Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Office of the Vice President for Branches and Campuses
Sta. Maria, Bulacan Campus

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR

GEED10023
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

COMPILED BY:

Christine Joy D. Peñamante, RPm

Faculty

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 1. THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES

This module will discuss the construct of the self from various disciplinal perspectives:
philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and psychology – as well as the more traditional division
between the East and West – each seeking to provide answers to the difficult but essential
question of “What is the self?” And raising among others, the question, “Is there even such a
construct as the self?”

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this Module, the student should be able to:
1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from various
disciplinal perspectives.
2. Examine the different influences, factors and forces that shape the self.

3. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across the different
disciplines and perspectives.

4. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the development of one's self
and identity by developing a theory of the self.

Learning Output:
The student is expected to have a deep understanding in representations and
conceptualizations of the self from different and theoretical and disciplinal perspectives. He should
have a better knowledge to define, describe, explain, identify, contrast and compare the
differences among these perspectives. The student is also expected to complete class exercises
such as recitations, individual essays, group discussions, quizzes and reaction paper about the
topics discussed.

Units for Discussion are:

The Self from Various Perspectives
Unit 1: Philosophy
1.1 Socrates
1.2 Plato
1.3 St. Augustine
1.4 Rene Descartes
1.5 David Hume
1.6 John Locke
1.7 Immanuel Kant
1.8 Sigmund Freud
1.9 Gilbert Ryle
1.10 Paul Churchland
1.11 Maurice Merleau- Ponty

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 Unit 2. Sociology
2.1 The self as a product of modern society among other constructions
2.2 George Herbert Mead and the Social self

Unit 3. Anthropology
3.1 The Self and person in contemporary anthropology
3.2 The self-embedded in culture

Unit 4. Psychology
4.1 The Self as a Cognitive Construction:
4.1.1 William James and the Me-Self; I-Self
4.1.2 Global vs differentiated models
4.1.3 Real and Ideal self-concepts
4.1.4 Multiple vs Unified selves
4.1.5 True vs False selves
4.2 The Self as Proactive and Agentic

Unit 5. The Self in Western and Oriental/Eastern Thought

5.1 Individualistic vs Collective self
5.2 The Social Construction of the Self in Western thought
5.3 The Self as embedded in relationships and through spiritual development in
Confucian thought

Introduction:

The self is not something that one finds; it is something that one creates ‘One should
understand himself truly for realistic, satisfactory and truly optimistic life. Our self should be
developed in a right direction from early years of age so as to develop our personality. In this
respect understanding self is crucial in education. Self-understanding is awareness of and ability
to understand one's own actions.

UNIT 1: PHILOSOPHY

Introduction
Philosophy is the study of acquiring knowledge through rational thinking and inquiries that
involves in answering questions regarding the nature and existence of man and the world we live
in.
Philosophical Perspective is an inquiry into the fundamental nature of the self. It has
preoccupied the earliest thinkers in the history of philosophy Greeks.
Views on the self can be best understood by revisiting its prime movers and identify the most
important conjectures made by philosophers

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 1.1 SOCRATES’ PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW ABOUT THE SELF

Socrates believed that human choice was motivated by the desire for happiness. Ultimate
wisdom comes from knowing oneself. The more a person knows, the greater his or her ability to
reason and make choices that will bring true happiness. Socrates believed that this translated into
politics with the best form of government being neither a tyranny nor a democracy. Instead,
government worked best when ruled by individuals who had the greatest ability, knowledge, and
virtue and possessed a complete understanding of themselves.

• Know thyself: a moral epistemological and injunction

1.1 “An unexamined life is not worth living“

1.2 Philosophy does not mean, as in the sophists, the acquisition of knowledge but a way
of questioning, to challenge, a form of self-concern.

This assertion, imperative in the form, indicates that man must stand and live according
his nature. Man has to look at himself. To find what? By what means?

These two questions are fundamental. The what, at first. Indeed, this invitation to
introspection must be connected to the Platonic theory of reminiscence. Everyone, says Socrates,
has the knowledge itself, just remember them. Knowledge is inherent in man, not outside. Wisdom
is learning to recollect.

How, then. This knowledge of oneself can be achieved only through the Socratic Method, that
is to say, the dialogue between the soul and itself, or between a student and his teacher. Socrates
is as often in the role of questioner, as an attendant emotional. Socrates’ questions because he
knows nothing, knows he knows nothing, has nothing to learn, but it can help its followers to
discover

• SOCRATES ON SELF CONFIDENCE

The Socratic path to self-confidence is to have confidence in our own beliefs and not be
swayed by the opinions of others. He believed humans were like sheep, that we passively follow
each other. We assume others, particularly those that lead us, know what they are talking about
– we trust those in authority. Whilst we may question the bit about trusting those in authority, the
bottom line is we rarely take action and challenge authority. We imagine others must know what
they are talking about and have the skills to deliver – especially if we have lack of self-confidence
in ourselves. There is a pressure to conform, to act within acceptable social norms. Socrates
wanted everyone to scrutinize what we believe, he believed everyone has a duty to reflect on our
life:

1.2 PLATO’S PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW ABOUT THE SELF

In ethics and moral psychology he developed the view that the good life requires not just
a certain kind of knowledge (as Socrates had suggested) but also habituation to healthy emotional
responses and therefore harmony between the three parts of the soul. Plato argues that if we
truly understand human nature we can find “individual happiness and social stability.”
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THE TRIPARTITE STRUCTURE OF THE SOUL

Plato is a dualist; there is both immaterial mind (soul) and material body, and it is the soul
that knows the forms. Plato believed the soul exists before birth and after death. Thus he believed
that the soul or mind attains knowledge of the forms, as opposed to the senses. Needless to say,
we should care about our soul rather than our body.

The soul (mind) itself is divided into 3 parts:

• Reason

• Appetite (physical urges)

• Will (emotion, passion, spirit.)

The will is the source of love, anger, indignation, ambition, aggression, etc. When these
aspects are not in harmony, we experience mental conflict. The will can be on the side of either
reason or the appetites. To explain the interaction of these 3 parts of the self, Plato uses the
image is of the charioteer (reason) who tries to control horses representing will and appetites.
Elsewhere he says that reason uses the will to control the appetites.

Plato also emphasized the social aspect of human nature. We are not self-sufficient, we need
others, and we benefit from our social interactions, from other person’s talents, aptitudes, and
friendship.

1.3 ST. AUGUSTINE’S PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW ABOUT THE SELF

St. Augustine, also called Saint Augustine of Hippo, original Latin name Aurelius
Augustinus, thereby states the idea that knowledge of our true self entails knowledge of our divine
origin and will enable us to return to it. While these remain the basic characteristics of Augustine’s
philosophy throughout his career, they are considerably differentiated and modified as his
engagement with biblical thought intensifies and the notions of creation, sin and grace acquire
greater significance.

Augustine thinks that by turning inwards and upwards from bodies to soul (from knowledge
of objects to self-knowledge) and from the sensible to the intelligible we will finally be able to
transcend ourselves and get in touch with the supreme being that is none other than God and
Truth and that is more internal to us than our innermost self.

• ST. AUGUSTINE ON SELF-KNOWLEDGE

Augustine examines the relation of self-knowledge and self-transcendence in his early

Plotinian-influenced thinking and the development of his conception of the human mind on the
model of the divine Trinity. It traces Augustine’s distinction in De Trinitate of three relational
elements of the human mind that compose a trinitarian structure and his distinction of two levels
of the human mind—one reflexive, the other prereflexive—where a trinitarian structure is found.
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By highlighting the distinction between the plane of discursive thinking (se cogitare) and the plane
of intuitive self-awareness (se nosse), demonstrates that the more foundational, trinitarian-
structured level of prereflexivity (se nosse) accounts for the unity of consciousness and the
identity of the self, while the trinitarian structure on the level of reflexive thought (se cogitare)
depends on moral and intellectual perfection.

1.4 RENE DESCARTES’ PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW ABOUT THE SELF

He begins with an argument known commonly as the Cogito. He comes to understand

that if he is capable of doubting – which is precisely what he is doing – then he must exist. He
may doubt everything else, may be deceived about the existence of all other things, but he must
necessarily exist.

Cogito ergo sum – I think therefore I am. Descartes does not actually phrase his
conclusion in this exact manner in the meditations. It was only later that he came to use the
famous Latin sentence to describe his findings.

After establishing the fact of his existence, Decartes goes on to ask himself what he is. He
eventually comes to describe himself as a thinking thing. But what is a thinking thing? The easiest
way to understand Decartes’ thoughts is to look at his ideas regarding substance, the essence of
a substance, and the modes of a substance. A substance is defined as something that is capable
of existing independently of all things besides the sustaining power of God (which Decartes
believes is necessary for anything to exist).

Clearly, the mind can be viewed as a substance, since we can see it existing
independently. According to Decartes, the essence of mind is thought, which he describes in
terms of doubting, affirming, judging, etc. This makes sense – a mind can be seen as something
that is defined by thought. The modes of the mind, then, are the various ways of thinking
(doubting, affirming, etc).

1.5 JOHN LOCKE’S PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW ABOUT THE SELF

Locke holds that personal identity is a matter of psychological continuity. Arguing against
both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position, which holds that
man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an “empty” mind, a tabula rasa,
which is shaped by experience, and sensations and reflections being the two sources of all our
ideas. Locke creates a third term between the soul and the body, and Locke’s thought may
certainly be meditated by those who, following a scientist ideology, would identify too quickly the
brain with consciousness.

For the brain, as the body and as any substance, may change, while consciousness
remains the same. Therefore, personal identity is not in the brain, but in consciousness. However,
Locke’s theory also reveals his debt to theology and to Apocalyptic “great day”, which in advance
excuses any failings of human justice and therefore humanity’s miserable state. The problem of
personal identity is at the center of discussions about life after death and immortality. In order to
exist after death, there has to be a person after death who is the same person as the person who
died.

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 1.6 DAVID HUME’S PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW ABOUT THE SELF

For Hume there is no mind or self. The perceptions that one has are only active when one is
conscious. "When my perceptions are removed for any time, as by sound sleep, so long am I
insensible of myself, and may truly be said not to exist." Hume appears to be reducing personality
and cognition to a machine that may be turned on and off. Death brings with it the annihilation of
the perceptions one has.

Hume argues passions as the determinants of behavior. Hume also appears as a

behaviorist believing that humans learn in the same manner as lower animals; that is through
reward and punishment.

Hume's method of inquiry begins with his assumption that experience in the form of
impressions cannot give rise to the constancy of a self in which would be constant to give
reference to all future experiences. The idea of self is not one any one impression. It is several
ideas and impressions in itself. There is no constant impression that endures for one's whole life.

It appears the closest thing that Hume could discuss as the self is similar to watching a film
or a play of one's life. These perceptions themselves are separate from one another and there is
no unifying component as a self to organize such for long-term reference. Hume further
deliberates over a position of identity of an invariable and uninterrupted existence. Hume confirms
there is no primordial substance as to where all secondary existences of individual existence
exist. Everything in our conscious state is derived from impressions. Objects in the outer world
exist as distinct species that are separable from the secondary qualities in conscious thought. To
negate any demonstration of substance Hume posits an analogy that if life was reduced to below
that of an oyster, does this entity have any one perception as thirst or hunger? The only thing that
would exist is the perception. Adding a higher complex of perception would not yield any notion
of substance that could yield an independent and constant self.

1.7 IMMANUEL KANT’S PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW ABOUT THE SELF

Kant's concept of the self is a response to Hume in part. Kant wished to justify a conviction
in physics as a body of universal truth. The other being to insulate religion, especially a belief in
immortality and free will.

Kant used inner sense to defend the heterogeneity of body and soul: "bodies are objects
of outer sense; souls are objects of inner sense”. In Kant's thought there are two components of
the self: 1. inner self 2. outer self . There are two kinds of consciousness of self: consciousness
of oneself and one's psychological states in inner sense and consciousness of oneself and
one's states via performing acts of apperception. Empirical self-consciousness is the term
Kant used to describe the inner self.

Transcendental apperception or (TA) is used in two manners by Kant for the term. The
first being a synthetic faculty and a second as the I as subject. One will note that logically this
function would occur in inner sense (Kant states that all representational states are in inner sense
include all spatially localized outer objects. The origin or our representations regardless if they
are the product of a priori or outer objects as modifications of the mind belong to inner sense.

