Afte er inpu the near Atlantic has oc vicinity of Gre
curred en
result if ore accura e localitie
s, ev
ss ils to stud d biostratigra ca n be freshwat ring the Youn ble future. In -
th
old in oductio
n
produc
e m
e betwee
n th e of fo
The us entary rocks is
calle apped,
th ey
t, if a large
time ed du re se ea , su m th e North nt ur y in the tly, NADW pr rthern
the sam d and m example, the Bu ppen r the fo tlant ic ing of 20th ce cien e no
are not of the of sedim identifie r pare nt ly
hed
ha
wm od e fo
th eN or th A
(nor th - ye ars of th e
rs m el t su ffi
uld se nd th
al of
se ships be en ils. Fo tablis ap a ne to rg en 40 gl ac ie ch co in te rv
at the ba ns have osed fo ss
n were
es ift to
might sh e freshwater
inpu ts Spits be If the wn, w hi olonge d
outcrops formatio using their encl Grand Canyo s, which are di
s- those of beria! Iceland. shut do eeze after a pr
of a few larg semble ose of Si ddenly
ale ed e te
correlat e example of th ils called trilobi p, and spiders. case of would re ndon th occur in might su e into a deep
fr ion.
at the sc m in Ireland d winters in Lo inputs could humans er el combust
the field yon. in th foss sh ri th e er s is ph il fu
xviii S lines of ters, to us e m an er , he m ss
heCk ions
abs, lobs enland) meltwat il fuels. Indeed ward a g due to
fo
Grand C
an
The Student
d reaS
Experience
o ning C
e extinct
la nd
raphy is
using th ted to insects, cr uct biostratig st Appearanc
La
e
).
ern Gre e future such
In th bustion
of foss
er and cl
oser to
a new
warmin
heCk
ConCe
pt a n tantly re siest way to co s (FADs) and gu re 6.10 the com h’s climate clos pidly shift to ning C
reaso
ea s ( Fi on se to ra d on
The um ecie olution- resp ing Eart climate will . Base
l time? d regres
sing ppeara
nce Dat rent fossil sp
ffe th e first ev ction. ht be push hi ch w ell for us the input n C e p t and
ally equa
ck norm in a transgres
sing an Fi rs t A
s) of di pres en ts
D its ex
tin m ig
d beyo nd w
ht not
bo de
, given Co esis loop
?
esn’t ro s (LAD ecies re threshol might or mig nceivable that el combustion, a hyster
1. W hy do of fa ci es ns . Datum e FAD of a sp ies, and the LA er the past few co fu implicat
ions of
the shift formatio lly, th spec ped ov ssor, ode that p, it is m fossil little or limatic
TEACHING TOOLS
A variety of Teaching Tools are available for qualified instruc- nnLecture Outlines in PowerPoint format—The
tors to assist with preparing for and teaching their courses. Lecture Outlines in PowerPoint format provide lec-
These resources are accessible via digital download and mul- ture notes and images for each chapter of Earth’s
tiple other formats: Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth, Sec-
ond Edition. Instructors with Microsoft Power-
Point can customize the outlines, art, and order of
presentation and add their own material.
2 am
nn
Key Image Review—The
Key Image Review provides
the illustrations, photo-
graphs, and tables to which
Jones & Bartlett Learning
holds the copyright or has
permission to reprint digi-
tally. These images are not
for sale or distribution but
may be used to enhance
your existing slides, tests,
and quizzes or other class-
room material.
xix
nn
Test Bank Material—The author has provided 500+ the Review Questions and Food for Thought exercises at
multiple-choice questions, including true-false, match- the end of each chapter and the Concept and Reasoning
ing, and identifications. Each chapter has approximately Checks embedded throughout. These could be used in
30 to 40 questions. The author of this text has used smaller classes as writing assignments. Students could
some—but certainly not all—of these questions in his be assigned the questions ahead of time or given a list to
introductory course. Many questions ask for basic fac- choose from. These questions are available as an instruc-
tual information, others are intended to make students tor download.
“think about it.” In some cases, essentially the same nn
Instructor’s Manual—An Instructor’s Manual contain-
questions are worded differently. Alternative wordings ing an instructor’s overview, instructional aids, answers
and answers are suggested for some questions. Some to Review and Food for Thought questions, and sugges-
questions refer to specific figures in the text. Instruc- tions for homework or in-class projects and assignments
tors are welcome to modify the questions as they see fit. is available for each chapter.
Short and long essay questions can be developed from
xx Teaching Tools
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Earth’s Evolving Systems had its beginnings in my book One I express my gratitude to the reviewers of the first edi-
Long Experiment: Scale and Process in Earth History (1998, tion, whose feedback helped to shape the text in many ways:
Columbia University Press), the reviews of which were
Rick Batt, Buffalo State College
encouraging.
Alan Benimoff, College of Staten Island–CUNY
Many individuals contributed to the publication of this
Walter S. Borowski, Eastern Kentucky University
work. I would like to thank Stan Wakefield for putting me
Robert Cicerone, Bridgewater State College
in touch with Jones & Bartlett Learning regarding the man-
Joshua C. Galster, Montclair State University
uscript. I would also like to thank Editor Audrey Schwinn
William Garcia, University of North Carolina at Charlotte
who guided the text through its preproduction phase; Rights
Tamie J. Jovanelly, Berry College
and Media Specialist Jamey O’Quinn; and Media Develop-
Matthew G. Powell, Juniata College
ment Editor Shannon Sheehan. I would also like to thank
Steven H. Schimmrich, SUNY Ulster County
Senior Production Editor, Nancy Hitchcock, whose careful
Community College
eyes for detail have much improved the book and kept it on
Greg W. Scott, Lamar State College–Orange
track for publication.
A number of recent undergraduate geology majors at Comments from the following reviewers helped to shape this
the University of Delaware have contributed to this book second edition:
with their enthusiasm during the courses I have taught,
Alan I. Benimoff, College of Staten Island
especially Emily Cahoon, Mary Cassella, Steve Cinderella,
Harry Dowsett, U.S. Geological Survey
Lauren Cook, Laura Dodd, Kevin Gielarowski, Josh Hum-
Antony N. Giles, Nicholls State University
berston, Deon Knights, Kelsey Lanan, Sherri Legg, Amanda
Danny Glenn, Wharton Junior College
Lusas, Briana Lyons, Suzie McCormick, Livia Montone,
Warren D. Huff, University of Cincinnati
Steve Mulvry, Sharon Nebbia, Marc Roy, Nick Spalt, Justin
Takehito Ikejiri, University of Alabama
Walker, Jessie Wenke, Dave Wessell, and Erika Young. So,
Arthur C. Lee, Roane State Community College
too, have many students in my introductory course. I hope
Margaret Karen Menge, Delgado Community College
their enthusiasm validates my approach with the readers.
Jill Mignery, Miami University
Jean Self-Trail read portions of Chapter 14. I also thank my
Donald Neal, East Carolina University
running buddies for many years of physical and mental exer-
Cynthia L. Parish, Lamar University
tion: Al, Dick, and Sandy.
Carrie E. Schweitzer, Kent State University at Stark
My sincere thanks to Drs. Karen Rosenberg and Thomas
David Richard Schwimmer, Columbus State University
Rocek of the Department of Anthropology at the University
of Delaware for their review of the section on human evolu- Finally, I thank my wife, Carol, for her encouragement
tion in Chapter 15; any errors are, however, mine. throughout the writing and production of this book. Watch-
Jones & Bartlett Learning would also like to thank and ing our daughter, Dana, grow up has perhaps contributed
acknowledge Dr. Amanda Julson of Blinn College for her more to my teaching and to this book than either she or I
work on revising the Lecture Outlines in PowerPoint for- will ever know or understand.
mat and the Web Links, and for creating the Instructor’s
Manual for this edition. In addition, we sincerely appreciate
Ronald Martin
the assistance of Professor Ann Harris of Eastern Kentucky
Newark, Delaware
University and Dr. A. M. Hunt of University of Cincinnati
in creating the online assessment questions that accompany
this edition.
xxi
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
history (upon which Earth’s Evolving Systems is based), Pale-

