Lecture 7 – 2/10/2023

3. Sampling decision
This is a decision a researcher will have to take while taking a sample out of the
population size in research process. There is need here to understand the range of
procedures that exist in the taking of sample size; these are the sampling
procedures.
Sampling Procedures
There is need here to define what population means because; the procedures
depend largely on it. To Bichi (1997), it is everybody falling into the category
whose characteristics have been defined. To Oke (2005), it refers to “the universe
or entire group of persons, objects or events whose characteristics are being studied
(p.32).
There are two types of population; target and accessible.
• Target population refers to all members of a specified group to which the
research study affects.
• Accessible population means things within the reach of the researcher.
When a researcher identified the population size to be used for the research, it will
be time consuming, expensive and having unmanageable data, to use it as a whole,
especially when the population is very large.
This made it pertinent to have a working number (i.e., a sample). A sample is then
the number of subjects a researcher decides to use out of the population, in the
process of the research study. It is a portion of the population that shares all the
general characteristics of the population.
Characteristics of sample
 Reduces cost
 Saves time

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  Leads to attaining great accuracy.
 Makes conduct of a large scale studies easier.
There are certain factors to take into cognizance. These are;
•The nature of the study
•Instrument(s) to be used
•The nature of the population, etc.
There are broadly two sampling procedures. These are, probability sampling; and
non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling- this is also known as random sampling; in which, every
subject has an equal chance of being selected, and the selection of one is not
definite. There are four types of probability sampling:
• Simple random sampling; in which, each member has a chance of being
selected. To Bichi (1997), it is the best sampling procedure. It is done by
giving each member in a sample, a code number by initially serializing
them, in accordance with their characteristics; e.g., male and female. Thus,
selection of one subject does not affect the other, and there should be no pre-
arranged plan. Here, each member has a chance of being selected. One also
has to consider characteristics (i.e. what you are after, e.g. Old/young,
rich/poor, urban/rural, male/female, etc.). A researcher should note that, no
pre-arranged plan in the selection.
• Systematic sampling; which is also known as constant skips method of
sampling, in which selection of subjects from population is done
systematically rather than randomly. It means selection of subjects from
population systematically. According to Oke (2005), it is known as constant
skip method of sampling. It involves initial determination of number(s) to
be skipped, by considering the population, after awarding each subject a
serial number. Then the researcher says, ‘I will take every nth number’
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 (e.g., every odd number or 3rd number). There is therefore, automatic
determination of subsequent subjects after deciding on the first one.
• Stratified sampling; this involves dividing the population into homogeneous
groups, each containing subject with similar characteristics. This will be
followed by drawing a specified number of subjects from each stratum. One
therefore identifies the strata of interests, e.g., gender, age, occupational
group, income, tribe, religion, etc. (Bichi, 1997: 25 - 26). This will be
followed by drawing a specified number of subjects from each stratum. The
nature of the population therefore determines its usage.
• Cluster random sampling; this is used when the sample is large, the area is
vast, and the nature of the population is heterogeneous. This is done by
breaking the population into clusters; each cluster would be replication of
the entire population. Then one selects any of the three clusters, and use as
sample of the research. The clusters must be selected randomly, and also
members involved as subjects should be selected randomly.
According to Bichi (1997), a modern way of accomplishing this is referred to as
multi-stage sampling; which involves dividing the target population into clusters
and sourcing the sample size from the clusters.
Non-probability sampling- This is required for a small-scale research. It is useful
for these reasons:
• It is less complicated to set up.
• It is considerably less expensive.
• It can prove perfectly and adequately in a situation in which the researcher
has not generalized the findings.
There are four types of non-probability sampling;
• Convenience sampling; which is also known as accidental or opportunity
sample, and involves the inclusion of nearest subjects to you. This may lead
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 to lack of generalizing; because, they may not be representative of the
population. Also, being part of the subjects, the results of the findings may
be affected. This sampling procedure is convenient for case studies.
• Quota sampling; which is based on characteristics of the population. Its
equivalence is a stratified sampling; their difference is the bias in the former.
E.g., a research on urban and rural areas, and for one to select towns near
him
• Purposive sampling; this involves hand-picking the sample on the basis of
their logicality. Example, by selecting Kano, Kaduna and Niger states;
because they are on the way. According to Bichi (1997), it is based on the
assumption that, erroneous judgments will counterbalance one another.
• Snowball sampling; which is applied where there is a problem of getting
information from the population, by picking some subjects and the subjects
to pick others from the rest of the sample. E.g., a researcher having a sample
of 300, one picks 50 out of them and for each of the subjects to pick others
from the rest of the sample. This could be seeking information in a very
delicate place and people, like a research on cultism, armed robbery or
prostitution.
The sample size Decision
Decision to take sample out of a population depends upon certain considerations.
These are; nature of the research, nature of the people in the sample (homogeneous
or heterogeneous), among others. Different scholars suggest the portions to be used
as sample. Some believe that 10% will be enough to represent the population,
while others believe that 25% will be enough. Others use tables such as Krejcie &
Morgan (1970) and Research Advisors (2006). Thus, sample size often depends on
the cost involved or the time required by the systems analyst, or even the time
available by people in the organization.
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Six (6) Steps in calculating sample size:
1. Determine the population size (if known)
2. Determine the confidence interval
3. Determine the confidence level
4. Determine the standard deviation (a standard deviation of 0.5 is a safe
choice where the figure is unknown)
5. Convert the confidence level into a z-score
Confidence level z-score
80% 1.28
85% 1.44
90% 1.65
95% 1.96
99% 2.58

6. Put these figures into the sample size formula to get your sample size

(z-score)2x std devx(1-std dev)

Sample size = /(confidence interval)2
Example: you choose to work with a 95% confidence level, a standard
deviation of 0.5, and a confidence interval (margin of error) of ±5%, you just
need to substitute the values in the formula:
((1.96)2x0.5(0.5))/(0.05)2
(3.8416x0.25)/0.0025
0.9604/0.0025
384.16
Therefore, the sample size =385

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