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Kant presents apperception as a means to consciousness to one's self. Inner sense is not pure
apperception. It is an awareness of what we are experiencing as we are affected by thought.

Kant postulates that there is a plurality of representations that gives rise to our view of self as
a "single common subject". This concept requires a constant undivided self. This concept is a
continuation of global unity that spans many representations, one does not have to be conscious
of the global object but of oneself as subject of all representations. Kant's self has a unity of self-
reference, "When we are conscious of ourselves as subject, we are conscious of ourselves as
the single common subject of a number of representations." Here Kant confirms that the
impressions we perceive have one single common aim and that is the self as subject of these
experiences.

Kant postulates both senses as empirical but with the object of inner self being the soul.
Transcendental apperception is a priori. Kant maintains the use of intuitive faculties of intuition
and synthesis in inner self where innate material unites the spatially located objects from the outer
self. Here, this permits a downward deductive operation to act from Kant's theology while
preserving an inductive operation from the sense world of our experience.

1.8 SIGMUND FREUD’S PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW ABOUT THE SELF

Freud's single most enduring and important idea was that the human psyche (personality)
has more than one aspect. Freud saw the psyche structured into three parts, the id, ego and
superego, all developing at different stages in our lives. These are systems, not parts of the brain,
or in any way physical.

According to Freud's model of the psyche, the id is the primitive and instinctual part of the
mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories, the super-ego operates
as a moral conscience, and the ego is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the
id and the super-ego. Although each part of the personality comprises unique features, they
interact to form a whole, and each part makes a relative contribution to an individual's behavior.

• ID, EGO AND SUPER EGO

The ego develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world. It is the
decision-making component of personality. Ideally, the ego works by reason, whereas the id is
chaotic and unreasonable. The ego operates according to the reality principle, working out
realistic ways of satisfying the id’s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to
avoid negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette
and rules in deciding how to behave. Like the id, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e., tension reduction)
and avoids pain, but unlike the id, the ego is concerned with devising a realistic strategy to obtain
pleasure. The ego has no concept of right or wrong; something is good simply if it achieves its
end of satisfying without causing harm to itself or the id.

If the ego fails in its attempt to use the reality principle, and anxiety is experienced,
unconscious defense mechanisms are employed, to help ward off unpleasant feelings or make
good things feel better for the individual. The ego engages in secondary process thinking, which
is rational, realistic, and orientated towards problem-solving. If a plan of action does not work,

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then it is thought through again until a solution is found. This is known as reality testing and
enables the person to control their impulses and demonstrate self-control, via mastery of the ego.
An important feature of clinical and social work is to enhance ego functioning and help the client
test reality through assisting the client to think through their options.

The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the
inherited (i.e., biological) components of personality present at birth, including the sex (life)
instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and the aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos. The
id is the impulsive (and unconscious) part of our psyche which responds directly and immediately
to the instincts. The personality of the newborn child is all id and only later does it develop an ego
and super-ego. The id remains infantile in its function throughout a person’s life and does not
change with time or experience, as it is not in touch with the external world. The id is not affected
by reality, logic or the everyday world, as it operates within the unconscious part of the mind. The
id operates on the pleasure principle which is the idea that every wishful impulse should be
satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences. When the id achieves its demands, we
experience pleasure when it is denied we experience ‘unpleasure’ or tension. The superego
incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and others.
It develops around the age of 3 – 5 during the phallic stage of psychosexual development.

The superego's function is to control the id's impulses, especially those which society
forbids, such as sex and aggression. It also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to
moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection. The superego
consists of two systems: The conscience and the ideal self. The conscience can punish the ego
through causing feelings of guilt. For example, if the ego gives in to the id's demands, the
superego may make the person feel bad through guilt. The ideal self (or ego-ideal) is an imaginary
picture of how you ought to be, and represents career aspirations, how to treat other people, and
how to behave as a member of society. Behavior which falls short of the ideal self may be
punished by the superego through guilt. The super-ego can also reward us through the ideal self
when we behave ‘properly’ by making us feel proud. If a person’s ideal self is too high a standard,
then whatever the person does will represent failure. The ideal self and conscience are largely
determined in childhood from parental values and how you were brought up.

1.9 GILBERT RYLE’S PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW ABOUT THE SELF

According to Ryle, it’s high time that the destructive myth of dualism is debunked once
and for all, and replaced with a clearer conceptual and linguistic understanding of the true nature
of the self. The official doctrine, according to Ryle, is derived from the influential thinking of Rene
Descartes and contends that every human being has both a physical body and a nonphysical
mind which are ordinarily “harnessed together” while we are alive. However, after the death of the
body, our minds may continue to exist and function. This “dualistic” conception of the mind and
body is analogous to the dualism of Socrates and Plato who viewed the self as being comprised
of a mortal body and an immortal soul, and is also similar to the Neo-Platonist views of St.
Augustine and other Christian philosophers in the Middle Ages.

According to Ryle, this dualistic “official doctrine” has become the dominant model in
academic disciplines like psychology, in many religions, and in our popular culture. According to

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Ryle, the practical implications of this doctrine are profound and far reaching. Human bodies are
in space and are subject to the mechanical laws which govern all other bodies in space and are
accessible to external observers. But minds are not in space, their operations are not subject to
mechanical laws, and the processes of the mind are not accessible to other people—its career is
private. Only I am able to perceive and experience the states and processes of my own
mind. In Ryle’s words: “A person therefore lives through two collateral histories, one consisting
of what happens in and to his body, and other consisting of what happens in and to his mind. The
first is public, the second private.”

1.10 PAUL CHURCHLAND’S PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW ABOUT THE SELF

The impressive success of scientific mind-brain research has encouraged many to

conclude that it is only a matter of time before the mental life of consciousness is fully explainable
in terms of the neurophysiology of the brain. The ultimate goal of such explorations is to link the
self—including all of our thoughts, passions, personality traits—to the physical wiring and
physiological functioning of the brain. Although such thinkers recognize that achieving such a goal
will take time, they are confident that we will progressively develop ways of describing the mind,
consciousness, and human experience that are physiologically based.

The contemporary philosopher Paul Churchland* articulates such a vision in the following
essay. He begins by acknowledging that a simple identity formula—mental states = brain
states—is a flawed way in which to conceptualize the relationship between the mind and the
brain. Instead, we need to develop a new, neuroscience-based vocabulary that will enable us to
think and communicate clearly about the mind, consciousness, and human experience. He refers
to this view as eliminative materialism.

Churchland’s central argument is that the concepts and theoretical vocabulary we use to
think about ourselves—using such terms as belief, desire, fear, sensation, pain, joy—actually
misrepresent the reality of minds and selves. All of these concepts are part of a commonsense
“folk psychology” that obscures rather than clarifies the nature of human experience.

Eliminative materialists believe that we need to develop a new vocabulary and conceptual
framework that is grounded in neuroscience and that will be a more accurate reflection of the
human mind and self.

1.11 MAURICE MERLEU-PONTY’S PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ABOUT THE SELF

The philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty articulated the phenomenologist position in a

simple declaration: “I live in my body.” By the “lived body,” Merleau-Ponty means an entity that
can never be objectified or known in a completely objective sort of way, as opposed to the “body
as object” of the dualists.

Note that at no point do you doubt that the “I” you refer to is a single integrated entity, a
blending of mental, physical, and emotional structured around a core identity: yourself. According
to Husserl and Merleau-Ponty, if we honestly and accurately examine our direct and immediate
experience of ourselves, these mind-body “problems” fall away. As Merleau-Ponty explains,
“There is not a duality of substances but only the dialectic of living being in its biological milieu.”

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In other words, our “living body” is a natural synthesis of mind and biology, and any attempts to
divide them into separate entities are artificial and nonsensical.

UNIT 2: SOCIOLOGY

Introduction
Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject
matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of
race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical
change in whole societies.
Sociological theories of the self attempt to explain how social processes such as
socialization influence the development of the self. From a classical sociological perspective, the
self is a relatively stable set of perceptions of who we are in relation to ourselves, others, and to
social systems. The self is socially constructed in the sense that it is shaped through interaction
with other people.

The self: The self is the individual person, from his or her own perspective.

Self-awareness is the capacity for introspection and the ability to reconcile oneself as an
individual separate from the environment and other individuals.

Generalized other: the general notion that a person has regarding the common expectations of
others within his or her social group

Socialization: The process of learning one’s culture and how to live within it.

Community: A group sharing a common understanding and often the same language, manners,
tradition and law.

2.1 THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OR MODERN SOCIETY AMONG OTHER CONSTRUCTIONS

• Primary Socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and actions
appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture.
• Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning the appropriate behavior as a
member of a smaller group within the larger society.
• Group socialization is the theory that an individual’s peer groups, rather than parental
figures, influences his or her personality and behavior in adulthood.
• Organizational socialization is the process whereby an employee learns the knowledge
and skills necessary to assume his or her organizational role.
• In the social sciences, institutions are the structures and mechanisms of social order and
cooperation governing the behavior of a set of individuals within a given human collectivity.
Institutions include the family, religion, peer group, economic systems, legal systems,
penal systems, language and the media.

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2.2 GEORGE HERBERT MEAD AND THE SOCIAL SELF

• One of the most important sociological approaches to the self was developed by American
sociologist George Herbert Mead. Mead conceptualizes the mind as the individual
importation of the social process.
• This process is characterized by Mead as the “I” and the “me”. The “me” is the social self
and the “I” is the response to the “me”. The “I” is the individual’s impulses. The “I” is self
as subject; the “me” is self as object.
• For Mead, existence in a community comes before individual consciousness. First one
must participate in the different social positions within society and only subsequently can
one use that experience to take the perspective of others and thus become self-conscious.

George Herbert Mead: George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) was an American philosopher,
sociologist, and psychologist, primarily affiliated with the University of Chicago, where he was one
of several distinguished pragmatists. He is regarded as one of the founders of social psychology
and the American sociological tradition in general.

Sociological theories of the self attempt to explain how social processes such as
socialization influence the development of the self. One of the most important sociological
approaches to the self was developed by American sociologist George Herbert Mead. Mead
conceptualizes the mind as the individual importation of the social process. Mead presented the
self and the mind in terms of a social process. As gestures are taken in by the individual
organism, the individual organism also takes in the collective attitudes of others, in the form of
gestures, and reacts accordingly with other organized attitudes.

This process is characterized by Mead as the “I” and the “me”. The “me” is the social self and
the “I” is the response to the “me”. In other words, the “I” is the response of an individual to the
attitudes of others, while the “me” is the organized set of attitudes of others which an individual
assumes. The “me” is the accumulated understanding of the “generalized other,” i.e. how one
thinks one’s group perceives oneself. The “I” is the individual’s impulses. The “I” is self as subject;
the “me” is self as object. The “I” is the knower, the “me” is the known.

The mind, or stream of thought, is the self-reflective movements of the interaction between
the “I” and the “me”. These dynamics go beyond selfhood in a narrow sense, and form the basis
of a theory of human cognition. For Mead the thinking process is the internalized dialogue
between the “I” and the “me”.

Understood as a combination of the “I” and the “me,” Mead’s self proves to be noticeably
entwined within a sociological existence. For Mead, existence in a community comes before
individual consciousness. First one must participate in the different social positions within society
and only subsequently can one use that experience to take the perspective of others and become
self-conscious.

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 UNIT 3: ANTHROPOLOGY

Introduction
Anthropology is a relative newcomer to the debate on selfhood. It emerged as a subject
from the imperial ambitions of European states during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
and was initially an effort to identify the weaknesses and failings of other cultures so that they
could be exploited and subjugated. It was only in the late-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
that anthropology threw off its intimate links with the national and religious organizations it had
been serving, and began to ask the big question that has informed its research ever since: ‘What
does it mean to be human?’