ontology, Paleoecology, Sedimentology, and Stratigraphy, and
Advanced (Sequence) Stratigraphy, among others and he has
been nominated several times for the university-wide Best
Teacher Award. His research interests include the taphonomy
(preservation) and biostratigraphy of microfossil assemblages
and, most recently, the role of phytoplankton evolution in the
diversification of the marine biosphere. He is the author or
co-author of more than 60 papers; in addition to Earth’s Evolv-
ing Systems, he has also authored One Long Experiment: Scale
and Process in Earth History (Columbia University Press) and
Taphonomy: A Process Approach (Cambridge University Press)
and edited Environmental Micropaleontology: The Application of
Microfossils to Environmental Geology (Kluwer/Plenum Press).
He received the Best Paper Award in 1996 from the jour-
Ron Martin is Professor of Geological Sciences at the Univer- nal Palaios for “Secular Increase in Nutrient Levels Through
sity of Delaware. He grew up in southwestern Ohio, where the Phanerozoic: Implications for Productivity, Biomass, and
world famous assemblages of Late Ordovician fossils drew his Diversity of the Marine Biosphere”; his work was also featured
attention to paleontology. He received a B.S. degree in Geol- as the cover article in the June (2013) issue of Scientific Amer-
ogy and Paleontology from Bowling Green State University ican: “Tiny Engines of Evolution,” which was translated into
(Ohio), M.S. in Geology from the University of Florida, and French, German, Spanish, and Japanese sister publications.
Ph.D. in Zoology from the University of California at Berke- He is past president of the North American Micropaleontol-
ley. He worked as an operations micropaleontologist and ogy Section of the Society of Sedimentary Geology, former
biostratigrapher for Unocal in Houston (Texas) from 1981– Editor of the Journal of Foraminiferal Research, and Associate
1985 before coming to the University of Delaware. He has Editor of Palaios. He was Visiting Professor at the Université
taught introductory courses in physical geology and Earth de Lille (France) in 2014.
xxii
PART
Earth Systems:
I Their Nature
and Their Study
Part I of Earth’s Evolving Systems examines the principles and con-

