A Critical Review of Vehicle Pavement Interaction Mechanism in Evaluating Flexible Pavement Performance Characteristics

Road Materials and Pavement Design
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/trmp20
A critical review of vehicle-pavement interaction

mechanism in evaluating flexible pavement
performance characteristics
Gauri R. Mahajan, B. Radhika & Krishna Prapoorna Biligiri
To cite this article: Gauri R. Mahajan, B. Radhika & Krishna Prapoorna Biligiri (2022) A
critical review of vehicle-pavement interaction mechanism in evaluating flexible pavement
performance characteristics, Road Materials and Pavement Design, 23:4, 735-769, DOI:
10.1080/14680629.2020.1860806
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2020.1860806
Published online: 24 Dec 2020.
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ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN
2022, VOL. 23, NO. 4, 735–769
https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2020.1860806
STATE OF THE ART
A critical review of vehicle-pavement interaction mechanism in

evaluating flexible pavement performance characteristics
Gauri R. Mahajan, B. Radhika and Krishna Prapoorna Biligiri
Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati, Tirupati, India
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This paper presents a review of investigations that recognised the effect Received 7 August 2020
of vehicle-pavement interaction (VPI) mechanism in estimating flexible Accepted 2 December 2020
pavement performance criteria. This state-of-the-art review highlights the KEYWORDS
importance of dynamic traffic loads illustrated through vehicular models Flexible pavement design;
that have potential in simulating realistic field conditions in the mecha- vehicle-pavement
nistic pavement design process. Furthermore, this article documents the interaction; performance
advanced pavement models along with uncoupled and coupled VPI meth- criteria; mechanistic
ods of analyses to predict structural and functional performance character- approach; vehicle and
istics. Based on extensive search, there seems to be an expansive scope to pavement models;
better the current pavement design procedures through the integration of coupled-uncoupled analysis
VPI for evaluation of performance criteria. Overall, it is envisioned that the
prospects underscored in this detailed note will help advance the design
procedures and certainly create a mechanistic-based design template for
flexible pavements that exemplifies practical roadway scenarios.
1. Introduction
Flexible pavement systems are continuously subjected to vehicular loads, which ultimately reduce
their performance characteristics and design service lives leading to an increase in the maintenance
cost. The repetitive loads due to different classes of vehicles encompassing a multitude of axle configu-
rations along with local environmental conditions cause various distresses in asphalt pavements such
as permanent deformation (rutting), fatigue cracking, low-temperature thermal cracking, potholes,
ravelling and many others (AUSTROADS, 2004; European Commission, 1999; Litzka et al., 2008; MEPDG,
2008; South African National Roads Agency Ltd., 2013). Globally, practitioners have been develop-
ing and adopting a wide variety of laboratory and field test procedures along with modelling-based
approaches to study several distresses in order to establish performance criteria, which help indicate
if the pavement system will fail in a predictable manner.
In general, performance criterion is defined as the relationship between the design parameters and
pavement response (structural and functional) that has a significant role in the design and operation
of asphalt pavements over the design life (American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO), 1993; AUSTROADS, 2004, 2019; European Commission, 1999; Litzka et al., 2008;
MEPDG, 2008; National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP)1-37A, 2004; South African
National Roads Agency Ltd., 2013; Theyse et al., 1996). A structural performance parameter of inter-
est that keeps changing over time is permanent deformation or rutting. The development of rutting
performance criterion depends chiefly on pavement materials properties, stiffness and strength of
CONTACT Krishna Prapoorna Biligiri bkp@iittp.ac.in; krishnapbiligiri@gmail.com
© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

736 G. R. MAHAJAN ET AL.
multiple layers, traffic loads, environmental conditions (here, high temperature), mix laydown site con-
ditions, quality control and maintenance operations over the entire design service life. Likewise, the
development of functional performance criterion (example: roughness index) depends on the surface
wearing course, materials properties, traffic and environmental conditions over the design service life
while it may not consider the structural capacity of the pavement system. Essentially, performance cri-
teria are established for different distresses through the collective process of utilising structural and
functional evaluation test techniques, constitutive modelling and statistical analyses.
Pavement distresses are found to be influenced by vehicle characteristics, pavement materials
properties, and most importantly, the mechanism of load transfer from vehicles to pavement systems
(Cebon, 1988, 1993; Mamlouk, 1990; Markow et al., 1988). In the process of establishing pavement
performance criteria, it is imperative to concurrently consider the time-dependent nature of vehicu-
lar loads as well as effect of rate of straining in flexible pavement response. Consequently, analyses
must fundamentally recognise the individual vehicle and pavement systems as a combined system
(Behnke et al., 2019; Elnashar, 2017; Jiao, 2013; Li et al., 2013; Lu & Yao, 2013; Yang et al., 2010). Interest-
ingly, analyses involving individual systems have been reported depending on the system of interest,
and further complemented by the ease in modelling and computation framework (Al-Qadi & Wang,
2011; Hernandez & Al-Qadi, 2017; Krishnanunni & Rao, 2019; Pan & Li, 2002; Wang, 2011a).
The major source of loading on pavements is the set of forces transferred by vehicles traversing over
them, which are essential in establishing the performance criteria for pavement systems. The vehi-
cles are generally perceived as systems exhibiting time varying responses while moving at a particular
speed over pavement surfaces that have roughness characteristics. Some of the key issues of interest
in understanding vehicle dynamics include: passenger ride comfort and safety, vehicle stability, design
of vehicle suspension, and the extent of vehicle’s rolling and sliding during motion (Monismith et al.,
1988). In order to cater to these aspects, vehicles are typically modelled using mass, spring and dashpot
elements as discrete dynamical systems subjected to varying asphalt pavement functional characteris-
tics. Depending on the scope of investigation, a suite of vehicle models has been discussed in several
research studies (Agostinacchio et al., 2014; Barbosa, 2011; Bhatti et al., 1994; Bhatti & Stoner, 1998;
Blum, 2015; Chae, 2006; Ding et al., 2014; Elnashar, 2017; Elnashar et al., 2019; Hamersma & Els, 2015;
Hardy & Cebon, 1993; Jiao, 2013; Khavassefat et al., 2015; Lin, 2014; Liu, 2000; Lu & Yao, 2013; Mucka,
2017; Papagiannakis & Gujarathi, 1995; Romero et al., 2018; Rutka & Sapragonas, 2002; Shi & Cai, 2009;
Snehasagar et al., 2020; Sun, 2001; Xia et al., 2015; Xu et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2015).
The vehicular loads in pavement analysis and design have been typically represented using three
approaches: fixed traffic, fixed vehicle, and variable traffic and variable vehicle (Yoder & Witczak, 1975).
In general, the approaches consider either vehicle load or vehicle configurations or both of them to be
fixed or varying. Note that all of the highway pavement design guidelines used worldwide adopt fixed
vehicle approach in which the design is governed by the number of repetitions of a standard vehicle
or axle, which is represented by equivalent standard axle load (ESAL) of any group(s) of vehicle axle
configurations (AASHTO, 1993; AUSTROADS, 2004, 2019; European Commission, 1999; IRC:37, 2018;
Litzka et al., 2008; MEPDG, 2008; NCHRP 1-37A, 2004; South African National Roads Agency Ltd., 2013;
Theyse et al., 1996). Furthermore, the design guidelines adopt fixed vehicle approach to establish the
pavement performance criteria. In a broader context, the discrete vehicle models may be perceived to
be based on the fixed vehicle approach, which account for only a single magnitude of vehicular loads
for dynamic analysis.
Several research studies have established models to represent the multi-layered structure of flexible
pavement systems (Elnashar et al., 2019; Li et al., 2012; Snehasagar et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2015). These
models have aimed to analyse the response of asphalt pavements for the imposed vehicular loads and
establish performance criteria. The analytical and numerical formulations typically assume vehicular
loads to be moving loads traversing the pavement continuum, which is modelled either as a beam
or plate or 3-Dimensional (3-D) solid (Beskou & Theodorakopoulos, 2011; Cao et al., 2013; Ding et al.,
2012; Ding et al., 2014; Elnashar et al., 2019; Hardy & Cebon, 1993; Huang & Thambiratnam, 2002; Kar-
garnovin et al., 2005; Kargarnovin & Younesian, 2004; Kerr, 1964; Kim & McCullough, 2003; Li et al.,
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 737
2009; Snehasagar et al., 2020; Sun, 2001; Yang et al., 2010). In the experimental studies on pavement
materials characterisation, the loading frequency on the test specimens exemplifies actual vehicle
speed in the field. In order to capture the time-dependent variation due to the viscoelastic nature
of asphalt material, spring-dashpot and numerical models based on series representation have been
adopted. Furthermore, the pavement systems are supported by the soil subgrade beneath, which is
modelled to simulate its nonlinear and inelastic behaviour. Consequentially, design guidelines have
adopted the pavement system models based on multilayered elastic theory (MLET) in order to estab-
lish performance criteria for rutting, fatigue cracking, low-temperature thermal cracking, roughness
and serviceability (Chabot et al., 2006; Chen et al., 1995; Harichandran & Baladi, 2000; Hopman, 1996;
Huang, 2004; IRC-37, 2018; MEPDG, 2008; NCHRP 1-37A, 2004).
In the development of pavement performance models, the realistic representation of the field
conditions necessitates consideration of individual vehicle and pavement systems as one combined
system, and also acknowledges the dynamic interaction generally known as vehicle-pavement inter-
action (VPI) mechanism (Cebon, 1988, 1989; Gillespie et al.,1993; Mamlouk, 1990; Monismith et al.,
1988; Sweatman et al., 1995). Intriguingly, the idea of coupling the vehicle and supporting system
was initially discussed in the context of vehicle-bridge studies, where the interaction between the two
systems was observed to result in a nonlinear relation between the vehicle and pavement response
(Dahlberg, 1984; Gupta & Traill-Nash, 1980; Wen & Veletsos, 1962). A similar interaction was observed in
railroad tracks traversed by high-speed trains (Au et al., 2001; Dong, 1994; Frýba, 1987; Ripke & Knothe,
1995; Zhai et al., 2009; Zhai & Sun, 1994).
An early reported work in the context of pavement design was to establish performance criterion
for fatigue cracking signifying the interaction between trucks and pavements (Cebon, 1988). Later, a
review of the VPI phenomenon in pavement performance studies was carried out as part of the High
Priority National Program Areas (HPNPA) initiative by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) in
the USA, and significant findings were documented (Mamlouk, 1990; Trapani & Scheffey, 1989). The
studies essentially regarded the dynamic effect due to heavy trucks, vehicle axle spacing, tire types,
tire pressure, vehicle and pavement models for potential use in weigh-in motion (WiM) data and
subsequently formulated rules for vehicle regulations. The research discussed quasi-dynamic mod-
els with the pavement systems being static and vehicles being dynamic or vice-versa. Based on the
assumptions with respect to vehicle-pavement interface conditions, the load transfer through the tires
was proposed to be represented by a constant uniform pressure, which is a deviation from realistic
representation since tire pressure depends on the vehicle types (Monismith et al., 1988; Yap, 1988).
An interesting review by Cebon in early 1990s provided a comprehensive documentation of the fol-
lowing: (a) effect of heavy vehicles on road damage, (b) empirical models for pavement performance
and (c) factors affecting road friendliness (Cebon, 1993). The report underscored the need for estab-
lishment of a research tool that focuses on models to evaluate the influence of heavy vehicle dynamics
on pavement damage. Further, the emphasis was also placed on transgressing from classical single-
pass (fixed vehicle approach / static load analysis used currently) towards whole-life estimation akin
to the modern VPI approach.
With this background, it is noteworthy that many researchers recommend development of VPI
framework recognising the dynamic effects of both vehicle and pavement systems as well as account-
ing for different tire types and pressure besides vehicle and pavement nonlinearities. For instance,
research studies were conducted that utilised actual field scenario to establish design performance
criteria for asphalt pavements in respect of rutting (Behnke et al., 2019; Chen & Wang, 2010; Mikhail &
Mamlouk, 1997; Park, 2004; Van Dijk, 1997; Wang, 2009), fatigue cracking (Elnashar, 2017; Wang, 2009;
Xia, 2010) and serviceability (Liu, 2000; Mikhail & Mamlouk, 1998). These studies examined VPI under
the influence of various factors listed as follows:
• tire types (Hernandez & Al-Qadi, 2017; Kim et al., 2012; Kim & Tutumluer, 2008; Rutka & Sapragonas,
2002),
• tire pressure (Xia, 2010),
• vehicle speed (Ali et al., 2008; Ding et al., 2014; Huang & Thambiratnam, 2002; Kargarnovin &
Younesian, 2004; Kim & McCullough, 2003),
• varying amplitude of vehicular loading (Huang & Thambiratnam, 2002; Li et al., 2015; Sarkar, 2016),
• suspension and tire stiffness (Ding et al., 2014; Snehasagar et al., 2020; Xia et al., 2015; Yang et al.,
2015),
• suspension and tire damping (Ding et al., 2014; Krishnanunni & Rao, 2019; Snehasagar et al., 2020;
Xia et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2010)
• pavement roughness (Kim & McCullough, 2003; Li et al., 2015; Liu, 2000; Papagiannakis & Gujarathi,
1995; Todd & Kulakowski, 1989; Yang et al., 2010),
• soil stiffness (Ding et al., 2014; Elnashar et al., 2019; Huang & Thambiratnam, 2002; Snehasagar et al.,
2020) and
• viscoelastic effects of asphalt concrete (Elnashar et al., 2019; Li et al., 2013; Snehasagar et al., 2020;
Sun et al., 2013).
The objective of this paper was to present a comprehensive review of the several investigations that
documented the evolution of establishing the flexible pavement design performance criteria, which
recognised the effect of VPI mechanism. This state-of-the-art review was intended to trace the devel-
opment of performance criteria for asphalt pavements with regard to vehicle models, pavement
structural and material models, and methods of analyses that cater to VPI. It is envisioned that this
review article will help develop a framework, which utilises the advancement in computational power
to handle the complexities in modelling VPI, and thereby, nudge the current flexible pavement design
guidelines to be more rational. The outline of this review paper is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Review outline.