3.1 THE SELF AND PERSON IN CONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGY

• Karl Marx, who opposed the imperial version of anthropology when it was at its strongest,
the problem was socio-political. At some point in the past, humans had adopted a stratified
social system in which individuals became specialized not only in their productive roles
but also in their social roles. Capitalism meant that some individuals became rulers and
owners (the bourgeoisie), while the rest became the proletariat, workers without the
freedom to choose in any useful way. The workers were alienated from their work – they
had no control over what they did – and alienated from their own selves, from their innate
potential as individuals. The solution proposed by Marx was communism, in which the
workers would once again take control over their work. The illusion of selfish but powerless
individual selfhood, fostered by capitalism, would be replaced by a communally aware
selfhood in which the individual is fulfilled by their work for the collective.

• Émile Durkheim, like Marx, saw modern society as a form of alienation of the individual;
but for Durkheim the alienation was caused by an enhanced sense of personal identity,
and it was not a bad thing. Traditional societies have collective awareness and weak self-
identity, while modern Western societies have individual awareness and strong self-
identity; traditional societies enforce conformity by dealing with deviant behavior, while
modern Western societies deal with the deviant individual; and, while conformity in
traditional societies means adoption of a standard role, modern Western conformity is a
matter of finding a specialist role in a complex and highly differentiated society. For
Durkheim, the enhanced selfhood in modern societies is a necessary outcome of social
complexity: social complexity generates new and varied ways of being human, so the
individual has more choice in their way of being human.

• Claude Lévi-Strauss thought that the individual was almost entirely the product of their
social environment, and any selfhood was therefore imposed on the individual by the local
culture. Like Durkheim, he saw the collectively defined self as the natural state in
traditional societies, while modern humans were in a state of enhanced individuality.
However, unlike Durkheim (and more like Marx), he believed the traditional state was

13
 preferable to the modern. Modern individuality leads to the celebration of individual
creativity, which cannot actually exist. Everything created is continuous with what has
gone before; which means that attempting to consciously add newness usually adds
imperfection – it is not creation, it is destruction.

• Joseph Campbell, another anthropologist with an interest in myth, took a very different
view of selfhood in traditional societies. He looked at the myths as hero-myths,
descriptions of the growth and emancipation of the individual protagonist in the story –
who is usually male, and usually forced to undertake a series of ego-enhancing tasks.
However, like Lévi-Strauss, Campbell saw all myth as carrying one single message, which
he called the monomyth. This myth has four functions: to explain nature; to reconcile the
conscious experience of life to the subliminal experience; to establish the constraints that
society must place on the individual to ensure group survival; and to provide a template
by which individuals should live to ensure personal survival. For Campbell, the monomyth
was not a call to abandon individuality, but an explanation of the interface between the
personal individual and the social individual, the ‘selfish’ self and the cooperative self. It
explained how the selfish self can move from the safety of the known through the unsafe
unknown, and emerge once again into the known, but with a new social awareness.

The stories we tell about being human are the stories of our own humanity; the
evidence we rely on is our own experience of being human; and when we hear stories, we
understand them through the filter of our own experience.

• Dorinne Kondo raised an important issue for selfhood in anthropology. Her experience
while conducting fieldwork in Japan made her realise that her own selfhood had intruded
onto her research in an unexpected and disturbing way: in her effort to understand the
‘Japaneseness’ of her subjects, she had increasingly identified with, and adopted, the
attitudes and views of her subjects. The transformation did not happen in her objective
knowledge of being Japanese but in her subjective knowledge. Yet it was only through her
subjective knowledge that she was able to objectively identify the cultural differences
between being Japanese and being American.

• Thomas Csordas took a somewhat different direction on selfhood, when he proposed

that any anthropological study of the self needs to recognise the physical body. The
existence of a body is the cause of the existence of the self, and the existence of groups
of bodies is the cause of culture – both the physical culture evident in many non-humans
and the symbolic culture evident in humans. The human self is both a subjective thing
experienced in a physical culture and an objective thing experienced in a symbolic culture;
but the subjective and objective selves are not different things, they are different sides of
the same thing. Only by acknowledging the embodiment of the self can we hope to
reconcile our subjective and objective experiences. For Csordas, the self is an enduring
thing, defining culture by its very existence.

14
 The self needs to be seen as a socially defined phenomenon, created by both the
impression of the group upon the individual and the expression of the individual upon the group.
Humans have a unique relationship with other members of their species, both communicatively
and socially. Our capacity for group living and group institutions exceeds that of every other animal
on the planet. Anthropology therefore has an important voice in the discussion of selfhood; and
its motivating question, ‘What does it mean to be human?’, is key to understanding our unusual
relationship with our selves.

3.2 THE SELF EMBEDDED IN CULTURE

Culture and the Self: A New Global Perspective

How we see ourselves shapes our lives, and is shaped by our cultural context. Self-
perceptions influence, among other things, how we think about the world, our social relationships,
health and lifestyle choices, community engagement, political actions, and ultimately our own and
other people's well-being.

For several decades, psychological scientists have commonly assumed that Western
cultures foster seeing oneself as independent from others, whereas the rest of the world's cultures
foster seeing oneself as interdependent with others. Critics have argued that this view of cultural
diversity is too simplistic, but it has remained a dominant assumption in the field — and
researchers often explain unsupportive findings away as methodological failures rather than
question it.

The new research paints a much richer picture of diversity in cultural models of selfhood.
It shows that Western cultures tend to emphasize certain ways of being independent (e.g., being
different from others, self-directed, and self-expressive), but not others (e.g., being self-interested,
self-reliant, and consistent across contexts).

Viewed in global context, Western cultures are not "exceptional" but they form part of the
broad kaleidoscope of global variation. Nor is cultural individualism linked straightforwardly to
independent self-perceptions, as has been commonly presumed. Different ways of seeing
oneself as both independent and interdependent were emphasized in different parts of the world,
and this was partly explained by socioeconomic development and religious heritage of the cultural
groups.

A richer understanding of cultural variation, based firmly on empirical research rather than
stereotypes, could help practitioners intervene more effectively with members of diverse cultural
communities.

15
 UNIT 4: PSYCHOLOGY

Introduction
In psychology, the notion of the self refers to a person's experience as a single, unitary,
autonomous being that is separate from others, experienced with continuity through time and
place. The experience of the self includes consciousness of one's physicality as well as one's
inner character and emotional life.

4.1 THE SELF AS A COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTION

In examining the self as a cognitive construction, attention focuses on those cognitive-

developmental processes that result in changes in the structure of the self-system, namely, how
self-representations are organized. This approach provides an account of normative,
developmental changes, and emphasizes the similarities among individuals at a given stage of
development.

4.1.1 WILLIAM JAMES’ CONCEPT OF SELF: THE ME- SELF AND THE I- SELF

According to William James the self s divided into two categories:

I-Self/Thinking Self – it is cognitive, how we interpret the world falls under this. It mirrors
the souls and mind or what kind of person he/she is and it is also called pure ego. The thinking
self is quite capable of taking it all for granted. Rather than help us to connect with our reality in
the present moment, the thinking self often captures our focus and takes us mentally to seemingly
more interesting thoughts in a different time and place.

Me-Self – it is empirical. It is based on personal experiences of a person. It does not matter

if the experience is new, exciting, familiar, or unpleasant – it’s all simply acceptable. When a
person has an attitude of openness and curiosity in the present, moments which the thinking self-
had anticipated with dread often either disappear or they turn out to be much less unpleasant that
expected.

James suggests that "the total self of me, being as it were duplex," is composed of
"partly object and partly subject." He is careful to hedge his bet and point out that they are
discriminated aspects of self rather than “separate things," but the truth is that they come off rather
separate in his description of them

4.1.2 GLOBAL vs DIFFERENTIATED MODELS

With regard to terminology, global self-evaluations have typically been referred to as self-
esteem, self-worth, or general self-concept. In each case, the focus is on the overall evaluation
of one’s worth or value as a person. It is primarily reserved for evaluative judgments of attributes
I discrete domains such as cognitive competence, social acceptance, physical appearance or
“domain-specific self-evaluations”.

16
 Murray Bowen, MD developed the self-differentiation theory which applies to human
development and family dynamics. His theory has two major parts. 1) “Differentiation of self is the
ability to separate feelings and thoughts. Undifferentiated people cannot separate feelings and
thoughts; when asked to think, they are flooded with feelings, and have difficulty thinking logically
and basing their responses on that. 2) Further, they have difficulty separating their own from
others’ feelings; they look to family to define how they think about issues, feel about people, and
interpret their experiences.”

“Differentiation is the process of freeing yourself from your family's processes to define
yourself. This means being able to have different opinions and values than your family members
but being able to stay emotionally connected to them. It means being able to calmly reflect on a
conflicted interaction afterward, realizing your own role in it, and then choosing a different
response for the future.”

4.1.2 REAL SELF vs IDEAL SELF

The concept of Real and Ideal self is usually attributed to Humanistic perspective in
psychology, specifically to Carl Rogers. These concepts however, trace all the way back to
psychoanalytic perspective, considering that humanistic psychologists were big critics of
deterministic psychoanalysis. Nevertheless, the concept of Real and Ideal self is very actual and
important to understand as it has many applications in real world, outside of psychology books.

Ideal self, defined from humanistic perspective, is the person we would like to be, our
aspirations, goals, the way we imagine our future. Following this definition, however, one might
think that there is nothing wrong about ideal-self. In reality, Ideal-self is easily corrupted.
Corrupted by social scripts and norms, social acceptance factor, our social groups, our micro
achievements and defense mechanisms. In fact, ideal self plays one of the key roles in
development and reinforcement of our defense mechanisms.

We acquire defense mechanisms in order to deal with neuroticism (for example, stress
and anxiety). We turn away from the real self towards seemingly better, ideal self. And, we deny
the reality and who we are. Also, ideal self can be attributed to a social mask concept which is
basically the way we present ourselves in different social groups, when we want to be perceived
as something better or more relevant to that group. Ideal self, can be one of those psychological
aspects that starts of innocent and with good intentions, but ends up transforming a person into
one helpless and hopeless individual.

Real self, on the other hand is what we really are, which, is not as simple as it sounds.
And obviously, at this point, you understand that the goal is to discover and be our real-selves,
while controlling the ideal-self and slowly moving towards the set goals of that ideal-self. But, how
can we be our real-selves, when most of us don’t know what that real-self is? It can take a long
time to figure out what that real-self is and it might take even longer to develop enough mastery
in order to be ones real-self, but, it is essential and very rewarding. Also, it is worth mentioning
that real and ideal selves are closely associated with the self-concept, self-esteem, mastery and
mattering. Excessive attribution to ideal-self can have negative impact on all three.

17
 4.1.3 TRUE SELF vs FALSE SELF

There is a natural human tendency to protect our authentic selves from the scrutiny of the
outside world. When we protect our true selves, we are able to avoid being rejected or hurt.
There is a downside to this protection though – we may miss out on the opportunity to have
genuine connections with other people.

Authentic Self:

• Thoughts, beliefs, words, and actions come from a deep-seated place within
• Lack of disparity between values and lived values
• Unique combination of your vast multitude of talents, skills, interests, and abilities

False Self:

• Putting on a facade with others may result in an internal sensation of being depleted,
drained, or emotionally numb
• Possible tendencies to turn to mood-altering substances in order to feel “different”
• Actions may feel forced, alienated, or detached

4.1.4 MULTIPLE vs UNIFIED SELVES

David Lester said that the mind is composed of multiple such subselves that are
autonomous sets of psychological processes such as dreams, desires, emotions and memories.

Unified self is the integration of of the subselves into one, however, integration is a task
for the later part of life. True self is inherently moral, good, and transcends situations and
circumstances and culturally stable; governed by the moral code.

Rita Carter accepts the existence of multiple selves, defined as others have defined them,
but she introduced the division of multiple selves into major and minor selves and a number of
fragmentary micros. A major is a “fully fleshed out character with thoughts, desires, intentions,
emotions, ambitions and beliefs”. Minors are less complex than majors and come out in particular
situations. A minor may be no more than a small collection of responses, just enough to deal with
a particular situation, such as a compulsion to argue with certain people or smoking in certain
situations. Micros are “the building blocks of personalities—individual responses, thoughts,
ideas, habit”, as small as a physical or vocal tic or a repeated intrusive thought or emotion. Micros
combine to form minors which in turn can coalesce into majors.