Chapter 1
Introduction: cepts critical to the study of the processes of each of the basic Earth
Investigating Earth’s systems: the solid Earth, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and
Systems the biosphere. In examining these systems, Part I emphasizes the
following:
Chapter 2
Plate Tectonics 1. Why study Earth history?
Chapter 3 2. Basic components and behavior of each system and how they
Earth Systems: evolve
Processes and 3. How changes in the distributions of the continents and oceans
Interactions affect the other systems
4. How the interactions of Earth’s systems regulate climate
Chapter 4
Sedimentary Rocks, 5. The importance of geologic time to the study of physical and bio-
Sedimentary logical processes
Environments, 6. How we study Earth’s systems
and Fossils
Chapter 5
Evolution and
Extinction
Chapter 6
Geologic Time and
Stratigraphy
© Rainer Albiez/Shutterstock, Inc.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
An Inverted Solid-Bottom Chair with Attachments Used for a
Child’s High Chair
Where a high chair is not at hand or available, an ordinary solid-

bottom kitchen chair can be used instead, if rigged up as shown in
the illustration. The chair is reversed, and the back is used as one
support, while two pieces of wood fastened to the sides form the
other. A seat board is fastened to the upper side rounds, and a table
board to the two lower side rounds. A small piece is nailed to the two
back posts for a back.—Contributed by J. S. Fritzen, Minneapolis,
Minn.
Blower for a Fireplace
Having considerable trouble with a smoky fireplace when trying to
start a coal fire in the basket grate, I decided to make a blower of
sheet iron. A blower covers the upper part of the fireplace and forces
the draft through the basket grate until the fire gets a good start, then
it can be removed. Before making the blower I again had trouble one
morning when the chimney would not draw, and the whole room
became filled with smoke; I then grabbed a newspaper and held it up
against the upper part of the fireplace like a regular blower. To my
surprise the suction of the chimney held the newspaper in place
without any outside aid. In a few minutes the fire was roaring, and
best of all, when it became hot, the newspaper caught fire and was
sucked into the flames. This in reality became an automatic blower,
as it removed itself when no longer needed.—Contributed by
Charles F. Kopp, Amite, La.
An Ironing-Board Wall Fastening
Ironing Board Supported on Wood Hinges at the Wall to Provide a Space for
the Covering
One of the most useful and convenient articles for a household is

