Lec#17 Real Analysis

for lecturer mathematics

 Continuity of a function
 Examples
 Theorems on limit

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 Lec#17 Real Analysis | Lecturer Mathematics preparation | Continuity
Continuous function: Let (𝑋, 𝑑𝑋 ) and (𝑌, 𝑑𝑌 ) be two metric spaces; suppose 𝐸 ⊂ 𝑋, 𝑓 maps 𝐸 into 𝑌, and 𝑝 ∈ 𝐸
Then 𝑓 is said to be continuous at 𝑝 if for every 𝜖 > 0 there exist a 𝛿 > 0 such that
𝑑𝑌 (𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑓(𝑝)) < 𝜖 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑋 (𝑥, 𝑝) < 𝛿
Note:
1) If 𝑓 is continuous at every point of 𝐸, then 𝑓 is said to be continuous on 𝐸.
2) It should be noted that 𝑓 has to be defined at the point 𝑝 in order to be continuous at 𝑝.
3) If 𝑝 is an isolated point of 𝐸 then every function 𝑓 which has 𝐸 as its domain of definition is continuous at 𝑝.
4) If 𝑝 is a limit point of 𝐸 then 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑝 if lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑝 .
𝑥→𝑝

5) A continuous function of a continuous function is continuous.

6) Suppose 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍 are metric spaces, 𝐸 ⊂ 𝑋, 𝑓 maps 𝐸 into 𝑌, 𝑔 maps the range of 𝑓, 𝑓 𝐸 , into 𝑍, and ℎ is the
mapping of 𝐸 into 𝑍 defined by ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 . If 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑝 ∈ 𝐸 and if 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑓(𝑝),
then ℎ is continuous at 𝑝.

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7) A mapping 𝑓 of a metric space 𝑋 into a metric space 𝑌 is continuous on 𝑋 if and only if
𝑓 −1 (𝑉) is open in 𝑋 for every open set 𝑉 in 𝑌.
8) A mapping 𝑓 of a metric space 𝑋 into a metric space 𝑌 is continuous on 𝑋 if and only if
𝑓 −1 (𝐶) is closed in 𝑋 for every closed set 𝐶 in 𝑌.
9) Let 𝑓 be defined on 𝑋. If 𝑓is continuous at 𝑐 ∈ 𝑋 then there exist a number 𝑑 > 0
such that 𝑓 is bounded on the open interval (𝑐 − 𝑑, 𝑐 + 𝑑).
10) Suppose 𝑓 is continuous on closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] then 𝑓 is bounded on 𝑎, 𝑏 .
11) Suppose 𝑓 is continuous on 𝑎, 𝑏
i) If 𝑓 𝑎 < 0 and 𝑓 𝑏 > 0 then there exist a point 𝑐, a < c < b such that 𝑓 𝑐 = 0
ii) If 𝑓 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑓 𝑏 < 0 then there exist a point 𝑐, a < c < b such that 𝑓 𝑐 = 0

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 Lec#17 Real Analysis | Lecturer Mathematics preparation | Continuity
Definition: (Continuity at a point) A function 𝑓 is said to be continuous at a point 𝑥 = 𝑎 if
1) 𝑓(𝑎) is defined
2) lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists
𝑥→𝑎

3) lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

Definition: (continuity on an open interval) A function 𝑓 is continuous on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) if it is

continuous at each point of 𝑎, 𝑏 .
Definition: (Continuity on a closed interval) A function 𝑓 is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if
1) 𝑓 is continuous on (𝑎, 𝑏)
2) lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎+

3) lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑏
𝑥→𝑏−

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Definition: The function 𝑓 is said to be continuous at 𝑐 if for each 𝜖 > 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑐) < 𝜖 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑥−𝑐 <𝛿
Geometrically:
𝑥 − 𝑐 < 𝛿.
⇔ −𝛿 < 𝑥 − 𝑐 < 𝛿.
𝑓(𝑥)
⇔ 𝑐 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝛿 + 𝑐. 𝑓(𝑐) + 𝜖
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ ( 𝑐 − 𝛿, 𝛿 + 𝑐). 𝑓(𝑐)
Similarly, 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑐) < 𝜖. 𝑓(𝑐) − 𝜖
⇔ −𝜖 < 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑐) < 𝜖.
⇔ 𝑓(𝑐) − 𝜖 < 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝜖 + 𝑓(𝑐).
⇔ 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑓 𝑐 − 𝜖 , 𝜖 + 𝑓 𝑐 .
𝑐−𝛿 𝑐 𝑐+𝛿