4.2 THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC

According to Bandura, humans, through their agency are perceived as proactive agents of
experiences. Agency is the ability of a human to influence one’s functioning and the course of
events by one’s actions.

18
There are four functions through which human agency is exercised:

a. Intentionality – it is when people make intentions of their action plans and strategies for
realizing them. Intention means you are aware of it. Collective endeavors require
commitment to shares intention and coordination of interdependent plans of action to
realize it.
b. Forethought – people foresee likely outcomes of prospective actions to guide and
motivate them to exert efforts for their goals. It is the ability to anticipate outcomes on
current activities and it is like you are predicting your future. A forethought perspective
provides direction, coherence and meaning to one’s life.
c. Reactiveness – Agents are not only planners and thinkers. They are also self-regulators.
Agency also needs to construct appropriate courses of action and to motivate and regulate
their execution. This multifaceted self-directedness operates through self-regulatory
processes in the explanatory gap to link through action.
d. Self-reflectiveness – In this function we need introspection. Through functional self-
awareness, they reflect on their personal efficacy, the soundness of their thoughts and
actions, the meaning of their pursuits, and make corrective adjustments if necessary.

According to Bandura, people do not operate as autonomous agents. Nor is their behavior
wholly determined by situational influences. Rather, human functioning is a product of a
reciprocal interplay of intrapersonal, behavioral and environmental determinants. This
triadic interaction incudes the exercise of self-influence as part of the causal structure. It is not a
matter of “free will, which is a throwback to medieval theology but in acting as an agent, an
individual makes causal contributions to the course of events.

UNIT 5: THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN THOUGHT

5.1 INDIVIDUALISTIC AND COLLECTIVE SELF

People from individualistic cultures are more likely to have an independent view of
themselves (they see themselves as separate from others, define themselves based on their
personal traits, and see their characteristics as relatively stable and unchanging).
On the other hand, people from collectivistic cultures are more likely to have
an interdependent view of themselves (they see themselves as connected to others, define
themselves in terms of relationships with others, and see their characteristics as more likely to
change across different contexts).
While individualism/collectivism can be measured in any culture, much of the research so
far has been conducted on East Asian and Western cultures. Researchers have found that
Western cultures tend to be more individualistic while East Asian cultures tend to be more
collectivistic. However, it’s important to remember that many factors can influence
individualism/collectivism, so individuals within a culture can also differ in their levels of
independence/interdependence. Individualism and collectivism can even be affected by the
situational context.

19
How does culture impact relationships? In individualistic cultures, relationships are often seen
as voluntary, and it’s not uncommon to choose to end relationships that are not beneficial. On the
other hand, relationships in collectivistic cultures are often seen as more stable and
permanent. Additionally, researchers have hypothesized that, in collectivistic cultures, there is a
greater obligation to not be a burden on close others. And as I’ve written about previously when
discussing attachment style, parent-child relationships can differ from culture to culture. It’s
important to recognize that what’s “normal” in a relationship isn’t the same everywhere: there is
no one particular type of relationship that works best in all cultures.

How does culture affect social support? When we’re under stress, our cultural background
may impact the type of social support we seek out and benefit from most. Research has found
that East Asians and Asian Americans are less likely than European Americans to talk about an
event that they are stressed by (although this difference was smaller for Asian Americans who
were born in the United States). Psychologists have suggested that East Asians are less likely to
talk about a stressful event because doing so can present a challenge to relationships in
collectivistic cultures. Instead, individuals from East Asian cultures are more likely to seek
out implicit social support, which involves spending time with close others without actually
talking about a stressor.

5.2 THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE SELF IN WESTERN THOUGHT

Ideas about the formation of self in habits and as developing in social interaction in the
work of the pragmatists—Peirce, James, Dewey and Mead—as Richard Menary makes clear
in his extended discussion of a pragmatic conception of self. This conception reinforces the
agentive idea that what we do makes us who we are: I am what I do.

As such, there is no pre‐established certainty in the self; it is marked by fallibility and I

come to know myself only through my interactions with physical and social environments. My self‐
awareness develops only by attending to the continuities and habitualities in my practices, which
are already permeated by the gestures of others, which I internalize to form what I call my self.
All of these actions and interactions and self‐formations shape a moral dimension in which we
have to negotiate our freedom, since we are neither absolutely free nor absolutely determined.

Menary takes this pragmatic account to support an externalist conception of the self. We
construct ourselves out in the world, among things, with people, in institutions, all of which operate
as scaffolds in this process. To the extent that the environment affords regular structures,
including those that are shaped on the bodies of others—gestures, words and facial
expressions—our habits become regularized. Yet, they do not become rigid, and the
environments themselves are not entirely predictable or stable. The self, then, is not something
‘in the head’, the Cartesian ego, a mental structure, or the brain; it is distributed through embodied
practices into the environment.

John Dewey, noting his proximity to recent conceptions of extended cognition. In

complete contrast to what we normally take to be the Cartesian self, Dewey states: ‘Thinking, or
knowledge getting, [and here we would insert ‘self’] is far from being the armchair thing it is often
supposed to be. The reason it is not an armchair thing is that it is not an event going on exclusively
within the cortex.…Hands and feet, apparatus and appliances of all kinds are as much a part of it
as changes within the brain.’

20
 The externalist view opens up the question pursued by Kenneth Gergen—is the self
socially constructed? A social constructionist approach to the self is critical insofar as it targets
many of the traditional conceptions of self under discussion in this volume. At the same time, a
point of departure for the social constructionist is something mentioned numerous times before:
that self and self‐knowledge find their origins in human—social, cultural—relationships. This
social orientation, however, is set as the compass for truth and falsity, objectivity and subjectivity,
the scientific and the mythical, the rational and the irrational, and so forth. That is, these
categories, and the power that they have over our philosophical ideas as well as our everyday
practices, are brought into being through historically and culturally situated social processes. The
social constructionist thus challenges the concept of the individual autonomous self, the rational,
self‐directing, morally centered agent of action.

5.3 THE SELF AS EMBEDDED IN RELATIONSHIPS AND THROUGH SPIRITUAL

DEVELOPMENT IN CONFUCIAN THOUGHT

In our task of making explicit the Confucian concept of Self, we then must, it seems, shed
the western conception of the same, and see the issue under a different paradigm. The issue is
no longer one of finding an inherent essence, but one of finding an understanding for true
becoming. But the human condition at birth in Confucianism is not to be confused with that of
being a tabula rasa, upon which our experiences write what will become our personality. The
human nature already seems predisposed toward the becoming of Jen, in that we begin with a
heart that is already aimed at it by its nature. The same holds true for the other three virtues Yi,
Li, and Chih.

The human adult self, in Confucianism, has above been defined as an ‘achieved state of
moral excellence rather than a given human condition’, and there are several implications to such
an understanding. First, strictly speaking, one may speak of a human being in Confucianism only
as such with regard to the human potential to become a human being. In other words, at birth,
being human is no different from being an animal. The true human condition is achieved in life, if
indeed it is being achieved, through the practice of the virtues. While these virtues are almost
impossible to be achieved in anyone’s lifetime, being human refers to making the effort of
achieving them.

To be on the way, to follow the Tao toward perfection, is the as close to perfection one is
likely to come. In this, the concept of ‘self’ in Confucianism is closely linked with all those areas
that the virtues stand for. To become a person of Jen, one aims to become a person of love. On
the exact meaning of Jen extensive writing has been done, to bring this Confucian concept closer
to the western mind by relating it to the western concept of "Agape". A person of Jen is a
compassionate human being, for whom rules and regulations are a means to an end, and not an
end in itself. But such a person does not act arbitrarily. The "superior" person also follows the
virtue of Yi, which relates to righteousness. Further, he follows the rules and laws of the nation
he lives in, and respects its customs. In that, he follows the virtue of Li. Finally, a true human
being has developed his heart of wisdom. That is, he follows Chih, which refers to a wisdom that
has been developed through living a life according to the other virtues. In fact, although we may
speak of the four virtues, this is a distinction only for practical purposes of intellectual
understanding. For the true man, those four virtues are interrelated, and are impossible without
any one of them. In this, they are one.

In Confucianism then, the self can never be static. If one stops to develop the virtues in
one’s living, one has already lost them all. To be human means to develop and to keep pursuing
the virtues. In the sage, this has ceased to be a conscious effort or decision. The dynamic has
21
been integrated into the nature of the self, and has become the self. It has become an
unconscious way of being.

Course Materials:

Watch:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A02Ucd6monY
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L0PKWTta7lU
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ybCAXqkzPhw
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GBtmooBQGuo
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7A2GIct0UnQ

Read:
• https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/self-consciousness/
• https://www.actionresearch.net/living/rawalpdf/Chapter7.pdf
• https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-
9780199828340/obo-9780199828340-0093.xml
• https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hot-thought/201406/what-
is-the-self

Assessments:

1. Recitation on the following topics:

a. One’s ideas regarding how the self is understood?
b. Prepare a short speech about yourself describing the essence of your personal
identity, “Who are you?” You can choose to share a personal story or an
interesting experience. You can talk about your family and career, or your goals
and dreams.

2. Reaction paper focusing on the similarities/differences of self-representations and

conceptualizations and the various identified influences.
3. Group Discussions on the following topics:

a. How is my self-shaped and influenced by culture? (May be discussed at

either or both the regional/ national levels)
b. Is the Philippines really a collectivist society? Give examples and if true, how
does this shape/impact our idea of Self?

4. Submit portfolio of all the essays, reaction paper and activities.

22
Activity 1. A Portrait of Yourself Instruction: Complete the following sentences below.

1. The best thing(s) I ever did was (were) _______________________________________

2. I wish I could lose my fear of _______________________________________________
3. I know I have the talent to _________________________________________________
4. I enjoy people who _______________________________________________________
5. I admire ________________________________________________________________
6. I feel most productive when ________________________________________________
7. I am motivated by ________________________________________________________
8. I almost never ___________________________________________________________
9. My idea of fun is _________________________________________________________
10. Work is exciting when _____________________________________________________
11. The best advice I ever got was ______________________________________________
12. The thing I value most is ___________________________________________________
13. If money were no object, I would ____________________________________________
14. It is easy for me to focus on ________________________________________________
15. My idea of a perfect life is __________________________________________________
16. My best days are _________________________________________________________
17. My dream is _____________________________________________________________
18. I always wanted to ________________________________________________________
19. I look forward to _________________________________________________________
20. I spent too much time _____________________________________________________
21. The thing my friends like about me is _________________________________________
22. When I try to change something _____________________________________________
23. In a group I like to ________________________________________________________
24. If I ever win a prize it will be for

23
Activitiy 2. THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TEST

Intructions: In the table below, for each statement 1-50, mark how much you agree with
on the scale 1-5, where 1=disagree, 2-slightly disagree, 3= neutral, 4=slightly agree and
5=agree, in the box to the left of it.

Rating I… Rating I…

1. Am the life of the party. 26. Have little to say.

2. Feel little concern for others 27. Have a soft heart.

3. Am always prepared 28. Often forget to put things back

in their proper place.

4. Get stressed out easily 29. Get upset easily.

5. Have a rich vocabulary 30. Do not have a good

imagination.

6. Don't talk a lot. 31. Talk to a lot of different people

at parties.

7. Am interested in people. 32. Am not really interested in

others

8. Leave my belongings around. 33. Like order.

9. Am relaxed most of the time. 34. Change my mood a lot.

10. Have difficulty understanding 35. Am quick to understand

abstract ideas. things.

11. Feel comfortable around 36. Don't like to draw attention to

people. myself.

12. Insult people. 37. Take time out for others.

13. Pay attention to details. 38. Shirk my duties.

14. Worry about things. 39. Have frequent mood swings.

15. Have a vivid imagination. 40. Use difficult words.

16. Keep in the background. 41. Don't mind being the center of
attention

24
17. Sympathize with others' 42. Feel others' emotions.
feelings.

18. Make a mess of things. 43. Follow a schedule.

19. Seldom feel blue. 44. Get irritated easily

20. Am not interested in abstract 45. Spend time reflecting on

ideas. things.

21. Start conversations. 46. Am quiet around strangers

22. Am not interested in other 47. Make people feel at ease

people's problems.