an ironing board, one end of which is fastened to the wall by means
of hinges to allow it to be folded up against the wall when not in use.
Wood brackets are preferable to the metal hinges, as there must be
some little space between the wall and the board to allow for the
thickness of the covering. The brace which extends from near the
end of the board to the base of the wall is best hinged with canvas
strips, as they will last better than any other material for this joint.
The hinges should be put in place when the board is in a vertical
position to allow the brace to go in position without straining.—
Contributed by J. H. Beebee, Rochester, N. Y.
Oars Flattened to Make Rowing Easier
When rowing a small boat, we were bothered by the turning of the
oars in the locks, so that the blade of the oar was not in proper
position to take the water. We overcame this by planing off slightly
one side of the oar, so that when this surface was against the lock,
the blade was in the correct position to catch the water. It is
unnecessary to grip these oars tightly, as they fall naturally into place
and save the novice a great deal of trouble. In locks where this
method is undesirable, the handgrips may be cut as a guide.—H. D.
Burnside, Madison, Wis.
A One-Piece Bracelet Cut from a Calling Card
It Is Hard to Imitate a Quick and Skillful Performance of This Simple Trick
A trick that will amuse and interest persons both old and young
can be performed with a calling card, cigarette paper, or other similar
material, cut with a scissors or knife, as indicated in the diagram.
The card is shown, and the performer announces that he will pass
his hand through the card, making a bracelet of it. He will, of course,
be challenged, and proceeds as follows: He folds the card
lengthwise and cuts through two thicknesses from 1 to 2, 3 to 4, etc.;
then opens the card, and cuts from 1 to 13. By stretching the paper,
as shown in the sketch, the hand may be passed through the card
readily. The spectators are soon trying to duplicate the trick.—R. E.
Jones, Velasco, Texas.
Device for a Finger Tug-of-War Game
Considerable pleasure and pastime was afforded by the tug-of-war
game which I made. Two contestants, one at each end, take hold of
the rollers with their forefingers and thumbs and endeavor to move
the pointer to their respective ends. The game interests persons of
various ages, and they all want to try it.
The Contestants Grasp the Rollers, One at Each End, and Attempt to Draw
the Pointer Over in Their Favor
The device should be made strongly to stand the wear on it. The
top and bottom are boards, ¹⁄₂ by 8 by 24 in., and four blocks, 3 in.
high and 2¹⁄₂ in. square, are fastened between them at the corners
with screws. The rollers are set in the blocks, and held by small nails
passing through them and set against the inner faces of the blocks.
The pointer is made of a strip of brass, bent to the shape shown.
Cords extend from the pointer inside of the box and are tied to the
rollers.—James E. Noble, Kingston, Ontario, Can.
¶In applying a white paint over a dark, or mottled, surface, tint the
first coat with a little black, making it gray; then the next coat will
show solid white.
Window Frame and Table for Dark
Room
By JOSEPH LIMBRUNNER
Themade
amateur photographer often has a poor dark room, sometimes
worse by the use of an evil-smelling lamp. If he wishes to
use a room that has daylight, he finds it difficult to convert the room
quickly for his purposes, especially if he desires to make use of the
daylight for his work. Under these conditions, the arrangement
described in this article was devised, and proved so satisfactory that
I pass it on to the host of amateurs who find satisfaction in making
part of their equipment. The table and window frame in place are
shown in Fig. 1. The table is removed by withdrawing the rod, and
bending up the hinged legs. The frame and window covering are
removed by releasing the four small hooks. Ruby, yellow, or ground
glass may be inserted in the sliding frame, as required, nearly all of
the light being shut out, or light admitted without a glass, by sliding
the frame.
Fig. 3
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Fig. 4
With This Sliding Frame and Folding Table, the Work of the Photographic
Dark Room can be Done by Daylight in the Home Bathroom
The general arrangement of the parts is shown in Fig. 2. The

dimensions are suggestive only, being suited to a small window in a
bathroom, where the equipment was installed. The table is merely a
board top supported by hinged legs, which are braced by a
removable round wooden rod. A frame, C, as detailed in the section
at A-B, Fig. 3, is fitted closely in the window casing. It is covered with
heavy cardboard, tacked on. The ways J, in which the frame for the
glass slides, are fixed to the lower rail of the frame C, and to a
crossbar at its middle. A 5 by 7-in. opening is cut in the cardboard to
admit the light, as shown in Fig. 2. Holes D are bored in the ways to
receive pins which hold the frame at various positions, as indicated
by the stop holes E, Fig. 4.
The sliding frame is detailed in Fig. 4. It consists of a back frame
of ¹⁄₂-in. wood, sliding in the grooves of the ways J, and a frame of 1-
in. stuff, mounted on the front of it. The openings may be made to
suit the size of plate to be used, 5 by 7-in. openings being indicated.
The openings are provided with rabbeted edges, as indicated by the
width G, and the height H, in which frames of light weight, for the 5
by 7-in. glass plates, are fitted. The frames may be made, or plain,
cheap picture frames may be used. The sliding frame is raised and
lowered by means of the handle F. The cardboard covering the
larger frame should be painted a dull black, and the wooden parts
may be shellacked in the natural color.
When developing films or plates, the frames with the red and
yellow glasses should be inserted in the sliding frame, and held in
place by turn buttons. The red glass will ordinarily be satisfactory for
developing, but on very bright days, with the sun shining directly on
the glass, a layer or two of “post-office” paper is placed over it. The
yellow glass may be used when fixing, and other work requiring a
subdued light, but not when developing is done. For printing, put in
the yellow and the ground glasses, the latter admitting sufficient light
for the purpose. To use the dark room occasionally in the evening, I
set a lamp on a well-protected shelf outside of the opening in the
cardboard, and proceed as in the use of daylight.
Non-Blow-Out Cigar and Pipe Lighter
“It is a poor Irishman that cannot light his pipe when the wind is
blowing,” but the sketch shows a device that will make a “Paddy” out
of anyone, with a great saving of matches. It is made from a small
piece of brass tubing, or drawn shell, ¹⁄₂ in. in diameter, and about
1¹⁄₂ in. long. The open end is placed in the bowl of the pipe or over
the end of the cigar, a match inserted through the slot, and a quick
stroke on the threaded portion ignites the match. The small holes
provide air. The top is soldered in place.—James H. Rodgers,
Montreal, Canada.
Electric Counting Glass for Thread Fabric
The intelligent housewife and shopper, as well as persons
professionally interested in the structure and quality of woven fabrics
of various kinds, can make good use of a counting glass for close
examination of such material. In its simplest form the device consists
of a cigar box with a ground-glass top and a small electric light
inside. Where larger pieces of goods are to be examined a small
table with wooden legs and wooden frame for the glass may be
made.
Woven Fabrics are Examined under the Magnifying Glass and the Number
of Threads to the Square Inch Counted
The diagrams at A and B represent the threads making up the

