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1. What is individualism?
Introduction
Individualism is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes the moral worth of the
individual. The individualistic theory stands for maximum amount of individual initiative and
freedom or liberty. Individualism considers liberty to be the highest human value. According
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to the supporters of this theory, man should have complete liberty of thought and action in
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order to achieve the fullest development of his personality. It advocates freedom of the
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individual and non-interference of the State in the sphere of the individual activities.
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Background
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The individualistic theory of the State is as old as the State itself. The root of this theory can
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be traced back to the earliest political philosophy of the Sophism of ancient Greece
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However, as a political philosophy, it developed in the writings of John Locke, an English
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political philosopher of the 17th century, who was an ardent advocate of individualism
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Individualism came into prominence in the 18th and 19th centuries.

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Individualists advocate for pursuing one’s aims and ambitions, independence, and
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self-reliance. They believe that the interests of the individual should take precedence over
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those of the state or a social group. Individualism is frequently described in opposition to

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totalitarianism, collectivism, and more corporate social formations.

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Functions of State or Government

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According to the supporters of Individualism, State or the Government performs the

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following functions -
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1) Maintenance of law and order within the State.

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2) Protection of individuals against external aggression. or internal rebellion.

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3) Protection of individual against individual, in matters of physical harm (injury, aggression

and killing), slander, personal restraint, etc.;
4) Protection of individuals against false contracts or breach of contracts.
5) The protection of property (theft, dacoity and other types of protection of property).

6) Protection of individuals against preventable epidemics like plague or malaria. Many

individualists do not agree with the last two functions of the state.
Limitations or Criticisms of Individualism:

1. State is not-a necessary evil:
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The individualist’s view that the state is a necessary evil, is not correct. State is
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essential for the development and progress of man. It is a historical fact that the
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state has done a lot for the welfare of man. Thus it is improper to call it a necessary
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evil.
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2. Laws do not curtail liberty:
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John Stuart Mill stated that with increase in the activities of the state, the laws will
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also increase and consequently the liberty of the individual will be curtailed. This
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view is not correct when we look at the present day situation. The state enacts many
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such laws which help the people in their welfare. For instance, laws like Maternity
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Benefit Act, Payment of Bonus Act, Minimum Wages Act etc. are laws made by the
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state or government for the benefit of the workers and they can not be said to curtail
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liberty of individuals.
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3. Man is not always the best judge of this interest:

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The individualists were of the view that each individual is the best guardian of his
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own interests and, therefore, he can think of them himself. But this is not a reality.
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Many people and classes are not so intelligent as to know what is good for them. The
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truth is, society may be a better judge of a man’s intellectual, moral, or physical
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needs, than he is himself and it may rightfully protect him from disease and danger
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against his own wishes and compel him to educate his children and to live a decent
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life.

2. Explain the contribution of Mahatma Gandhi to modern Indian political philosophy.

Answer
Gandhi is one of the great activist-theoreticians of the twentieth century. His writings
emerged mainly during the varied process of social, economic and political actions.
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) was the supreme leader of the Indian nationalist movement
which he had led for about thirty years, between 1917 and 1947. He was a thinker in so far
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as he had challenged most of the assumptions and doctrines of his times, and in their
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places, provided possible and plausible alternatives.
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Contributions of Mahatma Gandhi
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Gandhi was not a system builder in an academic sense. He was not a political philosopher.
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For all his sayings were pouring from his deep feelings and sincere realization of the truth.
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While dealing with the political philosophy of Gandhi, it is well established that Gandhi was
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basically religious as well as the ethical personality. He upheld highest moral standards in
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politics. As the most crucial strategist in politics, he developed the political methods and
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campaigned the movements to capture the state's power through the prolonged mass
movement.
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He believed that the politics is the one of media to open the door of service to public and
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not for exploiting the power for one's selfish purpose.

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Gandhi opposed the power concentration in a few or single hand. He believed that the
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concentration of political power leads to the exploitation, inequality and promote the
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hierarchal society. So equal power possession in the hands of public is necessary to make
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true democracy.
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3. Explain the concept of Socialism.