23. Get chores done right away. 48. Am exacting in my work

24. Am easily disturbed. 49. Often feel blue.

25. Have excellent ideas 50. Am full of ideas.

25
 2. UNPACKING THE SELF

Overview

This lesson about “Unpacking the Self” explores some of the various aspects that make
up the self, such as the biological, material and the more recent Digital Self. Discussions under
this will give a better understanding of the personality, self and identity, along with the influential
forces which could give impact on factors such as gender, culture, family and relationships.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this Module, the student should be able to:
5. Know and explore the different aspects of self and identity
6. Demonstrate critical, reflective thought in integrating the various aspects of self and
identity
7. Identify the different forces and institutions that impact the development of various
aspects of self and identity
8. Examine one's self against the different aspects of self discussed in class

Units for Discussion are:

Unpacking the Self
Unit 1: THE PHYSICAL SELF: The self as impacted by the body
1.1 The Impact of Culture on Body Image and self Esteem: The Importance of
Beauty

Unit 2. SEXUAL SELF

2.1 Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics and the Human
Reproductive
2.2 Discussing the Erogenous Zones
2.3 Understanding the Human Sexual Response
2.3.1 The basic biology of sexual behavior
2.3.2 Understanding the chemistry of lust, love and attachment
2.3.3 The psychological aspect: What turns people on: The phases
Of sexual response
2.4 The diversity of sexual behavior: solitary, heterosexual. Homosexual
And bisexual, transsexual
2.5 Methods of Contraception (natural and artificial)

Unit 3. THE MATERIAL AND ECONOMIC SELF

3.1 I shop, therefore I Am: I have, therefore I Am?
3.2 Shaping the way we see ourselves: The role of consumer culture on our
Sense of self and identity

Unit 4. THE SPIRITUAL SELF: The practice of religion: belief in supernatural

26
 Being and power
4.1 The concept of “dungan” – Spirit or soul
4.2 Rituals and ceremonies: - The function of rituals
4.3 Rituals and Ceremonies
4.4 Religion, Magic and Witchcraft
4.5 Finding and Creating Meaning – Three ways of discovering the meaning
of life

Unit 5. THE POLITICAL SELF

5.1 Developing a Filipino Identity: Values, Traits, Community and
Institutional Factors
5.2 Establishing a Democratic Culture

Unit 6: THE DIGITAL SELF: Self and other in Cyberspace

6.1 I, me, myself and my user ID online identity
6.2 Selective self-presentation and Impression Management
6.3 Impact of Online
6.4 Interactions on the Self Boundaries of the Self-Online: - private vs
vs public; personal/individual vs social identity online; Gender and
Sexuality Online

UNIT 1: THE PHYSICAL SELF: The Self as Impacted by the Body

1.1 The impact of culture on body image and self-esteem: The importance of beauty

Body image is a person's perception of their physical self and the thoughts and feelings,
positive, negative or both, which result from that perception.

Four aspects of body image

1. How you see your body is your perceptual body image. This is not always a correct
representation of how you actually look. For example, a person may perceive themselves
as overweight when they are actually underweight.
2. The way you feel about your body is your affective body image. This relates to the amount
of satisfaction or dissatisfaction you feel about your shape, weight and individual body
parts.
3. The way you think about your body is your cognitive body image. This can lead to
preoccupation with body shape and weight. For example, some people believe they will
feel better about themselves if they are thinner or more muscular.
4. Behaviors in which you engage as a result of your body image encompass your behavioral
body image. When a person is dissatisfied with the way they look, they may isolate
themselves because they feel bad about their appearance or employ destructive

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 behaviors (e.g. excessive exercising, disordered eating) as a means to change
appearance.

Positive body image occurs when a person is able to accept, appreciate and respect their
body. Positive body image can make a person more resilient to the development of an eating
disorder. In fact, the most effective eating disorder prevention programs use a health promotion
approach, focusing on building self-esteem and positive body image, and a balanced approach
to nutrition and physical activity. A positive body image will improve:

1. Self-esteem, which dictates how a person feels about themselves and can infiltrate every
aspect of life, and contribute to happiness and wellbeing.
2. Self-acceptance, making a person more likely to feel comfortable and happy with the way
they look and less likely to feel impacted by unrealistic images in the media and societal
pressures to look a certain way.
3. Healthy outlook and behaviors, as it is easier to lead a balanced lifestyle with healthier
attitudes and practices relating to food and exercise when you are in tune with, and
respond to the needs of your body.

Culture Is Just One Factor

While culture alone is not responsible for a poor or negative body image, the influence
and potential in which it can impact how a person feels about themselves and their body are
substantial. Being aware of your surroundings and understanding how culture and traditions may
affect and impact how you think and feel about your body can be helpful, especially in a conscious
effort to build a positive body image and increase self-esteem.

The Importance of Beauty

While some aspects of your appearance can be changed, others, like your height, muscle
composition and bone structure are genetically fixed. Challenging beauty ideals and learning to
accept your body shape is a crucial step towards positive body image.
While changing your actual appearance can be counterproductive, improving your body
image is a constructive goal. We have the power to change the way we see, feel and think about
our bodies.
• Focusing on your positive qualities, skills and talents can help you accept and appreciate
your whole self
• Say positive things to yourself every day
• Avoid negative or berating self-talk
• Focus on appreciating and respecting what your body can do, rather than how it appears
• Setting positive, health focused goals rather than weight loss related ones is more
beneficial for your overall well-being
• Avoid comparing yourself to others, accept yourself as a whole and remember that
everyone is unique and differences are what make us special
• Remember, many media images are edited for publishing purposes, making them
unrealistic

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 UNIT 2: SEXUAL SELF

2.1 Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics and the Human Reproductive

System
Secondary sexual characteristics are those sexually dimorphic characteristics that are not
directly involved in reproduction. For males, secondary characteristics include facial and chest
hair, increased body hair, pelvic build (lack of rounded hips), upper body muscular build, and the
ability to generate muscle mass at a faster rate than the female. For females, secondary sex
characteristics include relative lack of body hair, thicker hair on the head (in some cases), rounded
hips/figure, a decreased ability to generate muscle mass at a fast rate, decreased upper body
strength, breasts, ability to nurse children, a menstrual cycle, and increased body fat composition.
There are, of course, exceptions to any efforts to use a list of features to classify people into the
conventionally defined sex categories. For instance, not all women succeed in breast-feeding
their infants, even if they otherwise fit the conventional definition of female.

The reproductive system is the human organ system responsible for the production and
fertilization of gametes and, in females, the carrying of a fetus. Both male and female reproductive
systems have organs called gonads (testes in males, ovaries in females) that produce gametes
(sperm or eggs) and sex hormones (such as testosterone in males and estrogen in females). Sex
hormones are endocrine hormones that control the prenatal development of reproductive organs,
sexual maturation at puberty, and reproduction after puberty. The reproductive system is the only
organ system that is significantly different between males and females. A Y-chromosome gene
called SRY is responsible for undifferentiated embryonic tissues developing into a male
reproductive system. Without a Y chromosome, the undifferentiated embryonic tissues develop
into a female reproductive system. Male reproductive system organs include the testes,
epididymis, penis, vas deferens, prostate gland, and seminal vesicles. Female reproductive
system organs include the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, and labia.

2.2 Discussing the Erogenous Zones

Erogenous zones are the highly sensitive areas of the body. These are also the sensitive
areas of skin that are connected, via the nervous system, to the somatosensory cortex in the
brain. The expected “hotspot” erogenous zones around the external sex organs, breasts, and
anus, but also reported areas of the skin beyond these hotspots: Tactile stimulation of practically
all bodily regions trigger sexual arousal.

2.3 Understanding the Human Sexual Response

The brain and other sex organs respond to sexual stimuli in a universal fashion known as
the sexual response cycle. The SRC is composed of four phases:

1. Excitement: Activation of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system

defines the excitement phase; heart rate and breathing accelerates, along with increased
blood flow to the penis, vaginal walls, clitoris, and nipples. Involuntary muscular
movements (myotonia), such as facial grimaces, also occur during this phase.

2. Plateau: Blood flow, heart rate, and breathing intensify during the plateau phase. During
this phase, often referred to as “foreplay,” females experience an orgasmic platform—

29
 the outer third of the vaginal walls tightening—and males experience a release of pre-
seminal fluid containing healthy sperm cells. This early release of fluid makes penile
withdrawal a relatively ineffective form of birth control.

3. Orgasm: The shortest but most pleasurable phase is the orgasm phase. After reaching
its climax, neuromuscular tension is released and the hormone oxytocin floods the
bloodstream—facilitating emotional bonding. Although the rhythmic muscular contractions
of an orgasm are temporally associated with ejaculation, this association is not necessary
because orgasm and ejaculation are two separate physiological processes.

4. Resolution: The body returns to a pre-aroused state in the resolution phase. Males enter
a refractory period of being unresponsive to sexual stimuli. The length of this period
depends on age, frequency of recent sexual relations, level of intimacy with a partner, and
novelty. Because females do not have a refractory period, they have a greater potential—
physiologically—of having multiple orgasms. Ironically, females are also more likely to
“fake” having orgasms.

Of interest to note, the SRC occurs regardless of the type of sexual behavior—whether the
behavior is masturbation; romantic kissing; or oral or vaginal sex. Further, a partner or
environmental object is sufficient, but not necessary, for the SRC to occur.

2.3.1 The Basic Biology of Sexual Behavior

Brain - The brain is the structure that translates the nerve impulses from the skin into pleasurable
sensations. It controls nerves and muscles used during sexual behavior. The brain regulates the
release of hormones, which are believed to be the physiological origin of sexual desire. The
cerebral cortex, which is the outer layer of the brain that allows for thinking and reasoning, is
believed to be the origin of sexual thoughts and fantasies. Beneath the cortex is the limbic system,
which consists of the amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, and septal area. These structures
are where emotions and feelings are believed to originate, and are important for sexual behavior.

The hypothalamus is the most important part of the brain for sexual functioning. This is the
small area at the base of the brain consisting of several groups of nerve-cell bodies that receives
input from the limbic system. Studies with lab animals have shown that destruction of certain
areas of the hypothalamus causes complete elimination of sexual behavior. One of the reasons
for the importance of the hypothalamus is its relation to the pituitary gland, which secretes the
hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus.

Hormones - Several important sexual hormones are secreted by the pituitary gland. Oxytocin,
also known as the "hormone of love," is released during sexual intercourse when an orgasm is
achieved. Oxytocin is also released in females when they give birth or are breast feeding; it is
believed that oxytocin is involved with maintaining close relationships. Both prolactic and oxytocin
stimulate milk production in females. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is responsible for
ovulation in females by triggering egg maturity; it also stimulates sperm production in males.
Luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers the release of a mature egg in females during the process of
ovulation.

In males, testosterone appears to be a major contributing factor to sexual motivation.

Vasopressin is involved in the male arousal phase, and the increase of vasopressin during erectile
response may be directly associated with increased motivation to engage in sexual behavior.

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 The relationship between hormones and female sexual motivation is not as well understood,
largely due to the overemphasis on male sexuality in Western research. Estrogen and
progesterone typically regulate motivation to engage in sexual behavior for females, with estrogen
increasing motivation and progesterone decreasing it. The levels of these hormones rise and fall
throughout a woman's menstrual cycle. Research suggests that testosterone, oxytocin, and
vasopressin are also implicated in female sexual motivation in similar ways as they are in males,
but more research is needed to understand these relationships.

2.3.2 Understanding the Chemistry of Lust, Love and Attachment

Love can be distilled into three categories: lust, attraction, and attachment. Though there are
overlaps and subtleties to each, each type is characterized by its own set of hormones.
Testosterone and estrogen drive lust; dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin create attraction;
and oxytocin and vasopressin mediate attachment.