2. Traffic loads in flexible asphalt pavements

Traffic loads are categorised into two types: static and dynamic. The static loads have a property
of being time-invariant and dynamic loads have a time-varying property associated typically with
the motion of a vehicle on a pavement system. Pavement performance is generally influenced by
both these loads, but static loading mechanism is preferred over the dynamic one due to the vari-
ous challenges involved in representation and computation. Static loads consist of self-weight and
laden weight of a vehicle, which are used as inputs for analysis. Depending on the type of vehicle,
variation in the magnitude of the static load is observed. This variability has been accounted for in the
analysis using the fourth power law, which was one of the major outcomes of the American Associ-
ation of State Highway Officials (AASHO) road test conducted in the USA (AASHO Road Test, Report
7, 1962). Fundamentally, this law uses load equivalency factors or LEF (AASHTO, 1993; AUSTROADS,
2004), which relate the damage caused by any axle load(s) or group of different vehicles to the dam-
age caused by a standard vehicle characterised by an equivalent standard axle load (ESAL) of 80 kN.
LEF further evolved into determining the truck factor (TF), which considers the damaging effect on
asphalt pavements exclusively due to truck traffic loads (MEPDG, 2008). These representations of the
vehicular loads have been adopted in literature to assess fatigue cracking and rutting pavement per-
formance (AASHTO, 1993; AUSTROADS, 2004, 2019; European Commission, 1999; Litzka et al., 2008;
MEPDG, 2008; NCHRP 1-37A, 2004; South African National Roads Agency Ltd., 2013).
TM
Software tools such as VESYS, Viscoelastic Road Analysis Delft (VEROAD), KENPAVE , ILLIPAVE R
,
MICHPAVE, DAMA, CHEVRON, BISAR, Elastic Layered System (ELSYM5) and Waterways Engineering Sta-
tion Layer Elastic Analysis (WESLEA) were developed to analyse flexible pavement systems that follow
the set performance criteria (for rutting, fatigue cracking and low-temperature thermal cracking), and
which account for static load representation (Chen et al., 1995; Harichandran & Baladi, 2000; Hopman,
1996; Huang, 1973; Kinder, 1986; Thompson & Elliott, 1985). However, these tools were superseded
by the ones that considered time-varying aspects of loads. In this context, the importance of dynamic
loads on pavements was first acknowledged in the latter half of the 1980s (Brademeyer et al., 1986;
Cebon, 1989; Markow et al., 1988). The studies recognised the effect of dynamic loads along with static
loads to predict the performance of asphalt pavements. As a consequence, the dynamic effects were
used in pavement modelling studies by altering the material’s properties, which are representative of
the time-varying process. The simplest model that accounts for the time variation due to speed of the
vehicle can be represented in terms of moving load (quasi-static), which can be modelled in software
such as Visco-Route and ABAQUS R
(Chabot, 2007; Chabot et al., 2006; Chabot et al., 2010).
In vehicular modelling studies, the dynamic effects were represented by adopting appropriate vehi-
cle models. These worked on the practical considerations of time-varying nature of the loads when
a vehicle moved with a particular velocity on a pavement section having a random roughness pro-
file. This modelling introduced inertial terms in the formulation, which had contributions from the
static elements of self-weight and laden weight. Furthermore, inputs due to the flexibility of vehicular
systems and the dissipation characteristics of physical phenomena were accounted for in this rep-
resentation of vehicular loads. The components in the vehicle models significantly comprise of only
vehicular aspects and pavement roughness is often perceived to be acting as an external force on such
models. This has garnered wide application in studies related to vehicular dynamics, where the vibra-
tion responses are analysed to carry out performance evaluation and quantification of the vehicular
systems. With respect to the pavement, this aspect of the loading introduces additional loads, which
needs attention while assessing pavement performance.
Although researchers acknowledged the importance of dynamic effects on pavement perfor-
mance, the ESAL-based approach was continued to be adopted due to complexity in the implementa-
tion of dynamics-based analysis (Mamlouk, 1990). Due to advancement in the design of vehicles such
as the inclusion of heavy axle weights, multiple-axle configurations and increased speeds; the dynamic
component of vehicular loads was found to be significantly influencing the pavement response com-
pared to static loads, as reported in various studies (Markow et al., 1988; Shi & Cai, 2009; Yi & Hedrick,
1989). On another note, the simplest representation of dynamic components was to assume a mov-
ing load for vehicles traversing a pavement section (Frýba, 2013; Monismith et al., 1988). However, the
current pavement design procedures only consider the static component for analysis (AASHTO, 1993;
European Commission, 1999; IRC 37, 2018; MEPDG, 2008).
2.1. Incorporation of traffic characteristics in flexible pavement design

Globally, flexible pavement design guidelines have proposed and utilised three types of methods to
analyse and design pavement systems that incorporate traffic characteristics in various forms (Yoder
& Witczak, 1975): fixed traffic, fixed vehicle, and variable traffic and variable vehicle. In principle, fixed
traffic approach adopts equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) concept, which estimates the damaging
effect due to a single wheel load of the heaviest vehicle (example: aircraft) usually adopted for the
design of airport pavements; fixed vehicle focuses on the LEF or ESAL factors, mentioned earlier; while
the variable traffic and variable vehicle approach discusses the effect of individual axle load for rational
evaluation of pavement performance through a mechanistic framework without the need for ESAL or
ESWL.
Amongst these, the fixed vehicle approach is adopted worldwide for evaluating flexible pave-
ment performance through semi-automated/fully-automated computer programs (AASHTO, 1993;
AUSTROADS, 2004; European Commission, 1999; IRC:37, 2018; MEPDG, 2008). Note that the response
analysis in the aforementioned processes is performed by subjecting the pavement systems to vehic-
ular loads that are of the form of a stationary single axle with single/dual wheels and/or multi-axle with
single/dual wheels, purely based on the ESAL concept and using LEF or TF. Further, the process uses
a linear elastic asphalt pavement model subjected to stationary axle load to analyse the responses,
mainly in the form of strains. Later, the strains are used to determine the number of repetitions to
establish rutting and fatigue cracking performance criteria. In all of the above approaches, the loads
are assumed to be static. Further, the performance criteria for fatigue cracking and rutting have been
calculated based on static loads.
2.2. Incorporation of dynamic characteristics using vehicle system models

The dynamic vehicular loads are represented using various vehicle system models known as discrete or
lumped parameter models. These are a combination of mass, spring and dashpot elements represent-
ing the mass of vehicle body, stiffness and damping, respectively (Minaker, 2019). They are identified
based on the model’s degree of freedom (DOF), which is defined as the number of independent coor-
dinates needed to completely specify the motion of a system. Depending on the number of locations
where the response is of interest, single DOF (SDOF) / multiple DOF (MDOF) systems can be adopted
in the analysis.
Typically, a vehicle can be modelled to have three DOFs: rolling, pitching and bouncing. For
instance, a 2-DOF vehicle model consists of sprung (vehicle body) and unsprung (suspension and
tire) mass parameters, which take care of vertical translation or bounce of the vehicles. The simplest
vehicle system model is an SDOF or MDOF quarter-car model used to represent one-quarter of a typ-
ical vehicle such as a car (Agostinacchio et al., 2014; Blum, 2015; Ding et al., 2014; Elnashar, 2017;
Elnashar et al., 2019; Hamersma & Els, 2015; Hardy & Cebon, 1993; Jiao, 2013; Li et al., 2009; Lin, 2014;
Liu, 2000; Mucka, 2017; Papagiannakis & Gujarathi, 1995; Romero et al., 2018; Rutka & Sapragonas,
2002; Snehasagar et al., 2020; Sun, 2001; Xia et al., 2015; Xu et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2015). As part of
model evolution, half – and full-car models have also been proposed and applied for 2-D and 3-D
response analyses, respectively of vehicle and pavement systems (Barbosa, 2011; Jiao, 2013; Li et al.,
2012; Park et al., 2014; Zhu & Ishitobi, 2006). Note that the quarter – and half-car models are suitable
for 2-D analysis, which may be useful in determining rutting and fatigue cracking characteristics since
the models account for translational and vertical effects of vehicles. The full-car model suitable for 3-D
analysis has potential to analyse pavement performance with an additional advantage of considering
the effect of lane width along with translation and vertical effects.
It has been observed that the simple quarter-car model has been popular in representing the traf-
fic loads since both half – and full-vehicle models require more computational power and time. This is
due to the models being characterised with higher DOFs that account for complicated design of vehi-
cles (example: separate dampers and springs for the front and rear axles). On the contrary, it becomes
intricate to select parametric values to represent half – or full-vehicle using the analogy of a quarter-
car model (Todd & Kulakowski, 1989). Therefore, a few researchers focused on half – and full-vehicle
models that have been used to represent multiple-axle configurations assuming linear vehicle mod-
els (Hamersma & Els, 2015; Li et al., 2012; Park et al., 2014). Nonetheless, these models may have the
capability to replicate vehicles with varying configurations assuming nonlinear suspension system
properties (Zhu & Ishitobi, 2006).
Most of these studies have been conducted in the context of vehicle dynamics so as to predict
the performance of vehicle systems. However, in carrying out pavement performance prediction, the
choice was found to be limited in adopting quarter-car models. For instance, a 2-DOF quarter-car
model was adopted to present an analytical framework that determines present serviceability index
(PSI) (Liu, 2000) and predict fatigue cracking (Elnashar, 2017) in asphalt pavements.
To summarise, the design and pavement performance evaluation methods that consider traf-
fic characteristics are observed to be utilising the static loads. However, the vehicle system models
directly attribute to the dynamic loads observed in the field. Nevertheless, the choice of vehicu-
lar models is governed by the effect of model parameters on vehicle and pavement performance
predictions.
2.3. Influence of vehicle parameters on pavement performance

As discussed in the previous sections, pavement design guidelines help analyse pavement responses
subjected to vehicular loads using traffic characteristics as the major input, but based on static loading
patterns. Nonetheless, dynamic loads represented by vehicle system models have potential to predict
asphalt pavement performance. Further, along with vehicular loading, the performance of vehicle
and pavement systems have been found to be dependent on stiffness and damping parameters
incorporated in the vehicle system models. Research indicates that vehicle speed, axle configuration,
wheel base and tire treads have a substantial influence on vehicle characteristics as well as pavement
performance.
2.3.1. Effect of vehicle speed