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Introduction:
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Socialism is a politico-economic concept which means the state is having ownership of the
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means of production and distribution. The objective of socialism here is to ensure that the
production should fulfill the needs and desires of its public and distribution should be fair
and equitable. Citizens in a socialist society rely on the government for everything, from
food to healthcare. Examples of socialist countries include Russia, Cuba, China, and
Venezuela. However, in the contemporary world, no country is socialist in the true sense.

EMERGENCE OF SOCIALISM:
During the industrial revolution in Europe, the exploitative nature of capitalism became
visible. Under the influence of liberalism, the state did not draft or enact labour legislation
and the industrialists started exploiting the workers in the absence of labour legislations.
The workers were forced to work for more hours but were paid less wages. As a result, they
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were not made a party to the profit and the capitalists started becoming richer. This created
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income inequality and other social concerns.
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It was at this stage that Karl Marx emerged and challenged the ideology of Liberalism. He
held that, it is not freedom but economic equality, is the need of the hour. He advocated a
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class struggle, in which capitalists will be defeated and capitalism will come to an end and
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there will be established Socialism.
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SOCIALISM IN INDIA:
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Socialism in India grew as a political movement in response to the exploitation done by the
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Britishers and the zamindars. It was popularized by many leaders and after independence,
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India adopted socialism as its economic setup.

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During independence struggle in 1920s and 1930s, a powerful left-wing group developed
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contributing to the radicalization of the national movement. Socialist ideas acquired roots in
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the Indian soil and socialism became accepted creed of the Indian youth whose urges came
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to be symbolized by Jawahar Lal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose.

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Gradually there emerged two powerful political parties of the Left, the Communist Party of
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India (CPI) and the Congress Socialist Party (CSP). In Bombay, S.A Dange published a
pamphlet Gandhi and Lenin and started the first socialist weekly, The Socialist. Jawahar Lal
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Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose toured the country attacking Imperialism, capitalism and
landlordism and preaching the idea of socialism. The revolutionary nationalist led by
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Chandrashekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh also turned to be socialism.

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In 1928, Nehru joined hand with Bose to organize the Independence for India League to fight
for complete independence and the socialist revision of economic structure of society.
Within the congress the socialist tendency found reflection in the election of Nehru as

president for 1936 and 1937 and of Subhash Bose for 1938 and 1939 and in the formation of
Congress Socialist Party.
POST INDEPENDENCE INDIA: SOCIALISM BY RAM MANOHAR LOHIA AND JAI PRAKASH
NARAYAN
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Jai Prakash Narayan and Socialism:
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● Jaya Prakash Narayan was the main force behind the formation of the Congress
Socialist Party in 1934.
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● He began his political career as a participant in the non- cooperation movement.
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● He was influenced by Marxism
● He was also influenced by M.N. Roy.
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● He did not support Russian Socialism.
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● He regarded socialism as a theory of socio-economic
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● He was a staunch critic of the theory that men are
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biologically unequal. He said that the inequality in society

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exists due to the unequal control of the means of

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production and distribution.

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● In 1940 he advocated collective ownership and

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nationalization of the heavy industries, shipping and mining.

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● He made Gandhi’s socialism as the base of his socialism. He

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said that grass-root level democracy should be introduced in

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India. The village should be made a self-governing unit. He

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favoured the distribution of land to the cultivator,

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co-operative farming, and cancellation of agriculture debt.

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Ram Manohar Lohia and Socialism:

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● Rammanohar Lohia became the most prominent socialist leader in the

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post-independence period.
● He was active in bringing about the Asian Socialist Conference of 1953.
● In 1952, he pleaded for greater incorporation of Gandhian ideas in socialist thought.
He advocated decentralization of the economy based on the revival of the cottage
industries.

● He gave a theory of mobilization of the backward classes. He

said that the socialists could capture power by mobilizing
the backward classes.
● He held caste to be one of the most powerful exploiting
institutions in India.
● The backward classes, according to him, should form the
government to introduce the policies based on the
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principles of socialism.
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● He believed that there was constant clash between the
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well-organized castes and the loosely organized classes.
According to him, Caste represented conservative forces in
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the society.
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CONCLUSION:
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Socialism should be used to uplift the people from widespread poverty, malnutrition and
hunger. It should provide employment and livelihood opportunities to the downtrodden
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section of the society. It shouldn’t be used as a political tool to divide the society. After all,
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the welfare of the citizen of a country is counted and the healthy citizens make the healthy
democracy.
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4. Karl Marx on the theory of Marxism (communism).