2.3.3 The Psychological aspect: What turns people on: the phases of Sexual
Response

The sexual response cycle is a series of four physiological phases that both men
and women go through during intercourse. In order to accurately observe these
physiological changes, the researches carefully measured blood pressure, respiration
rate, and indicators of sexual arousal such as level of vaginal lubrication in women and
the level of swelling and blood flow to the penis in men. In conclusion, Masters and
Johnson determined that the human body undergoes four distinct phases during sex.
These phases, in order, include excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

2.4 The Diversity of Sexual Behavior: Solitary, Heterosexual, Homosexual,

Bisexual and Transsexual

a. Solitary - sexual interest of a man or woman is towards himself or herself.

b. Heterosexual - To be a heterosexual man or woman means having a personally
significant and meaningful romantic and/or sexual attraction primarily to adults of the
opposite sex.
c. Homosexual - To be a homosexual man or woman means having a personally
significant and meaningful romantic and/or sexual attraction primarily to adults of the
same sex. (To be an openly gay man or woman implies a personal social integration
with one’s homosexuality, including being “out” by fully accepting one’s homosexuality
and sharing about it with friends, family, and others.)
d. Bisexual - To be a homosexual man or woman means having a personally significant
and meaningful romantic and/or sexual attraction primarily to adults of the same sex.
(To be an openly gay man or woman implies a personal social integration with one’s
homosexuality, including being “out” by fully accepting one’s homosexuality and
sharing about it with friends, family, and others.)
e. Transexual - A transsexual is a person who physically transitions from male to female
or vice versa. Transsexuals may also decide to have gender reassignment surgery, in
which – to the extent that is possible – the anatomical features of the biological gender
are removed and the features of the desired gender are added.

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2.5 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs/ STIs)

a. Chlamydia is a common sexually transmitted disease. It is caused by bacteria called

Chlamydia trachomatis. It can infect both men and women. Women can get chlamydia in
the cervix, rectum, or throat. Men can get chlamydia in the urethra (inside the penis),
rectum, or throat.
b. Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by a herpes
simplex virus (HSV). It can cause sores on your genital or rectal area, buttocks, and thighs.
You can get it from having vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who has it. The virus
can spread even when sores are not present. Mothers can also infect their babies during
childbirth.
c. Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease. It is most common in young adults. The
bacteria that cause gonorrhea can infect the genital tract, mouth, or anus. You can get
gonorrhea during vaginal, oral, or anal sex with an infected partner. A pregnant woman
can pass it to her baby during childbirth.
d. HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. It harms your immune system by
destroying the white blood cells that fight infection. This puts you at risk for serious
infections and certain cancers. AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. It
is the final stage of infection with HIV. Not everyone with HIV develops AIDS.
e. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a group of related viruses. They can cause warts on
different parts of your body. There are more than 200 types. About 40 of them are spread
through direct sexual contact with someone who has the virus. They can also spread
through other intimate, skin-to-skin contact. Some of these types can cause cancer.
f. Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by bacteria. It infects the genital area,
lips, mouth, or anus of both men and women. You usually get syphilis from sexual contact
with someone who has it. It can also pass from mother to baby during pregnancy.
g. Trichomoniasis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by a parasite. It spreads from
person to person during sex. Many people do not have any symptoms. If you do get
symptoms, they usually happen within 5 to 28 days after being infected.

2.6 Methods of Contraception (natural and artificial)

a. Caps - A contraceptive diaphragm or cap is a circular dome made of thin, soft silicone
that's inserted into the vagina before sex. It covers the cervix so sperm can't get into the
womb (uterus) to fertilize an egg.
b. Combined Pill - The combined oral contraceptive pill is often just called "the pill". It
contains artificial versions of female hormones estrogen and progesterone, which are
produced naturally in the ovaries. If sperm reaches an egg (ovum), pregnancy can
happen. Contraception tries to stop this happening usually by keeping the egg and sperm
apart or by stopping the release of an egg (ovulation).
c. Condoms (female) - Female condoms are made from soft, thin synthetic latex or latex.
They're worn inside the vagina to prevent semen getting to the womb.
d. Condoms (male) - Male condoms are made from very thin latex (rubber), polyisoprene or
polyurethane and are designed to stop a man's semen from coming into contact with his
sexual partner.
e. Contraceptive Implant - The contraceptive implant (Nexplanon) is a small flexible plastic
rod that's placed under the skin in your upper arm by a doctor or nurse. It releases the
hormone progestogen into your bloodstream to prevent pregnancy and lasts for 3 years.
f. Contraceptive Injection - The contraceptive injection (Depo-Provera, Sayana Press or
Noristerat) releases the hormone progestogen into your bloodstream to prevent
pregnancy.

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 g. Contraceptive Patch - The contraceptive patch is a small sticky patch that releases
hormones into your body through your skin to prevent pregnancy.
h. Intrauterine Device (IUD) - An IUD is a small T-shaped plastic and copper device that's
put into your womb (uterus) by a doctor or nurse. It releases copper to stop you getting
pregnant, and protects against pregnancy for between 5 and 10 years. It's sometimes
called a "coil" or "copper coil".
i. Intrauterine System (IUS) - An IUS is a small, T-shaped plastic device that's put into your
womb (uterus) by a doctor or nurse. It releases the hormone progestogen to stop you
getting pregnant and lasts for 3 to 5 years, depending on the brand.
j. Natural Family Planning - Natural family planning (or "fertility awareness") is a method
of contraception where a woman monitors and records different fertility signals during her
menstrual cycle to work out when she's likely to get pregnant.
k. Progestogen-Only Pill - The "traditional" progestogen-only pill (POP) prevents
pregnancy by thickening the mucus in the cervix to stop sperm reaching an egg. The
desogestrel progestogen-only pill can also stop ovulation. Progestogen-only pills contain
the hormone progestogen, but don't contain estrogen.
l. Vaginal Ring - The vaginal ring (NuvaRing) is a small soft, plastic ring that you place
inside your vagina. It releases a continuous dose of the hormones oestrogen and
progestogen into the bloodstream to prevent pregnancy.

There are 2 permanent methods of contraception:

a. Female Sterilization - Female sterilization is an operation to permanently prevent

pregnancy. The fallopian tubes are blocked or sealed to prevent the eggs reaching the
sperm and becoming fertilized.
b. Male Sterilization (vasectomy) - A vasectomy (male sterilization) is a surgical procedure
to cut or seal the tubes that carry a man's sperm to permanently prevent pregnancy.

UNIT 3: THE MATERIAL AND ECONOMIC SELF

3.1 I shop, therefore I Am: I have, therefore I am?

Consumerism
Kruger associates his work with the modern consumer-driven society. The
catchphrase “I shop therefore I am” was borrowed from the French philosopher Rene
Descartes “I think Therefore I am’. The phrase means that provided someone is simply
thinking; they are livening a meaningful existence, was sufficient proof that they did exist.

What Kruger tries to imply with “I shop therefore I am,” is that the public is no longer
defined by what it thinks, but rather by what they owned. During the 1980s, the society
witnessed “economic potential of working people and broadening markets, widening the
availability of credit and stimulating homeownership and share ownership,” a change that
had a serious impact on how people consumed.

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 3.2 Shaping the way we see ourselves: The role of consumer culture on our sense of
self and identity

Barbara Kruger expresses her concerns with this art that the society has glided too
far away from the fundamentals; it somehow has transformed into a plastic society.
According to her, the modern society is filled with people whose focus is on “what they
have rather than who they are.” The society feels as though their material possessions,
as well as social image, define who they are instead of more in-depth personal attributes
like accomplishments and ideas. She uses her art to highlight the shallowness of the
modern consumer-driven society by juxtaposing the pair of contrasting statements.

The artist challenges the notion of identity construction through acts of

consumption. However, she does not stop there in criticizing the shallow, consumer-
driven minds of modern society. She went ahead to produce more artworks that bash
consumer-obsessed individuals.

Descartes

By using a subtle wordplay of Descartes’s statement, the artist uses this artwork to
questions the importance of having material possession but with slight humor and sarcasm. I
Shop Therefore I Am demonstrated one dire consequence of advertising contents such as ones
on the cover of Toward a Female Liberation Movement.
The existence of self becomes embedded with the act of consuming. In the analysis of the
texts, I show that advertisements create self-doubts and guilt by comparing people in real life with
the unattainable ideal people. This could potentially destroy the foundation of people’s perception
and security of self. The unbridgeable difference between “who I am” and “who I should be” propel
people to engage in consumption. The perpetuation of this process ultimately replaces the self.

UNIT 4: THE SPIRITUAL SELF: The Practice of Religion: Belief in

Supernatural Being and Power

4.1 The Concept of "Dungan" - Spirit or Soul

The “soul” or spirit of a person has two dimensions; (1) human body and (2) spiritual. Soul
referred to as kaluluwa by the Tagalogs or Dungan by the Ilonggos comes from the root word
duwa, two. The Dungan is not seen by the human eye, it takes on a different form. For
instance,it can be in a form an insect or a small animal such as lizard. The Bisayans believe
that the Dungan leaves the body while the person is asleep. Travelling Dungan outside the
body must befree from accidents such as ge:ng trapped in a jar. Only when the soul has safety
reunited withthe body, the person will be awake. Dungan is also connoted as “willpower”. If a
person has a strong willpower, is it said to have a strong Dungan.

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4.2 The Function of Rituals

It is to give humankind the pow- ers promised to it: "You shall run and not grow weary."
"You will be born again." "Your young men shall see visions." Entire personalities are re-
formed for a new stage in life, healing, finding what is lost, clairvoy- ance, speaking with
ancestors, all the multitudinous connections that Lucien Lévy-Bruhl saw and described in his
book How Natives Think. These connections existed while the earth and all things on it were
still at one under the law of mystical participation. This is the sense of the purpose of ritual
that we get when we read the many accounts in the present book.

4.3 Rituals and Ceremonies

• Penetensya - As a Catholic nation, the Philippines does not take penitence lightly. Once,
when we were travelling home from Caramoan to Leyte during our Holy Week adventure,
we came across a group of men parading the streets and striking their already bleeding
backs with whips. In Pampanga, a bloody crucifixion re-enactment is held every Good
Friday. While this cringe-worthy ritual is not supported by the Catholic Church, many
devotees still do this to imitate Jesus Christ’s sufferings and show gratitude to God.
• Aswang Festival - The Philippines has many superstitions and folklore stories. Growing
up, children are made aware of aswangs or monsters that roam in the dark. Roxas City in
Capiz is notorious for being the home of aswangs. In the hopes of reversing the stigma
and boosting the city’s tourism, a group called Dugo Capiznon Inc. created the festival in
2004 (Aswang Project, n.d.). However, it only lasted for three years and has not been
revived since. The festival showcased the different mythical monsters known in Philippine
culture.
• Baliw-baliw Festival - Baliw in Filipino means crazy. Every May, residents of Barangay
San Vicente in Olango, Cebu celebrate the Baliw-baliw festival on the day with the highest
12-noon tide (Domanguera, 2014). Men would cross-dress as women and pretend to give
birth by the shore. They would also carry around wooden sculptures of a man’s genitals.
Although its conception is a mystery, locals celebrate the festival to give thanks to
blessings received.
• Kutkot - Kutkot is a fading tradition that is practised by members of Hanunuo Tribe. After
burying the dead for a year, relatives clean the skeleton and cover it with cloth to take up
the shape of a mannequin or even a mummy called “sinakot”. It is then adorned by clothes
and even jewelry. The body is returned to the family and is housed there for another year.
After that period, the body is sent to a cave where the rest of the sinakot are taken.
• Pukpok - The word pukpok in the Philippines literally means to hit something usually with
a hammer. Circumcision in the country is a mandatory tradition inspired mainly by religion.
Circumcision among young boys is usually done in summer before classes start.
Nowadays, it is done by accredited practitioners to ensure that there is no risk in the
procedure.

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 4.4 Religion, Magic and Witchcraft

• Religion - the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a

personal God or gods.
• Magic - the power of apparently influencing the course of events by using mysterious or
supernatural forces.
• Witchcraft - the practice of magic, especially black magic; the use of spells.

4.5 Finding and Creating Meaning - Three Ways of Discovering Meaning in Life

According to Frankl, "We can discover this meaning in life in three different ways: (1) by
creating a work or doing a deed; (2) by experiencing something or encountering someone;
and (3) by the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering" and that "everything can be
taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms—to choose one's attitude in
any given set of circumstances".