The speed of a vehicle governs the time of contact between the vehicle tires and pavement surface as
a vehicle moves over it. The faster the vehicle, the shorter is the contact period and it is true when
reversed as well. Therefore, slower moving vehicles with higher laden weight are bound to affect
pavement performance. Investigations have corroborated this important performance feature, where
response was computed based on vehicular motion (Gillespie et al., 1993; Gillespie & Karamihas, 1994;
Hardy & Cebon, 1993). Research studies documented the importance of vehicle speed in combination
with other factors such as axle type, tire inflation pressure, tread width, suspension characteristics and
vehicle weights on pavement performance due to the passage of a multi-axle vehicle on the asphalt
pavement system (Gillespie et al., 1993; Gillespie & Karamihas, 1994). It was observed that higher
speeds decreased the time of contact between vehicle load and pavement system, which also had a
less pronounced effect on fatigue cracking and rutting. However, an increase in the speed when com-
bined with pavement roughness accelerated the two distresses. One of the other studies analysed the
strains generated in asphalt pavements subjected to different vehicular speeds and again confirmed
that there was a decrease in the strain values with increasing speeds (Hardy & Cebon, 1993).
Some other studies reported the influence of vehicle speed on pavement roughness and asphalt
layer deflection using the concept of impact factor and dynamic load coefficient (DLC) of axles, where
these represent the variations in magnitudes of dynamic loads generated due to different axles
(Bhatti et al., 1994; Cebon, 1993; Shi & Cai, 2009). Based on impact factor and DLC magnitudes, an
inverse relationship was found between vehicle speed and pavement roughness (Shi & Cai, 2009). In
another study, the effect of speed on pavements was investigated using quarter-car models to analyse
the viscoelastic effects of asphalt layer deflection, which indicated that vehicle speed had an inverse
relation with deflection (Snehasagar et al., 2020).
Despite the conservative designs based on static loading or low speeds, pavements invariably
exhibit deterioration, so the contribution of vehicle speed cannot be ignored.
2.3.2. Effect of axle configuration

Vehicles traversing on pavements can be classified based on their axle configurations as single axle
with single wheel, single axle with dual wheels, tandem, tridem and quad (AASHTO, 1993; AUSTROADS,
2004; European Commission, 1999; IRC:3, 1983; Litzka et al., 2008; MEPDG, 2008; NCHRP 1-37A, 2004).
The force transferred by a given axle configuration depends on the axle load, contact area and tire
pressure of each wheel. Of all the combinations, the single axle is found to be the most critical given
the smallest contact area per wheel, and hence is characteristic of lower load distribution and higher
stress concentration (Sebaaly, 1992). Thus, the resulting strains in the pavement system are bound
to be highest under this configuration resulting in fatigue cracking. On the other hand, tridem or
higher number of axles have larger axle weights and produce more compressive stresses causing
rutting (Salama et al., 2006). Multi-axle configurations have been adopted in developing multi-linear
fatigue model, which takes care of the shape of loading in addition to the strain levels (Homsi et al.,
2012). However, the developed model considers unidirectional traffic and does not account for the
rest period.
In the context of traffic characteristics for highway pavement design, the effect due to different
axle configurations is based on the ESAL concept. However, studies have not utilised the potential of
vehicle system models to account for different axle configurations, which can be achieved by using
half – and full-vehicle models otherwise. Importantly, the vehicle system models have the capability
to model a single axle for both front and rear portions of the vehicle. Notwithstanding, there exists a
need to modify the existing vehicle system models to include various axle configurations other than
just single-axle for pavement performance prediction.
2.3.3. Effects of suspension damping and stiffness

Damping and stiffness are two major components of vehicle system models, which influence the
responses of both vehicle and pavement systems, specifically, ride comfort and vehicle safety
(Ding et al., 2014; Elnashar et al., 2019; Li et al., 2009; Li et al., 2012; Xia et al., 2015). In the case of
vehicle systems, an increase in suspension damping and a decrease in stiffness have been adopted
to minimise vehicular vibrations. Also, a linear relation was obtained between vertical and pitching
accelerations of vehicle body and suspension system, which are speculated to help control vehicle
vibrations (Li et al., 2012). In another study, bouncing response of vehicle was found to be weak for
suspension stiffness values ranging from 2.06 × 104 to 2.06 × 107 N/m, and increased with decreasing
suspension damping (Ding et al., 2014).
With regard to pavement systems, suspension damping and stiffness parameters have had a direct
impact on tensile and shear stresses present in the base layer and surface wearing course, respectively
(Xia et al., 2015). Mathematically, damping has an inverse relation with these stresses in asphalt pave-
ments while stiffness is directly related. Hence, decrease in suspension damping and increase in the
stiffness were determined to minimise vibrations in asphalt pavements (Li et al., 2009). It is noteworthy
that tensile and shear stresses have not been utilised to estimate (and assess) asphalt pavement per-
formance criteria. It has been recommended that stiffness values for front suspension need to be large
enough compared to that of rear suspension so as to provide ride comfort and reduce pavement dis-
placements. Recent study revealed that vehicle vibration (vehicle body and wheel displacement) and
pavement displacement decreased with increasing suspension damping (Elnashar et al., 2019). Fur-
ther, it was inferred that tuning of suspension damping may be one of the solutions to control vehicle
and pavement responses.
2.3.4. Effects of tire damping and stiffness

Similar to suspension, damping and stiffness of tires encompass major components of vehicle system
models and are found to play important roles in analysing performance of vehicle and pavement sys-
tems. Soltani and colleagues found that these parameters in vehicle systems help assess ride comfort,
fuel consumption, braking, maneuverability and vehicle dynamic behaviour (Soltani et al., 2015). Fur-
ther, the study mentioned that tire stiffness cannot be very small (say, < 300 N/mm) as it increases the
coefficient of rolling resistance, which may lead to increased fuel consumption. In the case of stresses
in asphalt pavements, tire damping and stiffness influence similar to that of suspension damping and
stiffness (Jiao, 2013; Li et al., 2009; Li et al., 2012; Xia et al., 2015).
Table 1 summarises various components of vehicle systems that affect asphalt pavement per-
formance. In general, the quarter-car model has been commonly adopted due to its simplicity for
investigating vehicle and pavement performance characteristics. On the other hand, studies involv-
ing vehicle dynamics have adopted full-vehicle models to represent the entire vehicle body and its
suspension.
Overall, vehicle system models and varying traffic characteristics have been adopted by researchers
to analyse the performances of vehicle and pavement systems. The vehicle system models emphasise
on dynamic loading while the current pavement design is based on static loads. Most importantly,
though static based formulations appear to be widely adopted in pavement literature, conservative
designs have not been effective in capturing the deteriorations observed in the field.
3. Asphalt pavement system models

Currently, the pavement system models incorporated within the various guidelines represent a multi-
layered system comprising of top asphalt surface wearing course, intermediate base/sub-base course
layer and bottom subgrade layer. Each layer has specific materials properties and a role in the process
of load transfer to the bottommost subgrade foundation.
Generally, pavement performance is quantified in terms of strains and displacements at critical loca-
tions along the pavement sections. In order to capture pavement responses due to applied vehicular
loads, mathematical models are adopted to represent the pavement system. These pavement system
models are either linear or nonlinear dealing with two aspects: (a) structural or physical represen-
tation of the various layers and (b) materials properties governing the characteristics of each layer.
Note that the objective of using pavement system models is to determine the responses that could
be used to quantify the pavement performance and define criteria governing the pavement condi-
tions. Accordingly, these models and associated responses are then used in combination with vehicle
system models or their resulting outputs for detailed analyses.
Historically, pavement structural models along with material models have been evaluated using
analytical and/or numerical formulations. The analytical forms involve the formulation of govern-
ing equation(s) based on the laws of force equilibrium. In particular, the asphalt pavement systems
are modelled using beam or plate elements while the numerical forms also adopt similar structural
elements.
Nonlinear behaviour in asphalt pavement systems has been interpreted using pavement material
models. The earlier models based on elastic theory did not consider the viscoelastic nature of asphalt.
However, the recently prepared pavement design guidelines discuss asphalt pavement system mod-
elling processes through linear and nonlinear elastic models (MEPDG, 2008). In this procedure, linear
analysis is performed using Jacob Uzan Layered Elastic Analysis (JULEA) and the nonlinear analysis uses
Disturbed State Concept 2-Dimensional (DSC2D) model. However, the elastic or DSC2D models have
not been able to capture the actual field performance criteria metrics. To overcome this, the models
Table 1. Effects of vehicle system parameters on vehicle and asphalt pavement responses.
Source Vehicle system models Parameters studied Study findings
Sebaaly (1992) Radial tires – dual and Tire types, axle configuration Single axle is found to be most critical due to
wide base single smallest contact area per wheel, and hence is
characteristic of lower load distribution and
higher stress concentration. Also, the fatigue
cracking response under single tires was found
to be more than dual tires
Hardy and Quarter-car Vehicle speed Strain in asphalt pavements decreased with
Cebon increasing vehicle speeds
(1993)
Gillespie and Truck model Vehicle speed, axle spacing, tire Truck characteristics responsible for pavement
Karamihas configuration, tire pressure damage were discussed and the study
(1994) recommended axle configurations ensuring
uniform load distribution and also suggested
adoption of reduced inflation in tires to minimise
fatigue cracking in asphalt pavements
Salama et al. Single, tandem and Axle configuration Tridem or higher number of axles have larger axle
(2006) tridem axles weights, producing higher compressive stresses
resulting in rutting while single and tandem
axles cause fatigue cracking
Li et al. (2009) Quarter-car Vehicle speed, suspension and Decrease in suspension damping and increase
tire damping and stiffness in the stiffness were determined to minimise
vibrations in asphalt pavements
Shi and Cai Full truck model Vehicle speed, damping, Dynamic loads were found to be dominant for
(2009) weight and rigidity higher pavement roughness compared to
static. DLC and impact factor decreased with
increasing pavement roughness while increased
with increasing vehicle rigidity
Homsi et al. Single, tandem and Axle configuration Shape of loading in addition to strain levels due
(2012) tridem axles to multi-axles considered by developing a
multi-linear fatigue model
Li et al. (2012) 7-DOF vehicle Vehicle speed, suspension and Effect of vehicle velocity on vehicle body response
tire damping and stiffness and pavement damage was fluctuating. Tire
damping and stiffness should be increased and
decreased, respectively to attain ride comfort
Jiao (2013) Quarter-car, half – & Vehicle body mass, suspension Vehicle body and suspension system were found to
full – vehicle and tire damping and be more sensitive when compared to the vehicle
stiffness cabin
Ding et al. Quarter-car Vehicle speed, suspension Bouncing response of vehicle was found to be weak
(2014) damping, suspension for suspension stiffness values ranging from
stiffness 2.06 × 104 to 2.06 × 107 N/m, and increased
with decreasing suspension damping
Soltani et al. Quarter-car Tire characteristics Tire damping and stiffness help to assess
(2015) ride comfort, fuel consumption, braking,
maneuverability and vehicle dynamic behaviour.
Also, tire stiffness cannot be very small ( <
300 N/mm) as it increases the coefficient of
rolling resistance leading to increased fuel
consumption
Xia et al. (2015) Quarter-car Suspension and tire damping Suspension and tire damping were comparatively
and stiffness less influencing on pavement response than
their corresponding stiffness
Elnashar et al. Quarter-car Vehicle speed and suspension Vehicle vibration and pavement displacement
(2019) damping were found to be decreasing with increasing
suspension damping
have been modified by proposing two-stage format such as elasto-viscoplastic and viscoelastic-
viscoplastic as well as three-stage formulation namely, viscoelastic-viscoplastic-viscodamage. On a
positive note, the adoption of advanced models may lead to rational assessment of performance
criteria that closely relate to the field measurements.
Figure 2. Typical asphalt pavement system model framework.
Figure 2 summarises the various stages in typical asphalt pavement system models. The details of
the asphalt pavement system modelling framework using analytical and numerical approaches along
with evolution in asphalt viscoelastic models are discussed as follows.
3.1. Structural representation of asphalt pavements in VPI framework