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Algebra of continuous functions: Let the functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be continuous at a point 𝑥 = 𝑎 lying in domains
of both 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) then
1) 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥) is also continuous at 𝑎.
2) 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥) is also continuous at 𝑎.
3) 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) is also continuous at 𝑎.
𝑓 𝑥
4) is also continuous at 𝑎 provided that 𝑔 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑔 𝑥

5) c𝑓 𝑥 is also continuous at 𝑎. Here 𝑐 is a constant.

1
6) is also continuous at 𝑎 provided that 𝑓 𝑎 ≠ 0.
𝑓 𝑥

7) a𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑔(𝑥) is also continuous at 𝑎

Theorem1: If 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎 and 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑓(𝑎) then the composition 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎.
Theorem2: If 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎 then |𝑓(𝑥)| is also continuous at 𝑎.

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Theorem3: (Intermediate value theorem) Let 𝑓 be continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑓 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑓 𝑏 . Then there is at least one
point 𝑥𝑜 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑓 𝑥𝑜 = 𝑐
1
Note: Continuity on closed interval is essential in above theorem. For example 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − is continuous on open interval (0,1) and
2
1 1 1 1
𝑓 0 = − and 𝑓 1 = also − > 0 > but there does not exist 𝑥𝑜 ∈ (0,1) s.t 𝑓 𝑥𝑜 = 0
2 2 2 2

Theorem4: (Existence of root theorem) Let 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) are of opposite signs. Then there is at least one
point 𝑥𝑜 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑓 𝑥𝑜 = 0.
Example: The equation 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0 has a solution in the interval [−1,1] because 𝑓 −1 = 1 > 0, 𝑓 1 = −3 < 0
Theorem5: (Boundedness theorem) Let 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] then it is bounded therein. (i.e. the range of 𝑓 is bounded). Converse of
1 ; 𝑥∈𝑄
this theorem is not true. For example, the function 𝑓 𝑥 = is bounded but not continuous at every point.
−1 ; 𝑥 ∈ 𝑄 𝑐
Theorem6: (Extreme value theorem) Let 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑀 and 𝑚 are supremum and infimum of 𝑓 respectively on this
interval, Then 𝑓 assumes each of the values 𝑀 and 𝑚 at least once in [𝑎, 𝑏] i.e. there exist 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑓 𝑐 = 𝑚 and 𝑓 𝑑 = 𝑀.
1
Note: Continuity in closed interval is necessary in above result. For example, the function 𝑓 𝑥 = is continuous on open interval
1+|𝑥|
−∞, ∞ . Also it is bounded inf 𝑓 = 0 and sup(𝑓) = 1. supremum is obtained at 𝑥 = 0 but there does not exist a point 𝑥 ∈ −∞, ∞ at
which we obtained the infimum.

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Theorem7: Let 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓 𝑐 > 0 for some 𝑐 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] then there exist an open set G contained in [𝑎, 𝑏] such that
𝑓 𝑥 > 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺. Or
Theorem7: Let 𝑓 is continuous on 𝑎, 𝑏 . If c ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) and 𝑓 𝑐 > 0 then there exist a neighborhood (𝑐 − 𝛿, 𝑐 + 𝛿) such that 𝑓 𝑥 > 0 for all
𝑥 ∈ (𝑐 − 𝛿, 𝑐 + 𝛿).
Theorem8: Let 𝑓 is continuous on 𝑎, 𝑏 . If c ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) and 𝑓 𝑐 < 0 then there exist a neighborhood (𝑐 − 𝛿, 𝑐 + 𝛿) such that 𝑓 𝑥 < 0 for all
𝑥 ∈ (𝑐 − 𝛿, 𝑐 + 𝛿).

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