On the meaning of suffering, Frankl gives the following example: Once, an elderly general
practitioner consulted me because of his severe depression. He could not overcome the loss
of his wife who had died two years before and whom he had loved above all else. Now how
could I help him? What should I tell him? I refrained from telling him anything, but instead
confronted him with a question, "What would have happened, Doctor, if you had died first, and
your wife would have had to survive you?:" "Oh," he said, "for her this would have been
terrible; how she would have suffered!" Whereupon I replied, "You see, Doctor, such a
suffering has been spared her, and it is you who have spared her this suffering; but now, you
have to pay for it by surviving and mourning her." He said no word but shook my hand and
calmly left the office.

UNIT 5: THE POLITICAL SELF

5.1 Developing a Filipino Identity: Values, Traits, Community and Institutional Factors

The family is at the center of the Filipino community. Children are not expected to leave
their parents’ house until they themselves get married; and even after then, many couples opt to
stay with or close to their or their spouse’s parents. Also, they’re expected to care for their ageing
parents instead of sending them to a retirement home.

Optimism, humor, and positivity are valued traits in the Philippines. The country has a long
list of national holidays, and many provinces and cities have their own sets of local holidays. At
the same time, in the face of difficult or challenging situations, members of the community are
encouraged to look at the brighter side of things.

The term bahala na, which can be translated to whatever happens, happens, is one of the
more familiar phrases used in the country and is perhaps the most representative of how Filipinos

36
value adaptability and quick thinking. It exemplifies one’s belief in a higher power and submitting
one’s fate to elements that cannot be controlled.

Filipinos in the country and around the globe can be expected to extend a warm welcome
to their guests regardless of where they come from, how well they know their host, and why they’re
visiting someone’s home.

• Resourcefulness and Creativity

• Family Oriented
• Thriftiness
• Faithfulness
• Unity and Bayanihan

Filipinos are known for ingenuity. We are creative in many ways, whether it’s in art, music,
science, technology and business. Some of our smartest countrymen can come up with a brilliant
idea despite of poverty or lack of financial resources. We are also good in recycling trash and turn
them into ingenious products.

The Filipinos are one of the most faithful people in the world. Whatever our religion is, we
remain faithful and we don’t lose hope for a better tomorrow. Our faithfulness and hopefulness
keep us kind, positive, peaceful and determined to achieve our goals no matter how impossible
they may seem.

We are in close relationship with our neighbors. In barangays and most subdivisions, the
people in the neighborhood know each other, talk each other, help each other, and protect each
other. Our communities are organized. We help each other to make our fiestas, festivals and other
events lively and colorful to make sure that our visitors will have a great experience.

There may be Filipinos who are living beyond their means. But on the brighter side, there
are also many Filipinos who are frugal. We shop wisely to save our money for future important
uses. We are conscious on the price tag, discounts and quality of the products we buy to get the
most out of our money. Filipino parents also do sacrifices like skipping the stuff they want to buy
for themselves just to save their money to buy things that can make their children happy.

Filipinos are willing to make big sacrifices just to make sure that their loved ones will have
a good life. Our parents will do anything just to give us a brighter future. They are even willing to
work in a foreign soil just to achieve such goal. And in return, we study hard and even sacrifice
our personal love life just to fulfill the dreams of our parents for us. Furthermore, many Filipino
breadwinners work extraordinarily hard just to earn money to support their family.

5.2 Establishing a democratic culture

Defined as the desire and ability of individuals in a population to participate actively,

individually and together, to the government of public affairs affecting them. Democratic culture
describe the Philippines cause according to the 1987 Constitution Article 2 paragraph 1, the
Philippines is democratic and republican state. That's why the democracy is a way where people
can use and do whatever they want as long it doesn't harm anyone and doesn't against the law.

37
 Democracy is a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the
decisions that affect their lives. Democracy allows people to participate equally—either directly or
through elected representatives—in the proposal, development, and creation of laws.

Ideal Filipino Leader

A true innovative leader inspires, He is competent and is a person of integrity, inspiring

people not so much with words or what he has built, but what emanates from him or what people
feel or even imbibe from him. This personal encounter makes the leader well grounded, making
a leader real to the people that Leader will lead. A good and inspiring leader must know how to
deal with persons and must be an authentic person. He draws strength and learns from the people
he encounters. Leader goes to people, touches them and learns from them.

UNIT 6: THE DIGITAL SELF: Self and Others in Cyberspace

6.1 l, Me, Myself and my User ID Online Identity

Digital age - other than face to face interaction, we have interaction involving technology-
cellular phones, computers and other gadgets. Thus we build our Digital Self.
Online Identity is the sum of your characteristics and interactions

Different Representation of you online

"Your online identity is not the same as your real-world identity because the characteristics
you represent online differ from the characteristics you represent in the physical world. Every
website you interact with has its own idea of your identity because each one you visit sees you
and your characteristics differently"

How do you build your online Identity?

Every website you interact will collect its own version of who you are, based on the
information that you have shared. Thus, it is up to you how you will represent yourself as closely
as who you are and what you do in real life or selectively, to create a representation far from your
real life.

6.2 Self-presentation and Impression Management

• these are characteristics showing behaviors designed to convey an image about ourselves
to other people and to influence the perception of other people of this image
• it can also change depending on who we are interacting with or what personal information
we need to be providing to present ourselves in a way that will be acceptable for others

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6.3 Impact of Online Interactions on the Self

When interacting with other people, we automatically make inferences about them without
even being consciously aware of it. Research suggests that young users report increased self-
esteem and general well. However, online interactions cannot reveal our true feelings and can
decrease people's happiness level. We can control our self-presentations on online interactions
and this may be both beneficial and harmful to the individual.

Negative effects of online interactions:

• Extensive online engagement is correlated with personality and brain disorder.

• Low self-esteem
• More occupied in giving attention to social media than in keeping their customs and
practices.
• Social media sites inform and empower individuals to change themselves and their
communities
• Increased self-esteem when receiving many likes and shares
Boost one's moral and feelings of self-worth

Extended self in a Digital World

RUSSEL W. BELK

Five changes emerging from our current digital age:

1. Dematerialization – things are disappearing right before our eyes.

Four functions of virtual consumption:

a. Stimulates consumer desire for both material and virtual consumption.
b. Actualizes possible daydreams such as those of wealth and status by enacting
them in video games.
c. Actualizes impossible fantasies such as being a magician or space pirate with
magical objects.
d. Facilities experimentation such as being a criminal in a video game.

2. Re-embodiment- this is characterized as the "breakout of the visual"

3. Sharing - uploading, downloading, sharing, ect. Provide free access of information through
web surfing.

4. Co-construction of self - our digital involvement is social in nature

5. Distributed Memory - new set of device and technologies for recording and archiving our
memories

6.5 Boundaries of the self-online: private vs public; personal/ individual vs social identity
online; gender and sexuality online

Setting boundaries to your online self:

• Stick to safer sites
• Guard your passwords
• Be choosy about your online friends

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 • Remember that anything you put online or post on a site is there forever, even if you try
to delete it.
• Don't be mean or embarrass other people online
• Limit what you share
• Adolescents' online interaction are both a literal and a metaphoric screen for representing
major adolescent development issues, such as sexuality and identity.

Course Materials:

1. Watch:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LlC2OdnhIiQ
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CSpyZor-Byk
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3QA8iy7sjT8

2. Read:
• https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sexually-
transmitted-infections-(stis)
• https://www.livescience.com/26741-reproductive-system.html
• https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/travel-
leisure/article/2184111/witchcraft-philippines-millennials-fall-
under-spell
• https://www.aseanendocrinejournal.org/index.php/JAFES/article/v
iew/48/471

Assessments:
1. Recitation regarding ideas about the following topics:
a. What do men and women find attractive
b. Surfacing common beliefs and misconceptions regarding the body, sex, and
sexuality

2. Group discussion and presentation: Who is beautiful? Cultural conceptions and

standards of beauty of face and body

3. Psychological Tests
a. Self-esteem scale
b. Body esteem scale

4. Class Discussion / Exchanging of Ideas about the following topics:

a. What does he want? (According to him/according to her). What does she want?
(according to her/according to him): Comparing expectations
b. A Discussion on Love, Sex, Relationships, and Family

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 c. Class/group discussion on the role of mass media in shaping purchase
behaviours: What makes an ad effective or ineffective? What affects my
purchase behaviour?
d. Group discussion: Who is the Filipino? What makes a Filipino?
e. Group discussion/sharing: My FB experiences

5. A Game: You know you're Filipino if/when.

6. Essay on the following topics:

c. How is my self-shaped and influenced by culture?

d. Is the Philippines really a collectivist society? Give examples and if true, how
does this shape/impact our idea of Self?
7. Individual constructions of the personal self-illustrating how the different aspects
are situated relative to one another and the importance of each relative to the
other
8. Paper on my most prized possession: What would I save first in any emergency
and why?
9. Paper: Me and My Favorite Things (what these are and what they say about me)
10. Personal Essay: Reflections of Frankl's ways of discovering meaning

11. Submit portfolio of all the essays, reaction paper and activities.

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 2. MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF

Overview

This last part of the lesson identifies three areas of concern for young students: learning;
goal setting, and managing stress. This also provides for the more practical application of the
concepts discussed in this course and enables them the hands-on experience of developing self-
help plans for self-regulated learning, goal-setting, and self-care.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this Module, the student should be able to:
9. Understand the theoretical underpinnings for how to manage and care for different
aspects of the self
10. Acquire and hone new skills and learnings for better managing of one's self and
behaviors
11. Apply these new skills to one's self and functioning for a better quality of life

Units for Discussion are:

Managing and Caring for the Self

Unit 1. Learning to be a Better Student

1.1 What happens during learning? Brain and behavior changes
1.2 Metacognition and study strategies
1.3 Managing your own learning: Self-regulated learning

Unit 2. Setting goals for Success

2.1 The importance of goals
2.2 Bandura's Self efficacy, Dweck's Mindset (growth vs fixed)
2.3 Locke's goal setting theory

Unit 3.Taking charge of one's health

11.1 Stressors and response
11.2 Sources of coping and strength
11.3 Stress and Filipinos: The social and cultural dimensions of stress
11.4 Taking care of the self: The need for self-care and compassion

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 UNIT 1: Learning to be a Better Student

1.2 What happens during learning? Brain and Behavior Changes

Learning is an active process of engaging and manipulating objects, experiences, and
conversations to build mental models of the world. It builds prior knowledge and involves
enriching, building on, and changing existing understanding, where “one’s knowledge base is
a scaffold that supports the construction of all future learning”. Learning occurs in a complex
social environment; it is necessary to think of learning as a social activity involving people, the
things they use, the words they speak, the cultural context they’re in, and the actions they
take and that knowledge is built by members in the activity. Learning is a situated in an
authentic context, this provides learnersthe opportunity to engage with specific ideas and
concepts on a need-to-know or want-to-know basis. It requires learners’ motivation and
cognitive engagement to be sustained when learning complex ideas because considerable
mental effort and persistence are necessary.

BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR CHANGES

The nervous system is one of the important systems in our body because it is the main
control and coordinating system of the body. It manages the voluntary and involuntary body
processes, especially during learning

1.3 Metacognition and Study Strategies

Metacognition (meta = “about” and cognation = thinking)Is a learning strategy that you use
to understand and control your own performance.
It is a system wherein you:
• Are totally involved and aware of how you learn and what learning techniques or strategies
meet your needs. depends on a
• Evaluate how effective these strategies are for you. person
• Implement the best plan of action for optimal learning

The three (3) main approaches to studying:

1. Surface Approach
2. Strategic Approach
3. Deep Approach

. Managing your own learning: Self-regulated learning

Self-regulated learning is the self-directive process through which learners transform their
mental and physical abilities into task-related skills. This form of learning involves metacognitive,
motivational, and behavioral subprocesses that are personally initiated to acquire knowledge and
skill, such as goal setting, planning, learning strategies, self-reinforcement, self-recording, and
self-instruction. Students self-regulate their learning not only through covert cognitive means but

43
also through overt behavioral means, such as selecting, modifying, or constructing advantageous
personal environments or seeking social support. Self-regulation extends beyond individualized
forms of learning to include self-coordinated collective forms of learning in which personal
outcomes are achieved through the actions of others. Self-regulated learning processes are
implemented during three cyclical phases. Forethought phase processes anticipate efforts to
learn and include self-motivational beliefs as well as task analysis skills, such as goal setting and
planning. Performance phase processes seek to optimize learning efforts and include learning
strategies, self-instruction, and self-recording processes. Self-reflection phase processes, such
as self-judgment and self-reactions, follow efforts to learn and provide understanding of the
personal implication of outcomes. Self-reflection phase processes, in turn, influence forethought
regarding further efforts to learn. Through these cyclical phases, students self-regulate their
learning metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviorally.