In order to capture the structural response of individual pavement layers when subjected to vehicular
motion, pavement systems are usually modelled as a multi-layered system with each layer either as
a beam or a plate element depending on the dimensionality of loading and pavement responses of
interest. The top layers are supported on the foundation, which may be considered as yet another
multi-layered system depending on the soil profile.
When the vehicular model is assumed to be a train of moving loads or a SDOF quarter-car traversing
a pavement section, the resulting forces on the pavement will be lateral loads that are confined to 2D
(Kargarnovin & Younesian, 2004; Sun, 2001). In such a case, the pavement system is typically modelled
as a continuum element, which accounts for the flexural behaviour. Beam elements are flexural sys-
tems following the laws of small deformation theory of which Euler-Bernoulli and Timoshenko beams
are commonly used to model asphalt pavements. The Euler-Bernoulli beam is the simplest model that
has been used, where only the inertial effects due to vertical translation are considered while shear
deformation and rotational inertia are neglected. On the other hand, the Timoshenko beam accounts
for both of these effects. Further, the Euler-Bernoulli beam was found to be incapable of handling
vibration effects due to higher modes in the pavement sections of larger lengths (Azam et al., 2012;
Huang, 1961). This drawback led to the adoption of Timoshenko beam for longer pavement spans.
When the pavement systems have relatively larger depths compared to the longitudinal dimension,
then the rotation of individual layers is not negligible so it then becomes appropriate to use the
Timoshenko beam theory to model the pavements (Frýba, 2013; Timoshenko, 2000). Nonetheless,
most of the studies have adopted the Euler-Bernoulli beam due to its simplicity in analysis.
Table 2. Beam models typically used for analysis of asphalt pavement systems.
Type of
vehicular
Source Asphalt pavement-foundation models loads/model Study findings
Sun (2001) Infinite Euler-Bernoulli beam resting Line load A closed form solution of convolution
on viscoelastic Winkler foundation of the Green function for Euler-
Bernoulli beam subjected to line
load was presented based on the
theorem of residue
Li et al. (2009) Simply supported Euler-Bernoulli 2-DOF quarter-car Excitation due to pavement roughness
beam resting on a linear viscoelastic (second road excitation) was found
Kelvin foundation to be significant when heavy trucks
traversed on pavement systems
Hayir (2010) Infinite Euler-Bernoulli beam with Moving point load Increase in moving load velocity
constant cross section resting on and foundation stiffness elevates
Winkler foundation the deflection in beam. Also,
the bending moment and shear
force distribution were found to
be respectively, symmetric and
asymmetric about the loading point
Ding et al. Finite Euler – Bernoulli beam resting Moving con- Boundary condition effects are small
(2012) on nonlinear viscoelastic Winkler centrated for longer beam spans. The Galerkin
foundation load convergence increases with increase
in length, width and elastic modulus
of beam
Abdelghany Simply supported non-uniform Euler- Moving con- The pavement response increased
et al. (2015) Bernoulli beam resting on nonlinear centrated with increasing beam dimensions
viscoelastic Winkler foundation load while it decreased with increasing
foundation parameter values
Van Do et al. Simply supported Euler-Bernoulli Two moving An iso-geometric formulation was
(2017) beam concentrated proposed, which was found to be
forces efficient in capturing the dynamic
response of the beam subjected to
moving loads
Elnashar et al. Simply supported Euler-Bernoulli beam 2-DOF quarter-car Emphasised the coupling between
(2019) resting on Pasternak foundation the vehicle and pavement systems
and found the coupled response to
decrease with increase in suspension
damping
Snehasagar Two-layer finite length Euler – Bernoulli Quarter-car Parametric study with respect to
et al. (2020) beam with uniform cross-section vehicle and pavement properties
resting on a nonlinear Pasternak considering VPI
foundation
Kargarnovin Timoshenko beam with uniform cross Distributed moving Influence of speed and frequency of
and section and infinite length resting load load on beam response particularly
Younesian on Pasternak foundation to study vibrations of rail tracks
(2004)
Ding et al. Timoshenko beam resting on nonlinear Moving oscillator Galerkin-based VPI analysis demon-
(2014) Pasternak foundation strating a reduction in the pavement
response with increasing nonlinear
pavement parameter values
A research study reviewed models for studying dynamic response of asphalt pavement systems
subjected to moving loads, wherein the representation of pavement system was displayed through
beam or plate resting on various foundation systems (Beskou & Theodorakopoulos, 2011). Further-
more, the beam models have been adopted only for 1-D analysis so they do not consider the width
effect of pavement systems. However, several studies have adopted Euler-Bernoulli and Timoshenko
beam models to understand the influence of traffic loads on asphalt pavements, as summarised in
Table 2. These studies discuss the influence of traffic loads on pavement systems by using single mov-
ing load and line load representation. In addition to loading, the beam models have been adopted to
check the effect of vehicle speed, span length, boundary conditions and foundation stiffness on the
response of asphalt pavements.
In summary, literature reports that different types of beams have been adopted to model pavement
systems to analyse the effect of vehicle parameters and pavement roughness on the performance of
vehicular systems. Albeit, very few studies have evaluated the performance criteria of asphalt pave-
ments using structural beam models since the focus has been to utilise empirical models for estimating
rutting and fatigue cracking performance. Therefore, it is perhaps rational to use beam models that
may help in a better performance evaluation compared to the existing empirical performance models.
Alternatively, when the vehicular loads are modelled as MDOF systems with parameters such as axle
spacing and configuration, then the loads have a 2D / 3D definition. In order to cater to the pavement
response that encompasses vehicular loads and parameters, the multi-layered asphalt pavement sys-
tems are modelled as a set of plate elements that use full-vehicle formulation. Plates accommodate
for modelling the transverse direction in pavements, and hence plate models have been adopted for
2-D analysis. The plate model of infinite length is found to resemble the multi-layered asphalt pave-
ment. A study investigated the influence of viscous damping, load velocity, load frequency, pavement
roughness and phase effect between front and rear axles on pavement maximum deflection and stress
distributions using a plate model (Kim & McCullough, 2003). It has been found that loads due to pave-
ment roughness and phase difference cause an increase in deflections and stresses in the pavement
system. Essentially, it was found that plate models may provide pavement response simulating field
conditions since they capture the phase lag between the front and rear axles observed in multi-axle
vehicles.
On another note, studies have also focused on the plate elements resting on an elastic founda-
tion to determine the dynamic response of asphalt pavements (Huang & Thambiratnam, 2002; Lu &
Yao, 2013). Models with single or double rectangular plates representing the wearing course and base
course layers of asphalt pavements have been used that account for the following: load frequency,
speed of the vehicle, foundation parameters and vehicle configuration on the response of asphalt
pavements, with relevant studies highlighted in Table 3. Parametric investigations similar to that of
beam models have been performed using plates resting on foundation systems. The effect of vehicu-
lar loads along the width of pavements was also studied using plate models. In addition to quarter-car
models, plate models have been found to be capable of handling 3-D vehicle models. Due to this rea-
son, the effects of axle spacing and wheel wander effects could be investigated, which are usually not
possible using beam models.
Table 3. Plate resting on foundation models used for analysis of asphalt pavement systems.
Type of
vehicular
Source Asphalt pavement-foundation models loads/model Study findings
Huang and Single rectangular plate resting on Moving load Foundation stiffness and vehicle speed
Thambiratnam Winkler foundation have significant effect on pavement
(2002) response
Li et al. (2009) Infinite plate resting on Kelvin Quarter-car Pavement displacement increased
foundation with increasing tire damping and
stiffness, and suspension damping
while decreased with increasing
suspension stiffness
Yang et al. (2010) Double-layer rectangular thin plate 7-DOF moving Coupling cannot be neglected even
resting on linear viscoelastic vehicle load when the foundation stiffness and
foundation pavement roughness have small
values, though its effect was less
obvious on pavements than on
vehicular system
Lu and Yao (2013) Double-layer plate resting on elastic 2-DOF quarter-car Resonance between vehicle –
foundation primary suspension (tire) is intense
compared to vehicle-secondary
suspension (bogie) and pavement
response was significantly
influenced by the pavement
thickness and Young’s modulus
From Table 3, it can be noted that with increase in dimensionality, the complexity in the compu-
tational model also increases. Therefore, closed-form solutions for these models in a practical setting
are not tractable, and numerical solutions are sought to obtain optimal pavement responses. In this
context, commercial software mentioned earlier were developed and used to carry out pavement anal-
yses. By using these models, the pavement layers can be modelled as single 3D solid elements with
functionally graded properties or multi-layered 3D solid element for the various pavement layers.
In all these modelling approaches, the supporting systems to which the pavement loads are trans-
ferred also need to be modelled. Historically, pavement designs and performance evaluation have
been focusing on the elastic modulus of subgrade and its behaviour under the application of repet-
itive traffic loads. This led to the incorporation of foundation system models in the form of spring
and dashpot elements to understand linear and viscoelastic behaviour of the soil subgrade. While
the springs account for the elasticity in soil, the dashpot represents permeability characteristic (Raj,
2013). In the context of VPI, the discussion on foundation system models was documented in various
studies (Beskou & Theodorakopoulos, 2011; Hayir, 2010; Kargarnovin et al., 2005; Kargarnovin & Youne-
sian, 2004; Kerr, 1964; Kim & McCullough, 2003; Lu & Yao, 2013; Senalp et al., 2010; Snehasagar et al.,
2020; Yang et al., 2010). Of these, a few studies adopted nonlinear foundation models to characterise
soil subgrade (Kargarnovin et al., 2005; Kargarnovin & Younesian, 2004; Kerr, 1964; Senalp et al., 2010;
Snehasagar et al., 2020).
Based on the arrangement of spring and dashpot elements, the foundation models have been clas-
sified into three main types: Winkler, Pasternak and Kelvin. The simplest foundation model is a series of
linear springs closely spaced together, known as the Winkler foundation. This type of foundation has
been observed to capture the elastic deformations under point loads (example: plate load test). The
Winkler foundation has been extended to incorporate the foundation shear modulus using a shear
layer to account for transverse effects in the soil subgrade, and the resulting system is called Pasternak
foundation (Kerr, 1964). The third one is the Kelvin foundation, which consists of a parallel arrange-
ment of spring and dashpot elements cognitive of the viscoelastic effects in the foundation system
(Li et al., 2009). Further, the Pasternak foundation has been developed into the Kerr model, which
comprises of a beam embedded into an elastic medium to account for the effect of confinement due
to the surrounding structure. The elastic half-space model has also been adopted to solve the semi-
infinite or infinite problems, and further evolved into models based on continuum theory. Literature
documents several continuum foundation models of which Vlasov and Reissner models are typical
examples (Kerr, 1964; Reissner, 1958; Vlasov & Leont’ev, 1966; Younesian et al., 2019). Further, the mod-
elling of foundation systems as multiple layers has been utilised in applications involving railway track
design (Choudhury et al., 2008; Younesian et al., 2019).
In conclusions, beam and plate models resting on foundation have been implemented to study
the effects of speed and frequency of loading, load spacing, pavement roughness and boundary
conditions on the response of vehicle and asphalt pavement systems. Further, the structural models
in addition to foundation system models have facilitated researchers to replicate the realistic struc-
ture of pavement-foundation system observed in the field. However, these models have been usually
adopted to study pavement responses in terms of deflection, and few other studies have estimated
pavement performance in respect of fatigue cracking and rutting. In order for structural models to
be representative of actual field pavement systems, the constitutive properties must also be well rep-
resented. Hence, an understanding is necessary about the behaviour of various materials, associated
models and experiments to derive these quantities. The evaluation of structural and functional criteria
using beam and/or plate models resting on foundation has been discussed in subsequent sections.
3.2. Pavement materials models