cloth as stretched on the rollers of a loom. The lengthwise threads,
or warp, are shown at A, and the cross threads, or weft, at B. By
magnifying the material with a glass exposing an area of ¹⁄₂ or 1 in.
square, the threads may be counted or closely examined and the
quality determined. This also enables one to identify goods as being
the same.—F. Ball Pinkus, La Crescenta, California.
¶An inexperienced workman broke eight curved window panes on a
lake steamer by attempting to cut them on the inside, instead of on
the outside of the curve, in fitting the glass.
Clock Device to Record Time of Appointments
and Other Events
An ordinary clock, fitted with an electrical device to record the
length of telephone conversations or appointment hours, or indicate
when a door is opened, is shown in the illustration. The record is
made by the hands in contact with brass rings attached to the face of
the clock, the front of the rings being covered with white paper,
dipped in a chemical, on which black dots are caused to appear, at
each contact. By examining the dots and noting the items
corresponding to them on a memorandum, the length of
conversations, etc., may be observed.
The Electrical Device Attached to the Clock Records Contacts Made by the
Opening of a Door, and the Using of a Telephone
Two rings of ¹⁄₁₆-in. brass, one within the other, and having side
arms, are mounted on the front of the clock, as shown in the
illustration. The ring on arm A should be slipped under both hands,
and should have spring enough to hold it in contact with the small
clock hand. The ring fixed to arm B must be in contact with the large
hand, but must be some distance from the small hand and the

Instant Download Earths Evolving Systems 2nd Edition Ebook PDF PDF Scribd

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Instant Download Earths Evolving Systems 2nd Edition Ebook PDF PDF Scribd

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Earth's Evolving Systems 2nd Edition

CHAPTER 6 Geologic Time and Stratigraphy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

CHAPTER 8 Origins of Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

CHAPTER 9 The Proterozoic: Life Becomes a Geologic Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

CHAPTER 10 L ife’s “Big Bang”: The Origins and Early Diversification

PART III The Phanerozoic: Toward the Modern World . . . . . . . 275

CHAPTER 12 Late Paleozoic World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

PART IV Humans and the Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

CHAPTER 17 The Anthropocene: Humans as an Environmental Force . . . . . . . . 524

an th or osfo Natio nan n s chapter

vapor y ia rahm , pegoicpocla iotas ha ion during tec

a p h y : d r t s tio ns d to theeory of plateepaenraeste is,dor

The Student Experience

p re s- stea collir a Francisc er, R. 1997.

Th e features o e is known as with the oldes ) en t a gigant io n o hiow

one ion State

history (upon which Earth’s Evolving Systems is based), Pale-

Part I of Earth’s Evolving Systems examines the principles and con-

Where a high chair is not at hand or available, an ordinary solid-

One of the most useful and convenient articles for a household is

It Is Hard to Imitate a Quick and Skillful Performance of This Simple Trick

The general arrangement of the parts is shown in Fig. 2. The

The diagrams at A and B represent the threads making up the

You might also like

CHAPTER 10 L ife’s “Big Bang”: The Origins and Early Diversification