UNIT 2: Setting Goals for the Self

2.1 The Importance of Goals

5 Reasons Why Goal Setting Is Important:

1. Goals Give You Focus
2. Goals Allow You To Measure Progress
3. Goals Keep You Locked In And Undistracted
4. Goals Keep You Locked In And Undistracted
5. Goals Give You Motivation

2.2 Bandura's Self efficacy, Dweck's Mindset (growth vs fixed)

Albert Bandura and His Model

The psychological theory of self-efficacy grew out of the research of Albert Bandura. He
noticed that there was a mechanism that played a huge role in people’s lives that, up to that point,
hadn’t really been defined or systematically observed. This mechanism was the belief that people
have in their ability to influence the events of their own lives.

Bandura proposed that perceived self-efficacy influences what coping behavior is initiated
when an individual is met with stress and challenges, along with determining how much effort will
be expended to reach one’s goals and for how long those goals will be pursued (1999).He posited
that self-efficacy is a self-sustaining trait; when a person is driven to work through their problems
on their own terms, they gain positive experiences that in turn boost their self-efficacy even more.

One of the most basic beliefs we carry about ourselves, Dweck found in her research, has to do
with how we view and inhabit what we consider to be our personality. A “fixed mindset” assumes
that our character, intelligence, and creative ability are static givens which we can’t change in any
meaningful way, and success is the affirmation of that inherent intelligence, an assessment of
how those givens measure up against an equally fixed standard; striving for success and avoiding
failure at all costs become a way of maintaining the sense of being smart or skilled. A “growth
mindset,” on the other hand, thrives on challenge and sees failure not as evidence of

44
unintelligence but as a heartening springboard for growth and for stretching our existing abilities.
Out of these two mindsets, which we manifest from a very early age, springs a great deal of our
behavior, our relationship with success and failure in both professional and personal contexts,
and ultimately our capacity for happiness.

UNIT 3: Taking Charge of One's Health

3.1 Stressors and Responses

Stress is a biological and psychological response experienced on encountering a threat that

we feel we do not have the resources to deal with. A stressor is the stimulus (or threat) that causes
stress, e.g. exam, divorce, death of loved one, moving house, loss of job.

Sudden and severe stress generally produces:

• Increase in heart rate
• Increase in breathing (lungs dilate)
• Decrease in digestive activity (don’t feel hungry)
• Liver released glucose for energy

Firstly, our body judges a situation and decides whether or not it is stressful. This decision is
made based on sensory input and processing (i.e. the things we see and hear in the situation)
and also on stored memories (i.e. what happened the last time we were in a similar situation).

If the situation is judged as being stressful, the hypothalamus (at the base of the brain) is
activated. The hypothalamus in the brain is in charge of the stress response. When a stress
response is triggered, it sends signals to two other structures: the pituitary gland, and the adrenal
medulla. These short term responses are produced by The Fight or Flight Response via the
Sympatomedullary Pathway (SAM). Long term stress is regulated by the Hypothalamic Pituitary-
Adrenal (HPA) system.

3.2 Sources of Coping and Strength

Behavioral coping strategies

These are ways of dealing with stress by taking action to modify behavior. Some behavioral
coping strategies include:
• Physical Exercise
• Relaxation
• Breathing
• Smile and laughter
• Time management
• Social support/friends
• Seeking professional help
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POSITIVE COPING STRATEGIES FOR STRESS (Physical and Lifestyle Strategies)

1. Abdominal breathing and relaxation.

2. Low stress diet (limit fast foods/fried foods).
3. Regular exercise.4. Downtime (balance fun and work)
5. Mini breaks (5 to 10 minute periods to relax during the day).
6. Time management.7. Sleep hygiene (at least 6 hours).8. Choosing a nontoxic
(nonsmoking/conflict free) environment.9. Material security (the basics; do you really need the
designer t-shirt?)

(Emotional Strategies)
10. Social support and relatedness.
11. Self-nurturing (yes, you are worth it)
12. Good communication.13. Assertiveness.14. Recreational activity ("playtime").
15. Emotional release.16. Sense of humor (ability to see things in perspective).
(Cognitive strategies)
17. Constructive thinking (ability to counter negative thinking).18. Distraction (ability to distract
yourself from negative preoccupations)
19. Task oriented (vs. reactive) approach to problems.20. Acceptance (ability to accept/cope with
setbacks).21. Tolerance for ambiguity (ability to see shades of gray).

(Philosophical/Spiritual Strategies)
22. Consistent goals or purpose to work toward.
23. Positive philosophy of life.
24. Religious/spiritual life and commitment.

3.3 Stress and Filipinos: The Social and Cultural Dimensions of Stress

Culture can affect stress and coping process in four ways:

1. Cultural context shapes the kind of stressors that an individual is likely to experience.
2. Culture may also affect the appraisal of a certain event.
3. Culture affects an individual’s coping strategies.
4. Culture provides different time-honored tools/mechanism by which an individual can cope with
stress.

Social stress is a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse or very
demanding circumstances arising from the person's social environment relationships. What are
the sources of social stress? The sources of social stress include (but are not limited to).
• Problems with work or earning an income ;
• Parenting ;
• Education;
• Sex and socialization;
• Immigration status or language
• Personal,

46
 • Physical, and
• Psychological health;
• Peer pressure ;and
• Social marginalization.

Emile Durkheim's book on "Suicide" shows how social organization of groups influences the
individual behavior of their members. Durkheim hypothesizes that the extent to which an individual
is integrated within a group affects the likelihood of suicide.

Three primary types of suicide:

• Egoistic suicide - occurs when a person feels he or she is not accepted by or does not
belong to society. The social bond is very weak.
• Altruistic suicide - occurs when a person ends his or her life for others.
• Anomic suicide - is linked to disillusionment and disappointment

3.4 Taking Care of the Self: The Need for Self-Care and Compassion

As Describe by Maslow’s of needs, satisfying the various levels of need is very important to a
person’s overall health and wellbeing. Part of your overall wellbeing and healthcare is to take care
of yourself. This caring for the “Self”, however, is more that clean (hygiene) and living clean
(lifestyle). Self-Care, as described by the University of Kentucky, taking deliberate acts of looking
after your mental, emotional and physical health.

Research suggest that compassion may have ensured our survival because of its tremendous
benefits for both physical and mental health Andover all well-being It suggested that connecting
with others in a meaningful way helps us enjoy better mental and physical health and speed up
recovery from disease and even lengthen our life spans (Brown & Konrath,2013). The possible
reason for such benefits in psychological wellbeing is the fact that the act of giving results in a
pleasurable feeling as evidence by brain-imaging study. The of the Brain that are active when a
person experiences pleasure (Pleasure Centers), such as eating favorite desserts or receiving
money, were found to be equally active when the person is doing acts of kindness, such as giving
food to a homeless person or donating to a charity.

Course Materials:

1. Watch:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yClIQOvlFXQ
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n-dfMLciVWI

2. Read:
• https://positivepsychology.com/bandura-self-efficacy/
• https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/click-here-
happiness/201812/self-care-12-ways-take-better-care-yourself
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Assessments:

5. Recitation on the following topics:

a. What are your short term and long term goals in life?
b. How do you handle the stressors in everyday life? What are the coping
mechanisms that you usually do?

6. Guided lecture and how-to demonstration: Examination of own study strategies

and development of more effective study plans and strategies (self-regulated
learning program).

7. Answering the Metacognition Awareness Inventory

8. Guided lecture and how-to demonstration: Examination of goals (short and long
term) as well as plans for accomplishing these

9. Clarifying goals and setting up a plan for the short term for the semester

10. Submit portfolio of all the essays, reaction paper and activities.

References:

Belapurkar, A. (2015) Understanding Self and Its Importance in Education. An International Peer
Reviewed & Referred Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies.

Boran, B. (2017) Perspectives on the Self. Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. University
of Rijeka, Croatia.

Damon, W., Eisenberg, N., Kuhn, D., Lerner, R. M., Renninger, K. A., Siegel, I. E., & Siegler,
R. (2006). Handbook of child psychology. Social, emotional, and personality development. Wiley.

Edwardes, M. P. J. (2020). Origins of Self: an Anthropological Perspective. UCL Press.

Flanagan, L., "Why Understanding Obstacles is Essential to Achieving Goals" MindShift, KQED
News, (December 2014) Accessed online at http://ww2.kqed.org/mindshift/2014/12/26/why-
understanding-obstacles-is-essential-to-achieving-goals/.

Gaerlan, J., Limpingco, D. & Tria, G. (2008) Mental Hygiene and Allied Discipline (ed) Principles
of Mental Hygiene, Fifth Edition. Ken Inc. 5 – 10.

Gallagher, S. (2014). Introduction: A Diversity of Selves. The Oxford handbook of the self. Oxford
University Press.

Hall, S., Lindzey, G. & Campbell, J. (1998) Carl Roger’s Person-Centered Theory (ed) Theories
of Personality, Fourth Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 454 – 456.

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Lanuza, G. (2004). The Constitution of the Self. In David, R. (ed) Nation, Self and Citizenship: An
invitation to Philippine Sociology. Anvil Publishing.

Magos, A. The Ideological Context of Ma-aram Practice in Mariit. In The Enduring Ma-aram
Tradition: An ethnography of Kinaray-a Village in Antique, New Day Publishers 46-62

Mead, GH (1972) Mind, Self and Society from the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist. The
University of Chicago Press

Neff, K. (2012). The Science of Self Compassion. In Germer & Siegel (eds). Compassion and
Wellness in Psychotherapy. NY. Guilford Press. 79-92

Rathus, S. (2014). What is Psychology? (ed) Psychology, 3rd Edition. Cengage Learning Asia Pte
Ltd. 1 – 10.

Renz, U. (2017). Self-knowledge: a history. Oxford University Press.

Shay Sayre and David Horne (1996) ,"I Shop, Therefore I Am: the Role of Possessions For Self
Definition", in NA - Advances in Consumer Research Volume 23, eds. Kim P. Corfman and John
G. Lynch Jr., Provo, UT : Association for Consumer Research, Pages: 323-328.

Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory into Practice,

41(2), 64-70.

Zumbrunn, S., Tadlock, J., & Roberts, E. D. (2011). Encouraging self-regulated learning in the
classroom: A review of the literature. Metropolitan Educational Research Consortium (MERC).

Online References:

Farukh. (2018, November 13). Real Self vs. Ideal Self: How to find your real self? (true self and
false self). BalanceCharm. https://balancecharm.com/2018/08/17/real-self-ideal-self/.

Hopper, E. (2020) Individualist or Collectivist? How Culture Influences Behavior.

HealthyPsych.com. https://healthypsych.com/individualist-or-collectivist-how-culture-influences-
behavior/.

James' Personality Theory - Psychology of Personality Period 8. Google Sites.

https://sites.google.com/site/psychologyofpersonalityperiod8/home/self-theories/james-
personality-theory.

Libretexts. (2020, June 3). 4.2B: Sociological Theories of the Self.

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book:_Sociology_(Boundless)/04:_The_R
ole_of_Socialization/4.02:_The_Self_and_Socialization/4.2B:_Sociological_Theories_of_the_Se
lf.

The Concept of "Self" in Confucian Thought - D. Klemme - Unification News 8/99.

https://www.tparents.org/UNews/unws9908/Klemme_confucian.htm.

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Tornau, C. (2019, September 25). Saint Augustine. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/.

Vignoles, V. L., Owe, E., Becker, M., Smith, P. B., Easterbrook, M. J., Brown, R.,…Bond, M. H.
(2016). Beyond the 'east–west' dichotomy: Global variation in cultural models of selfhood. Journal
of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(8), 966–1000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0000175

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Libretexts. (2020, June 17). 22.2: Introduction to the Reproductive System. Biology
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m_and_Grewal)/22:_Reproductive_System/22.02:_Introduction_to_the_Reproductive_System.

Compiled by:

Christine Joy D. Peñamante, RPm

Faculty

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