As discussed earlier, the multi-layered asphalt pavement systems have been modelled using different
forms of beam, plate and foundation models. These models, if rationally combined can form a whole-
some structure of an asphalt pavement system. Each layer of this multi-layered structure has to be
incorporated with pavement materials models to replicate the actual pavement system behaviour.
Various formulations have been adopted in the past to model each layer. An utmost importance
has been given to model asphalt concrete wearing course due to its viscoelastic nature, since this
characteristic helps arrive at reliable metrics of pavement responses. Also, a variety of laboratory
experiments have been utilised to study the viscoelastic nature of asphalt within a range of test tem-
peratures and frequencies. However, the prediction of asphalt pavement response requires analysis
in conditions and associated ranges outside of the laboratory experimental setup. To overcome this
issue, various viscoelastic models have been developed, which assist in establishing stress–strain and
force-displacement relations for a wide range of temperature-frequency combinations.
In general, the viscoelastic models comprise of spring and dashpot elements that define elastic solid
behaviour and fluid viscous properties of asphalt, respectively. Based on the arrangement of spring
and dashpot elements, the models have been classified into the following types (Mossbarger, 1964;
Olard & Di Benedetto, 2003; Sayegh, 1965; Wang, 2011b; Wood & Goetz, 1959):
• Maxwell model
• Generalized Maxwell Model (GMM)
• Kelvin model
• Generalized Kelvin model
• Burgers model
• Huet-Sayegh model
• 2 springs, 2 variable dashpots and 1 linear dashpot (2S2P1D) model
Within the different types of models pertaining to asphalt concrete material, Maxwell and Kelvin are
two-parameter models that consist of spring and dashpot arrangement in series and parallel, respec-
tively. The Maxwell and Kelvin models as such do not simulate creep and relaxation behavior. So,
models were developed using a combination of these models by increasing the number of elements
whose emphasis was to simulate behavior that was not regarded by earlier few models. Thus, modified
models such as GMM, Generalized Kelvin and Burgers were introduced. GMM comprises of a number
of spring and dashpot elements in series, while these elements are in parallel for the Generalized Kelvin
model.
Burgers model is a simple form, which is a series combination of Maxwell and Kelvin models used
to characterise viscoelasticity, but it has been found that this model does not take into account the
viscoelastic nature of asphalt at a wide range of temperatures and frequencies. The viscoelastic nature
has been captured by GMM and Generalized Kelvin models, which effectively describe the relaxation
modulus and creep compliance of asphalt, respectively (Lytton et al., 1993; Xu & Solaimanian, 2009).
Further these models can also be represented using the Prony series (Kim, 2009).
The Huet-Sayegh model (Sayegh, 1965) was adopted to investigate the viscoelastic behaviour of
asphalt binders and mixtures (Nilsson et al., 2002; Pronk, 2005; Xu & Solaimanian, 2009). The model
comprises of a spring of small rigidity that is parallel to a series combination of a spring of infinite stiff-
ness and two parabolic elements. Further, the model is capable of capturing the viscoelastic behaviour
of asphalt mixes for a wide range of temperatures and frequencies under small strains, which predicts
dynamic complex modulus as well (Xu & Solaimanian, 2009). However, the Huet-Sayegh model does
not capture the residual strain due to the absence of a viscous dashpot element in its configuration
(Pronk, 2005; Xu & Solaimanian, 2009).
Recently, researchers proposed 2S2P1D model by modifying the Huet-Sayegh model to capture
residual strain by adding one linear dashpot in series with two variable dashpots (2S2P1D) to study
the viscoelastic properties of asphalt binders and mixtures (Olard & Di Benedetto, 2003), which was
further used by Di Benedetto et al. (2004) to derive a relation between binder and mixture properties.
In this direction, dynamic complex modulus of asphalt mix can be obtained from the binder modulus
in one-dimensional form. Later, the three-dimensional formulation of linear viscoelastic behaviour of
asphalt mixtures was introduced in Di Benedetto-Neifar (DBN) model, which has been found to predict
the thermo-viscoelastoplastic behaviour of bituminous materials (Di Benedetto et al., 2007).
It was observed that the aforementioned models were not capable of handling the complexities
of asphalt material properties such as time-dependencies during loading-unloading, accumulated
deformation, volumetric dilation, hardening and softening phenomena and flow rules associated with
plasticity (Sun et al., 2013). Hence, this led to the demand for advanced models to comprehensively
describe the complex phenomena. The advanced models for asphalt concrete are elasto-viscoplastic
(Ali et al., 2008; Kim et al., 2012) and viscoelastic-viscoplastic (Graham, 2009; Uzan, 2005). Note that
these advanced models have been named based on the decomposition of total strains incurred in the
asphalt mixture. The two forms of decomposition of total strain for the advanced models that consider
the nonlinear stress–strain relations with strain as a rate-dependent parameter are given as follows
(Wang, 2011b):
• Elasto-viscoplastic: Elastic strain (εe ) + Viscoplastic strain (εvp )

• Viscoelastic-viscoplastic: Viscoelastic strain (εve ) + Viscoplastic strain (εvp )
The advanced models comprise of components such as hardening, yield function and potential flow.
These three components have the capability to handle some important features such as variation in
asphalt material characteristics due to accumulated strains, viscoplastic flow and the direction of strain
increments (Perzyna, 1966). The components and their features have been described in the discussion
on problems of viscoplasticity, thereby providing flexibility in developing models to capture strain
accumulation in asphalt mixtures.
It was found that the viscoelastic component is capable of characterising fatigue crack growth in
asphalt pavements (Perl et al., 1983). However, it was observed that the viscoelastic component was
not adequate to model rutting, as the process involves plastic flow and volumetric variation in the
material (Abdulshafi, 1983; Kim, 2009). Due to this reason, studies have discussed two-stage modelling
of the viscoelastic nature of asphalt surface layer or surface wearing course as elasto-viscoplastic or
viscoplastic or viscoelastic in combination with Perzyna’s viscoplastic model to include plastic defor-
mation, which may subsequently provide a basis to predict rutting in asphalt pavements (Ali et al.,
2008; Chen & Wang, 2010; Huang, 2008; Park, 2004; Wang, 2011b).
Park (2004) performed finite element-based analysis for permanent deformation using elasto-
viscoplastic model and validated the model with laboratory test results of repeated shear test and
asphalt pavement analyzer (APA). Permanent deformation was determined using ESAL concept based
on fixed vehicle approach. Later, a method was proposed to separate the response of asphalt con-
crete into viscoelastic and viscoplastic components (Huang, 2008). The study showed features such
as hardening and dilation of asphalt concrete, and further predicted fatigue and rutting responses
using a nonlinear finite element-based simulation. The study recommended repeated simple shear
constant height test for mixtures and multiple stress creep and recovery (MSCR) tests for binder to
extract the parameter values of advanced models in order to obtain accuracy while evaluating rutting
performance criterion.
Numerical analysis for rutting performance was performed by researchers who recommended
elasto-viscoplastic model to predict inelastic deformation in wearing course and base course layers
due to traffic loads (Ali et al., 2008). It was observed from the analysis that traffic intensity increased
rutting potential in that dual tires cause 10% more rutting than super single tires. In another study,
a similar model was used to investigate the effects of various factors such as traffic loads, thickness
of wearing course, asphalt stiffness and moduli of base and subgrade layers on rutting, of which stiff-
ness of wearing course and subgrade had significant effects on creep strain. Also, the study found that
accounting for the viscoplastic properties of asphalt layer resulted in increased strains with increasing
traffic levels (Chen & Wang, 2010).
Albeit, the studies using two-stage models only emphasised the strain accumulation during pri-
mary and secondary stages of creep, and disregarded the radial strain in the form of viscoplastic
damage, which is actually found in the tertiary stage and practically useful in modelling the three-
stages of asphalt mixture creep behaviour. In this regard, a study proposed the concept of viscoplastic
damage that is in the form of three-stage viscoelastic-viscoplastic-viscodamage constitutive equation
to evaluate permanent deformation or rutting in asphalt pavements (Abu Al-Rub et al., 2012). The
study performed 2-D and 3-D finite element-based analysis to predict rutting and concluded that
the former analysis overestimated the rutting as compared to the results from 3-D analysis. A three-
stage coupled thermo-viscoelastic, thermo-viscoplastic, thermo-viscodamage model was proposed in
another study to investigate the microscopic response of asphalt concrete under different loading con-
ditions (You et al., 2012). It was found that the model was capable of simulating the creep behaviour in
asphalt concrete, since the results showed gradual accumulation of damage with increasing loading
cycles. Further, it was inferred that the coupled three-stage model can be used to provide insight on
the influence of the asphalt concrete microstructure on its macroscopic response.
Another study presented a numerical implementation and algorithm aspects of three-stage
elastic-viscoplastic-damage model to capture permanent deformation of asphalt concrete (Jian-
lian et al., 2016). A robust integration algorithm for nonlinear differential equations was proposed
using prediction-corrector method and the results were compared with experimental observation of
repeated simple shear constant height test. It was inferred that the developed model had capability
of predicting the rate-dependent deformation of asphalt concrete. Table 4 summarises the advanced
models proposed to capture fatigue cracking and rutting in asphalt pavements subjected to varying
vehicular loads and speeds, tire pressures, and temperatures.
The parameters involved in the viscoelastic and advanced models have been generally derived
using laboratory experiments such as asphalt binder creep-recovery test (AASHTO TP-70, 2013), MSCR
test (ASTM D7405, 2015), static creep or flow time test (Witczak, 2007), dynamic creep or repeated
load permanent deformation or flow number test (AASHTO TP-79-10, 2010; Witczak, 2007), repeated
shear test (AASHTO TP-7, 2001), indirect tensile strength test (ASTM D6931-17, 2017), indirect tensile
fatigue test (EN, 12697-24, 2004), resilient modulus test (ASTM D7369, 2009) and |E∗| dynamic modu-
lus test (AASHTO TP-79-10, 2010; NCHRP 1-37A, 2004; Witczak et al., 2002). Creep compliance, complex
Table 4. Applications of advanced models for asphalt concrete.

Source Asphalt layer model Study findings
Park (2004) Elastic-viscoplastic Evaluation of permanent deformation in asphalt
pavements and elastic-viscoplastic parameters were
used to simulate accelerated pavement testing loads
Ali et al. (2008) Elasto-viscoplastic Influence of temperature, traffic speed and tire type on
rutting in asphalt pavements. Also, pavement rutting
increased when temperature exceed 30 °C
Huang (2008) Viscoelastic-viscoplastic Development of a nonlinear two-stage model to predict
fatigue cracking and rutting at intermediate and high
temperatures, respectively. A new index based on the
permanent strain (separated from the viscoelastic strain)
for the characterisation of resistance of asphalt binders
to rutting
Chen & Wang Visco-elastoplastic Asphalt layer thickness and stiffness had a significant effect
(2010) on location and magnitude of creep strain, respectively
Abu Al-Rub Elasto-viscoplastic, Evaluation of permanent deformation criteria using 2-D
et al. (2012) viscoelastic-viscoplastic and 3-D analysis. 2-D analysis overestimated the rutting
and coupled viscoelastic- performance than that of 3-D analysis. The assumed
viscoplastic-viscodamage material constitutive behaviour governs the assumption
of loading for analysis
You et al. (2012) Viscoelastic-viscoplastic- Gradual accumulation of damage with increasing loading
viscodamage cycles was observed and hence, creep behaviour in
asphalt concrete was simulated using three-stage model
Jianlian et al. Elastic-viscoplastic-damage Numerical implementation and robust algorithm using
(2016) prediction-corrector method to capture permanent
deformation in asphalt concrete
modulus and relaxation modulus are obtained at various temperature-frequency combinations for
both asphalt binders and mixtures. Further, the substitution of compliance values in the advanced
models through the Prony series or power model help determine stresses and/or strains, which subse-
quently are used to predict rutting and fatigue cracking in asphalt pavements. The power model and
thermal cracking model (TCMODEL) are used to predict the final values of permanent deformation and
low-temperature thermal cracking, respectively (Kim, 2009). For fatigue and low-temperature thermal
cracking, numerical modelling based on discrete element or cohesive zone approach has also been
implemented (Bhasin et al., 2012; Jenq et al., 1993; Perng, 1989).
The performance criteria evaluated using viscoelastic and advanced models can be compared to
field measurements as well. It is rational to fundamentally correlate field measurements with outputs
from mathematical (constitutive) models in order to obtain a mechanistic design framework. In this
direction, researchers have developed various field techniques such as Falling Weight Deflectometer
(ASTM D4694-09, 2015), Light Weight Deflectometer (ASTM E2583-07, 2015), Benkelman Beam Deflec-
tion (ASTM D4695-03, 2003) and Accelerated Pavement Test facility that have been used to obtain
strains, which are utilised to evaluate structural performance criteria in asphalt pavements. The strains
and deflections obtained using the field techniques may be further utilised to back calculate the elastic
modulus. On the other hand, roughness has been assessed using rod and level survey, dipstick profiler,
walking profiler, response type road roughness metres and bump integrator devices (ASTM E1274-18,
2018; McGhee, 2004).
It is noteworthy that the base, sub-base and subgrade layers of the multi-layered asphalt pavement
systems have been modelled using foundation system models, as discussed before. Several studies
have found that linear elastic models have been adopted to simulate the material behaviour of these
layers under the influence of traffic loads represented by vehicle system models. For instance, these
models comprise of various parameters such as spring stiffness and damping, which are derived using
subgrade modulus obtained through laboratory experiments such as triaxial, California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) (ASTM D1883, 2016) and resilient modulus (Mr ) (AASHTO T307-99, 2003) tests.
3.3. Numerical modelling of asphalt pavement systems

As aforementioned, structural models have been well-utilised in analytical formulations to evaluate
asphalt pavement performance incorporated with nonlinearities in each of the layers. It has been
noticed that the analytical formulation is difficult to handle due to the involvement of complex non-
linear terms in the analysis of governing equations of the system and this has paved way for numerical
modelling and analysis of asphalt pavement systems. Both analytical and numerical modelling tech-
niques have unique characteristics, the adoption of which depends on several factors such as the
nature of nonlinearities involved in a particular system and availability of computational capabili-
ties. Numerical modelling consists of solving a system to obtain optimal solutions, which is typically
achieved using software packages based on finite element analysis (FEA) or discrete element mod-
elling. The advantage of using numerical modelling in evaluation of performance criteria is its ability to
elucidate complex materials properties (viscoelastic/viscoplastic), intricate model geometry (bonding
between pavement layers), boundary conditions and temperature variation (for rutting and low-
temperature thermal cracking). Hence, numerical modelling has been found to be useful in arriving
at rational solutions of complex systems by replicating the actual conditions (loading and material
behaviour) prevailing in the field. However, it is to be noted that numerical modelling requires quality
skills to develop and interpret the model for asphalt concrete properties pertaining to a distress (exam-
ple: fatigue cracking, rutting and low-temperature thermal cracking). Also, it needs to be understood
that numerical modelling sometimes does not guarantee solution convergence due to the issues of
numerical stability.
Several studies have utilised numerical modelling to investigate the response of asphalt pavements
subjected to vehicular loads with random amplitudes (Li et al., 2015), multiple wheel configuration
(Kim & Tutumluer, 2008; Sarkar, 2016), different tire types (Wang, 2011a), tire contact area (Al-Qadi &
Wang, 2011) and subsequently determined stresses and strains which may further help in estimating
rutting and fatigue cracking performance criteria.
Researchers have taken cognizance that numerical modelling of asphalt pavements provides clear
insights into the behaviour of asphalt mix during the cracking process (crack initiation and propa-
gation) and rutting (plastic flow and hardening) (Kim, 2009). The details about research studies that
estimate performance criteria using numerical modelling (also numerical methods) are discussed
in subsequent sections. Numerical modelling has proved to be a better option for researchers to
model and analyse pavement systems since it can help simulate field conditions, which otherwise are
tedious to be incorporated in analytical formulations. Therefore, there is a need for implementing the
numerical modelling of asphalt pavement systems to arrive at rational values of performance criteria.
In summary, structural and pavement material models have been adopted using analytical and
numerical modelling to evaluate the performance of asphalt pavements subjected to different types
of vehicular loads, axle configuration and boundary conditions. However, it is necessary to monitor
asphalt pavement performance with the help of these models, and correlate with the actual field
measurements in relation with VPI mechanism.
4. Analysis of VPI
The vehicular loads acting on the pavement systems are represented through vehicle system mod-
els, which are used to evaluate asphalt pavement performance criteria. This requires understanding
the load transfer mechanism from vehicle tires to asphalt pavement systems. Once this task is accom-
plished, it may help in establishing a pavement design approach, which will create systems that will
carry the desired traffic loads and may perhaps alleviate the distresses over their design service lives.
Since the last few decades, attempts have been made by several researchers to understand the
interaction between the heavy trucks with multiple axles such as tandem, tridem and asphalt pave-
ments using theoretical and analytical studies involving both vehicle and pavement system models
to evaluate fatigue cracking and rutting (Cebon, 1988; Monismith et al., 1988). The motive of those
studies was to address the following aspects:
• to identify the truck characteristics responsible for pavement distresses,

• to establish a relationship between vehicle parameters and distresses and
• to analyse the mechanism involved in transfer of vehicular loads to pavement systems
To address these aspects, one of the earlier studies considered VPI by adopting separate simula-
tion models for vehicular loading and pavement system (Markow et al., 1988). The vehicle simulation
model accounts for vehicle mass, axle configuration, axle spacing, suspension and tire properties. The
model simulated bounce and pitch motions assuming pavement surface roughness as excitation and
computed a profile of tire forces over time. On the other hand, the simulation model for pavement
system determined the response of pavements under the influence of tire force profiles. In another
study, similar simulations were performed iteratively, which were expensive due to the requirement
of computational facilities at that time (Mamlouk, 1990). Therefore, the simulations were performed
separately to ease computation and were known as uncoupled analyses. Several years later, the avail-
ability of advanced computational resources led to the implementation of coupled interaction as well.
A study compared different methods of representing vehicular loads to account for VPI, namely, dis-
crete vehicle element (DVE), dynamic nodal loading (DNL), moving mass (MM) and moving load (ML)
methods, of which DVE was shown to be closer in emulating the dynamic response of vehicles (Pan
& Li, 2002). Typically, the coupled VPI mechanism in a 2-DOF system comprising of the vehicle and
pavement can be mathematically represented as:
mv ẍv + cv (ẋv − ẋp ) + kv (xv − xp ) = 0 (1)

mp ẍp + cp ẋp + kp xp + cv (ẋp − ẋv ) + kv (xp − xv ) = 0 (2)
where, mv and mp are masses of the vehicle and pavement, respectively in kg; cv and cp represent
damping of vehicle and pavement, respectively in N-s/m; kv and kp are stiffness of vehicle and pave-
ment, respectively in N/m; xv and xp are the vehicle and pavement displacements, respectively in m.
From the equations, it can be observed that vehicle and pavement responses are dependent on each
other through the coupling terms (cv (ẋv − ẋp ) + kv (xv − xp )). Uncoupled VPI involves computation
of vehicle (xv ) and pavement (xp ) responses separately, while the coupled VPI involves solving Equa-
tions (1) and (2) simultaneously to compute xv and xp at every time instant. Based on the availability
of analytical models and computational techniques, researchers have analysed VPI using uncoupled
and coupled approaches, as discussed next.
4.1. Uncoupled VPI

Initially, the interaction between trucks and pavements was assumed to be small based on the fact that
asphalt pavements are stiffer than the body of vehicle (Gillespie et al., 1993). An uncoupled approach
involving separate analysis of vehicle and pavement models was proposed. Pavement roughness
along with vehicle parameters was used as input for the vehicle model, while material properties acted
as input for the pavement model. Eventually, tire forces and strains in pavement layers were obtained
from vehicle and pavement models, respectively. Note that this type of analysis is generally performed
in vehicle and pavement dynamics, where analysis of one system is completely independent of the
other.
A method for uncoupled analysis was proposed using DNL that further separates the coupled sys-
tem into two independent subsystems (Pan & Li, 2002). DNL enabled the application of vehicular load
generated from inertial force of the vehicle and also pavement roughness properties. A parametric
investigation was also performed using DVE and DNL methods to study the effects of vehicular speed,
mass of vehicle, pavement roughness and frequency ratio on VPI, which essentially recommended that
DNL is a better approximate method for VPI studies.
A 3-D tire model with uniform inflation pressure was applied on the pavement model in uncou-
pled VPI analysis to determine the contact stresses at the tire-pavement interface (Al-Qadi & Wang,
2011). The study found that tire load influenced the vertical contact stresses in the edge region and
longitudinal contact stress. On the contrary, the inflation pressure influenced vertical contact stresses
in the central region and transverse contact stress. In a similar study, the 3-D contact stress distribu-
tion at the tire-pavement interface was used to represent the moving loads and it was found that the
interaction between asphalt wearing course and granular base course layers influenced the resulting
stress distribution in asphalt pavements (Wang, 2011a). Another study implemented a semi-coupled
VPI, wherein, first the contact stresses are obtained when a hyperelastic tire rolls on a rigid pave-
ment, which is then used to excite a viscoelastic pavement model, in turn providing inputs for tire
moving on flexible pavement and this process is implemented in a cyclic manner. This approach
was used to assess pavement damage and rolling resistance in pavements (Hernandez & Al-Qadi,
2017).
Recently, the uncoupled approach was adopted that used a quarter-car model traversing on a
pavement system represented by Timoshenko beam and double-layer plate models resting on nonlin-
ear Pasternak and linear viscoelastic foundation models, respectively. The study involved an iterative
technique combining Galerkin and time integration schemes to solve the vehicle and pavement sys-
tem equations independently (Krishnanunni & Rao, 2019). Further, parametric studies accounting for
uncertainties associated with pavement roughness, were carried out to demonstrate the effect of inter-
action, based on which, it was concluded that an uncoupled analysis would suffice for the proposed
vehicle-pavement models.
It is noteworthy that the responses of vehicle (vertical displacement) and pavement systems (deflec-
tions, stresses and strains) obtained from uncoupled VPI analyses were not used to assess the structural
and functional performance criteria in flexible pavement design.
4.2. Coupled VPI

As discussed in the previous section, uncoupled VPI considers vehicle and pavement systems as sepa-
rate models for analysis, thereby assisting in determining their responses independently, which means
this approach may not be completely rational to assess pavement performance criteria. As mentioned
previously, coupled VPI approach inherently correlates vehicle and pavement systems, actually assist-
ing in simulating the field conditions. One of the early studies discussed the importance of coupled
VPI to analyse the performance of vehicle and asphalt pavements (Mamlouk, 1990).
Coupled analysis using a 7-DOF full-vehicle model was performed to investigate the effect of
coupling on vehicle body vertical acceleration, suspension deformations, tire forces and pavement
displacements. It was found that the effect of coupling action was definitive with respect to vehicle
responses but not so in the case of pavements. However, the study emphasised the need to further
explore VPI with respect to estimation of pavement displacements (Yang et al., 2010). In another study,
coupled VPI analysis using a 7-DOF vehicle model traversing on a double-layer rectangular thin plate
was used to investigate the vehicle responses using numerical integration. The performance of vehicle
and pavement was assessed based on DLC computed for various vehicle and pavement parameters
and accordingly respective system design recommendations were provided (Li et al., 2012). It is inter-
esting to note that both the studies adopted similar vehicle and pavement models to acknowledge VPI,
while the latter validated the model with time history responses of truck and pavement using field test.
One of the recent studies performed a coupled analysis using a linear elastic pavement system sub-
jected to a quarter-car vehicle model and investigated the effect of coupling on dynamic vehicle loads
(Xu et al., 2017). The results of vehicle vibration frequency showed resonance at 1.5 Hz, which signifi-
cantly increased the dynamic vehicular loads. Also, the response of the coupled model was compared
with the traditional uncoupled model, which revealed that the force transfer between the coupled
vehicle and pavement system was 2.4 times that of the uncoupled model.
Few other studies also explored pavement roughness characteristics through the incorporation of
varied vehicle models such as quarter-car, half- and full-vehicle (Ding et al., 2014; Lu & Yao, 2013). A
study indicated through coupled VPI analysis that vehicle speed and wavelength of surface uneven-
ness govern resonance of the coupled system, thereby proposing to avoid this extreme condition by
adopting appropriate values (Lu & Yao, 2013). Based on a VPI analysis that modelled pavement system
as Timoshenko beam resting on nonlinear foundation; the pavement shear modulus and coefficient
of shear deformation of foundation parameters reduced the pavement displacements, which were
also found to decrease when the vehicle response was close to resonance (Ding et al., 2014). Another
study proposed a computational framework based on VPI to investigate the dynamic response of a 3-
D viscoelastic flexible pavement system subjected to moving vehicular loads (Khavassefat et al., 2015).
The results showed that vehicle-road interaction has a significant influence on the stresses induced in
asphalt layers and hence needs to be taken into account to achieve accurate predictions of the pave-
ment service life. A recent study utilised a quarter-car moving on Euler-Bernoulli beam model, which
remarked that coupling influenced pavement deflection than wheel displacement for rough roads,
while it was opposite for smooth roads (Elnashar et al., 2019).
A coupled VPI analysis based on a 7-DOF system with nonlinear suspension stiffness and damping,
and tire stiffness traversing on a plate model indicated that the vehicle displacement was periodic
while pavement displacement changed from quasi-periodic to chaotic motion for different amplitudes
of road surface roughness (Li et al., 2013). Further, the effect of vehicle model nonlinearities was more
pronounced on vehicle acceleration than on pavement displacement.
Owing to difficulties involved in handling nonlinearities in analytical formulation, some studies
implemented coupled VPI using finite element methods (Behnke et al., 2019; Xia, 2010). A 3-D VPI
coupled model comprising of hyperelastic tire moving on a pavement model was developed to inves-
tigate the variation in contact area due to rolling of tire (Xia, 2010). The model findings corroborated
that the conventional contact area assumption used in flexible pavement design is neither circular
nor rectangular as also reported in Huang (2004). A framework was presented by other researchers to
estimate the long-term permanent deformation in pavements accounting for tire-pavement interac-
tion, material nonlinearities and temperature effects (Behnke et al., 2019). In the study, the pavement
displacement was qualitatively determined by proposing a time homogenisation technique, which
caters to the temperature effects in time domain. However, it was recommended to take forward this
approach by utilising real field conditions to quantify rutting.
It is to be recognised from the above discussion that owing to higher dimensionality, the cou-
pled analysis may be computationally demanding, but is plausibly more accurate in replicating the
field conditions in that the method is proficient in incorporating pavement unevenness as one of the
parameters to evaluate asphalt pavement performance criteria. The studies discussed in this section
are summarised in Table 5.
Table 5. Research applications of coupled VPI analysis.

Source Vehicle model Pavement-foundation model Study findings
Xia (2010) Hyperelastic 3-D FEM(elastic) Conventional contact area assumption used in
tire flexible pavement design is neither circular
nor rectangular
Yang et al. 7- DOF Simply supported Effect of coupling due to pavement roughness
(2010) full-vehicle double-layer was significant on rolling acceleration of the
rectangular thin vehicular system than on vehicle pitching
plate resting on a acceleration and pavement displacement
linear viscoelastic
foundation
Li et al. 7- DOF Simply supported Provided recommendations for vehicle and
(2012) full-vehicle double-layer pavement performance assessment based
rectangular thin on DLC computation
plate resting on a
linear viscoelastic
foundation
Li et al. 7- DOF Simply supported Effect of vehicle model nonlinearities was more
(2013) nonlinear double-layer pronounced on vehicle acceleration than
full-vehicle rectangular thin on pavement displacement and pavement
plate resting exhibited quasi-static and chaotic behaviour
on a nonlinear for certain choices of amplitudes of road
viscoelastic surface roughness
foundation
Lu and Yao 2-DOF Two continuous layers Wavelength and speed of vehicle governed the
(2013) quarter-car modelled as plates resonance of the coupled system
resting on elastic
foundation
Ding et al. Quarter-car Timoshenko beam Pavement shear modulus and shear deforma-
(2014) resting on a tion coefficient of foundation parameters
nonlinear Pasternak reduced pavement displacements, which
foundation also decreased when vehicle was close to
resonance
Khavassefat Quarter-car 3-D viscoelastic FEM VPI has significant influence on the stresses
et al. induced in asphalt layers and needs to be
(2015) considered to achieve accurate predictions
of the pavement service life
Xu et al., Quarter-car Linear elastic Force transferred between the coupled vehicle
2017 and pavement system was 2.4 times that of
the uncoupled model
Behnke Tire model Elastoplastic solid Pavement displacement was qualitatively
et al. 2-D FEM determined by proposing a time homogeni-
(2019) sation technique, which caters to the
temperature effects in time domain.
Elnashar 2-DOF Simply supported Coupling influenced pavement deflection than
et al. quarter-car Euler-Bernoulli wheel displacement for rough roads, while
(2019) beam resting it was opposite for smooth roads
on Pasternak
foundation
4.3. Methods for VPI analysis

In VPI analysis, analytical and numerical methods have been used to determine the uncoupled and/or
coupled responses of both vehicle and pavement systems. In vehicle dynamics, analytical methods
have been adopted to analyse vehicle responses during motion at varying speeds. On the other hand,
pavement models are analysed using integral transform methods while also supporting numerical
approach through finite difference method, FEM and boundary element method. However, analytical
methods have difficulty in handling tire types, rolling effects of tire, tire-pavement contact mechanism,
pavement material nonlinearities and boundary conditions, which are essential in studying VPI mech-
anism. To this end, numerical methods have been used to solve coupled VPI systems (Behnke et al.,
2019; Wang, 2011a, 2011b).
Various numerical algorithms such as Runge–Kutta, Newmark Beta, Galerkin and Fourier transform-
based methods have been used in VPI studies (Ding et al., 2014; Elnashar et al., 2019; Kim & McCullough,
2003; Kargarnovin et al., 2005; Li et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2015; Sun & Luo, 2007; Yang et al., 2015). Of these,
Fourier transform-based methods are used to solve VPI in frequency domain while others are used for
numerical analysis of VPI in time domain. The time domain methods consist of explicit and implicit
algorithms that provide approximate solutions. Specifically, the Galerkin-based method is used to
obtain the structural mode shapes and provide estimates for the truncation errors. Also, these numer-
ical methods have capability to handle the stiffness and mass differences between the vehicle and
pavement systems.
Transfer function-based methods have been adopted to investigate the effects of acceleration,
deceleration and speed of vehicles on pavement response (Kargarnovin et al., 2005; Lu et al., 2015; Sun
& Luo, 2007). The analysis of elastic beams resting on nonlinear viscoelastic foundation is a challeng-
ing problem for which the Galerkin truncation method has been found to be effective in developing a
numerical solution (Ding et al., 2012; Ding et al., 2014). Further, the VPI analysis may involve time vary-
ing coupled terms in stiffness and damping matrices, which are handled using Runge–Kutta method
(Li et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2015). It is noteworthy that all of the aforementioned methods have been
developed for VPI analysis, but are yet to be fully utilised in evaluating pavement performance.
5. Evaluation of asphalt pavement performance criteria using VPI mechanism

The evaluation of the asphalt pavement performance criteria has been carried out using empirical
models available in the literature (Cebon, 1988). However, the performance criteria obtained using
these models do not fully match the actual performance observed in the field. One of the reasons
for dissimilarity in performance metrics is perhaps due to the lack of complete understanding about
load transfer through tires to the asphalt pavement systems. Hence, research focused on load trans-
fer mechanism in asphalt pavements, specifically considering dynamic vehicular loads, which was
known as VPI (Monismith et al., 1988). In short, VPI mechanism involves capturing the interactive forces
between vehicle and pavement systems. This mechanism is characterised by the effects of dynamic
wheel loads through vehicle system models that could be incorporated within one of the pavement
design approaches using traffic characteristics. In reality, VPI-based analysis increases the accuracy
in assessing pavement performance due to provision in incorporating realistic field conditions. Thus,
this has led to the implementation of VPI by many researchers for performance prediction in asphalt
pavements, as discussed next.
5.1. Structural performance criteria

Rutting, fatigue cracking and low-temperature thermal cracking are the three major distresses occur-
ring in asphalt pavements, which are important in defining structural performance criteria during
the pavement design process. These are governed by the type of vehicular loading, pavement mate-
rials properties and variation in environmental conditions. Since the last few decades, efforts have
been made to evaluate structural performance criteria and propose strategic measures to increase
the service lives of asphalt pavement systems.
The evaluation of structural performance for asphalt pavements has been historically carried out
using MLET programs, with input assumptions such as static wheel load, single axle configuration,
circular contact area, uniform contact pressure and linear behaviour of pavement materials (Huang,
2004). In particular, fatigue cracking and rutting criteria were assessed, respectively using maximum
tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt surface wearing course (top-down cracking) and maximum
compressive strain at the top of the subgrade/base course layer at the interface of surface and base
course layers.
In the late 1980s, researchers assessed pavement structural performance recognising the impor-
tance of VPI mechanism and it has been observed that pavement performance depends on various
vehicle and pavement characteristics (Gillespie et al., 1993; Monismith et al., 1988). One of the studies
was based on truck-pavement interaction, which discussed the pavement performance by calculat-
ing the strains due to dynamic moving loads of constant amplitude resulting in the estimation of
number of repetitions to failure (Monismith et al., 1988). Further, the influence of traffic velocity, tire
contact area and braking forces on fatigue cracking and rutting in asphalt pavements was also stud-
ied. In similar study, a systematic overview was provided to understand the mechanics involved in VPI
using uncoupled truck and pavement models through VESYS program (Gillespie et al., 1993). The study
emphasised on the truck characteristics such as gross weight of vehicle, axle loads, axle configuration,
suspension properties, tire types, tire pressures, tire contact area, tire configuration and operating
conditions (speeds and acceleration or deceleration) and pavement characteristics such as design
(flexible and rigid), surface condition (smooth, rough and jointed) and geometrics that affect fatigue
and rutting performance in asphalt pavements. An uncoupled finite element-based tire-pavement
dynamic model was developed to estimate transverse and longitudinal tensile strains in asphalt wear-
ing course and subgrade, respectively, when it was found that pavement response due to transient
loads was greater than quasi-static loads, but the estimated strains were not utilised to assess structural
performance (Yoo & Al-Qadi, 2007).
Along with dynamic loads, it was observed that tire types, tire pressure, tire load, pavement cross-
section have substantial influence on rutting and fatigue cracking in asphalt pavements (Wang, 2009).
The study used super single wide-base tire (single tire used mostly in trailers instead of dual tires) that
was found to cause top-down cracking and rutting compared to either unbalanced dual tires or wide-
base tire. As mentioned in previous section, one of the researchers developed a 3-D tire-pavement
interaction model based on FEA that also analysed the effect of truck tire pressure on fatigue crack-
ing and rutting, which indicated that the allowable number of load repetitions for fatigue cracking
and rutting decreased with increasing tire inflation pressure (Xia, 2010). Another study carried out
coupled VPI analysis using quarter-car and Euler-Bernoulli beam models and predicted fatigue crack-
ing by proposing a pavement damage model using the Palmgren-Miner’s hypothesis (Elnashar, 2017).
The major outcome of this study was to estimate the distribution of pavement damage considering
randomness in road roughness and traffic arrivals.
It is to be noted from the above few studies that VPI forms an important aspect in evaluation of
structural performance criteria for asphalt pavements since it can effectively capture the realistic phe-
nomenon of dynamic loading and account for material nonlinearities. Further, it has been observed
that VPI also is applicable in evaluation of functional performance criteria in asphalt pavements, which
is discussed in the next section.
5.2. Functional performance criteria

In addition to structural performance criteria, pavement performance also depends on functional per-
formance criteria characterised by ride comfort and pavement serviceability as two major parameters.
Ride comfort depends on pavement unevenness, which is usually expressed as International
Roughness Index (IRI) (m/km). Pavement roughness plays a vital role in the initiation of VPI analysis
since it serves as an input to the vehicle system, transferring tire forces to pavement, thereby affecting
the overall pavement system response. One study identified quarter-car and half-vehicle models along
with pavement roughness as input to understand their influence on ride comfort in terms of system fre-
quency responses, which revealed that quarter-car model overestimated ride comfort and pavement
performance in respect of roughness index (Todd & Kulakowski, 1989). In a similar study, that dealt with
truck-pavement interaction the spectral density of roughness profiles and vehicle sprung mass accel-
eration were utilised to develop a roughness statistic to assess truck ride comfort performance criterion
(Papagiannakis & Gujarathi, 1995). Later, other researchers incorporated truck dynamics to propose
roughness models using number of load repetitions, axle load and pavement thickness, which was
subsequently used in pavement design to estimate the number of ESALs in mixed traffic conditions
(Saleh et al., 2000). In a recent study, a full-vehicle truck model was subjected to roughness profiles to
Table 6. Research on structural performance evaluation of asphalt pavements.
Vehicle Pavement Influence Study Contribution

Source system model factors findings of study
Monismith Truck model DYNAL program; Dynamic loads, traffic Strains due to dynamic VPI framework for
et al. multi-layered velocity, tire contact moving loads of fatigue cracking and
(1988) elastic model area, braking forces constant amplitude rutting performance
helped to estimate
fatigue cracking and
rutting
Gillespie Truck model VESYS program; Vehicle: Axle load, vehicle Front axle with single Quantifying fatigue
et al. multi-layered gross weight, axle tires and vehicle cracking and rutting
(1993) elastic model spacing, static load gross weight using empirical
sharing, vehicle speed, are the major relations
suspension type, contributors for
tandem dynamics, fatigue cracking and
maneuverability, rutting, respectively
inflation pressure, tire
ply type
Pavement: roughness,
temperature, layer
thickness
Yoo and SDOF model 3-D FE model for Dynamic and quasi-static Pavement response Using VPI, dynamic
Al-Qadi surface course loads due to transient loads were shown
(2007) using GMM loads was greater to be important in
than quasi-static estimation of fatigue
loads cracking and rutting
Wang 2-D and 3-D 2-D and 3-D linear Tire type, tire pressure, Super single wide-base 2-D and 3-D
(2009) tire multi-layered axle load, tire tire was found to tire-pavement
elastic FEM pavement interaction cause top-down interaction models
and pavement cross cracking and were developed to
section rutting compared to predict top – down
either dual tires or cracking and rutting
wide-base tire
Xia (2010) Hyperelastic 3-D linear multi- Tire pressure Tire pressure was A dynamic tire-
tire model layered elastic inversely related pavement
FEM to fatigue cracking interaction
when tire stiffness model to predict
increased with fatigue cracking and
increasing inflation rutting
pressure
Elnashar 2-DOF Simply supported Vehicle speeds, Palmgren-Miner’s Proposed fatigue
(2017) quarter car Euler – Bernoulli suspension damping, hypothesis provided damage model
beam resting soil stiffness, realistic estimates and obtained
on linear randomness in for fatigue cracking distribution of
viscoelastic amplitude of pavement damage
Pasternak pavement roughness
foundation and traffic arrivals
establish a relationship between IRI and DLC, which helped quantify the change in the magnitudes of
bottom-up cracking and rutting due to the influence of dynamic loading (Bilodeau et al., 2017).
Along with ride comfort, the performance of asphalt pavement also depends on its serviceability
from the time of construction until the end of design life with intermittent maintenance and rehabil-
itation strategies accorded to the system, which is usually measured in terms of PSI. A few studies
have established relationships between IRI, PSI and Present Serviceability Rating (PSR) to capture
the varying functional performance characteristics over the pavement design life (Al-Omari & Darter,
1994; Gulen et al., 1994). Although IRI and PSI have been adjudged important functional characteris-
tics of asphalt pavements, it is interesting to note that there is limited literature that documents the
importance of VPI to estimate functional performance criteria.
Table 7. Research on functional performance evaluation of asphalt pavements.
Vehicle Pavement Influence Study Contribution

Source model model factors findings of study
Todd and Quarter-car, Road roughness Vehicle models Quarter-car model Simplified models
Kulakowski half truck profiles; no overestimated for dynamic
(1989) and half pavement model the ride comfort load simulation
tractor adopted and pavement to predict ride
semi-trailer performance quality
models
Papagiannakis Quarter-car Pavement roughness Pavement Sprung mass Transfer function-
and profiles; no roughness and vertical based approach
Gujarathi pavement model vehicle speed acceleration to propose
(1995) adopted was sensitive roughness
to pavement statistic
roughness
excitation
frequency of
3.5 Hz
Mikhail and Truck models 3-D multi-layered Vehicle type, Number of single- Rational technique
Mamlouk FEM comprised suspension axle ESAL load considering VPI
(1998) of viscoelastic and speed, repetitions to estimate PSI
surface course; roughness, layer decreased with
elastic-plastic thickness decreasing PSI
Drucker-Prager
model for base and
subgrade courses
Bhatti et al. Truck model 2-D plane strain Truck dynamics, Rate of increase of Provided estimates
(1994) multi-layered axle load and roughness with of number of
FEM comprised of pavement load repetitions repetitions to
elastic-viscoplastic thickness is smaller on fatigue failure
surface course; smooth roads for subsequent
elastic-plastic initially while it use in pavement
Drucker-Prager is opposite on design
strain hardening rough roads
model for base
course and subgrade
Liu (2000) Quarter-car 2-D two-layered system Truck dynamic Increase in number Analytical
with a viscoelastic characteristic, of cumulative framework
surface course; material truck loads to predict PSI
elastic foundation properties and applications considering VPI
road surface decreased the
profiles PSI
Bilodeau et al. Multibody Roughness profiles Static and dynamic Dynamic loads Relationship
(2017) truck model with varying IRI; no loads reduced the between IRI
pavement model pavement and DLC used
adopted service life due to quantify
to bottom-up pavement
fatigue cracking service life
and rutting
For instance, Mikhail and Mamlouk (1998) studied VPI using Florida COMPASS program (truck

R
model) in combination with pavement modelled in ABAQUS , and presented a rational technique
to estimate asphalt pavement serviceability under the effect of traffic loads. Based on the results, the
number of single-axle ESAL load repetitions decreased with decreasing PSI. Further in another study,
analytical framework was presented based on VPI analysis, which accounted for truck dynamics, road
profile characteristics and material properties (Liu, 2000). This framework helped to investigate the
effect of truck characteristics and pavement roughness on PSI, and it was observed that PSI decreased
with increasing cumulative truck load applications.
Tables 6 and 7 present summary of findings from several research studies pertinent to utilisation of
VPI analysis to assess structural and functional performance criteria, respectively.
6. Way forward and research prospects

• Vehicle system models as traffic inputs: future studies must incorporate vehicle system models
within the pavement design process in order for handling dynamic loads, consequential of their
embedment into the traffic inputs module that accounts for mixed traffic conditions.
• Pavement system models in VPI analysis: there is a definitive need to combine the advanced pave-
ment material models with the structural models in VPI analysis to assess performance criteria with
respect to rutting, fatigue cracking and low-temperature thermal cracking.
• Evaluation of functional performance criteria with VPI: it is recommended that extensive field-testing
program data (example: pavement condition evaluation through long-term pavement perfor-
mance monitoring) be integrated with VPI formulations to get mechanistic-based reliable estimates
of functional performance criteria such as roughness, ride comfort and serviceability.
• Need for mechanistic-based design: A significant contribution of this first-of-its-kind review article
was to elucidate the efforts in several intertwining areas leading to VPI, which further highlighted
their potential in pavement performance estimation and associated criteria. It is noteworthy that
this comprehensive report indicated a need for integration of several facets of mechanistic pave-
ment design modules for flexible pavements, specifically focused on connecting field-based evalu-
ation with sophisticated hybrid models. The VPI in combination with advanced pavement models
may account for the dynamic effects of traffic loads considering material properties that may very
well lead to rational evaluation of flexible pavement performance. However, the recent studies have
individually accounted for the various aspects discussed in the paper, which when integrated would
advance the current state-of-the-art.
7. Conclusions
The objective of this state-of-the-art review was to present a comprehensive report of the several
investigations that documented the evolution of establishing the flexible pavement design perfor-
mance criteria, which recognised the effect of VPI mechanism. Further, this paper attempted in tracing
the development of performance criteria for asphalt pavements with regard to vehicle models, pave-
ment structural and material models, and methods of analyses that cater to VPI. The interaction
between vehicle and pavement systems that plays a vital role in force transfer between the two sys-
tems was acknowledged with the support of literature pertinent to uncoupled and coupled analyses
with emphasis on vehicle and pavement responses. The major conclusions from this assemblage are
as follows:
• Traffic load representation: the existing flexible pavement design guidelines worldwide adopt static
loading for system analyses although the actual field traffic characteristics are dynamic in nature.
Furthermore, owing to the challenges in incorporating parametric values such as vehicle speed,
tire types, axle configurations, suspension damping and stiffness, and tire damping and stiffness
into the dynamic vehicular models, and need for additional computational effort; this approach
has been limited to academic exercise while not applied into pavement analysis and design as part
of implementation. However, abundant literature is available that has potential in translating this
knowledge into practical use.
• Flexible pavement models: the assessment of performance criteria has evolved from empirical to
mechanistic-empirical based on multi-layered theory. It is noteworthy that pavement structure
has been modelled using the classical beam and plate elements while the material models have
witnessed a shift from two-stage to three-stage formulation that capture the different phases
of material behaviour. However, there is a definitive need to incorporate the well-researched
advanced structural and material models to arrive at performance metrics that will ensure rational
analysis, specifically rendering the current design approaches to be mechanistic.
• VPI analysis and performance criteria: the current literature has extensively utilised the moving load
concept in pavement analysis, which may be perceived as a simplified representation of uncoupled
VPI to evaluate rutting, fatigue cracking, roughness, ride comfort and serviceability. Furthermore,
researchers have recommended amendments to the existing uncoupled formulations, albeit they
are yet to be implemented. Not just that, the real-time pavement performance has also been found
to lean on coupled VPI approach, wherein both vehicle and pavement systems are deemed to be
analysed concurrently to obtain physical quantities that define distresses. To this end, this paper
underscored the feasibility of coupled VPI in characterising the realistic behaviour, although the
process of interlinking VPI analysis and estimation of performance criteria is yet to be achieved.
Thus, futuristic analysis approach must focus on estimating performance metrics that is akin to
mechanistic-based design in concert with field instrumentation that can complement in accom-
plishing a robust flexible pavement design process. It is envisioned that this review will also provide
support in designing and developing advanced pavement technologies and systems.
ORCID
Krishna Prapoorna Biligiri http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2313-0815
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A Critical Review of Vehicle Pavement Interaction Mechanism in Evaluating Flexible Pavement Performance Characteristics

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Road Materials and Pavement Design

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/trmp20

A critical review of vehicle-pavement interaction

Gauri R. Mahajan, B. Radhika & Krishna Prapoorna Biligiri

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2020.1860806

Published online: 24 Dec 2020.

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STATE OF THE ART

A critical review of vehicle-pavement interaction mechanism in

Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati, Tirupati, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

CONTACT Krishna Prapoorna Biligiri bkp@iittp.ac.in; krishnapbiligiri@gmail.com

© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

Figure 1. Review outline.

2. Traffic loads in flexible asphalt pavements

2.1. Incorporation of traffic characteristics in flexible pavement design

2.2. Incorporation of dynamic characteristics using vehicle system models

2.3. Influence of vehicle parameters on pavement performance

2.3.1. Effect of vehicle speed

2.3.2. Effect of axle configuration

2.3.3. Effects of suspension damping and stiffness

2.3.4. Effects of tire damping and stiffness

3. Asphalt pavement system models

Figure 2. Typical asphalt pavement system model framework.

3.1. Structural representation of asphalt pavements in VPI framework

3.2. Pavement materials models

• Elasto-viscoplastic: Elastic strain (εe ) + Viscoplastic strain (εvp )

Table 4. Applications of advanced models for asphalt concrete.

3.3. Numerical modelling of asphalt pavement systems

• to identify the truck characteristics responsible for pavement distresses,

mv ẍv + cv (ẋv − ẋp ) + kv (xv − xp ) = 0 (1)

4.1. Uncoupled VPI

4.2. Coupled VPI

Table 5. Research applications of coupled VPI analysis.

4.3. Methods for VPI analysis

5. Evaluation of asphalt pavement performance criteria using VPI mechanism

5.1. Structural performance criteria

5.2. Functional performance criteria

Table 6. Research on structural performance evaluation of asphalt pavements.

Vehicle Pavement Inﬂuence Study Contribution

Table 7. Research on functional performance evaluation of asphalt pavements.

Vehicle Pavement Inﬂuence Study Contribution

6. Way forward and research prospects

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