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Answer
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Introduction
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Marxism is a social, political, and economic theory originated by Karl Marx that focuses on
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the struggle between capitalists and the working class. Marx wrote that the power
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relationships between capitalists and workers were inherently exploitative and would
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inevitably create class conflict.

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Class conflict and the demise of capitalism
Marx’s class theory portrays capitalism as one step in the historical progression of economic
systems that follow one another in a natural sequence. They are driven, he posited, by vast

impersonal forces of history that play out through the behavior and conflict among social
classes. According to Marx, every society is divided into social classes, whose members have
more in common with one another than with members of other social classes.
The following are elements of Marx’s theories of how class conflict would play out in a
capitalist system.
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● Capitalist society is made up of two classes: the bourgeoisie, or business owners,
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who control the means of production, and the proletariat, or workers, whose labor
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transforms raw commodities into valuable economic goods.
● Ordinary laborers, who do not own the means of production, such as factories,
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buildings, and materials, have little power in the capitalist economic system. Workers
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are also readily replaceable in periods of high unemployment, further devaluing their
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perceived worth.
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● To maximize profits, business owners have an incentive to get the most work out of
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their laborers while paying them the lowest possible wages. This creates an unfair
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imbalance between owners and laborers, whose work the owners exploit for their
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own gain.
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● Because workers have little personal stake in the process of production, Marx
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believed they would become alienated from it, as well as from their own humanity,
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and turn resentful toward business owners.

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● The bourgeoisie also employ social institutions, including government, media,

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academia, organized religion, and banking and financial systems, as tools and
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weapons against the proletariat with the goal of maintaining their position of power
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and privilege.
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● Ultimately, the inherent inequalities and exploitative economic relations between

these two classes will lead to a revolution in which the working class rebels against
the bourgeoisie, takes control of the means of production, and abolishes capitalism.

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What to study:
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What to read and how to read Torts :

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLbetdAWYBA
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What to read and how to read Constitution 1 : https://youtu.be/dBhEbkU3yIk

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Frequently Asked Questions:

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Which books to buy for LL.B. course: https://youtu.be/Tq-aqsog_yM

Can an average student clear LL.B.?: https://youtu.be/iRoFtcrDqGI
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How to write answers in Law Examination: https://youtu.be/ION1o68tpgA

How to study latest cases: https://youtu.be/nZpWOM36BnE
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How to Study Law Subjects: https://youtu.be/jo74ChtR3J0

Yo
How to Prepare for Exam: https://youtu.be/WH8tiIGRmXQ

How to Remember Legal Maxims: https://youtu.be/OyPTs18XxCA
How to Read and Remember Cases for Law Exam: https://youtu.be/2hXbaDSDbME
How to read Bare Act: https://youtu.be/4a00n9uv8hg


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Note: This note is specially designed based on client specific needs for only specific topics and client

marks scoring goals

About Me: MINAKSHI LAW CLASSES

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

Individualism came into prominence in the 18th and 19th centuries.

those of the state or a social group. Individualism is frequently described in opposition to

totalitarianism, collectivism, and more corporate social formations.

Functions of State or Government

According to the supporters of Individualism, State or the Government performs the

1) Maintenance of law and order within the State.

2) Protection of individuals against external aggression. or internal rebellion.

3) Protection of individual against individual, in matters of physical harm (injury, aggression

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

6) Protection of individuals against preventable epidemics like plague or malaria. Many

Limitations or Criticisms of Individualism:

3. Man is not always the best judge of this interest:

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

2. Explain the contribution of Mahatma Gandhi to modern Indian political philosophy.

not for exploiting the power for one's selfish purpose.

3. Explain the concept of Socialism.

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

India adopted socialism as its economic setup.

to be symbolized by Jawahar Lal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose.

Chandrashekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh also turned to be socialism.

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

biologically unequal. He said that the inequality in society

exists due to the unequal control of the means of

production and distribution.

● In 1940 he advocated collective ownership and

nationalization of the heavy industries, shipping and mining.

● He made Gandhi’s socialism as the base of his socialism. He

said that grass-root level democracy should be introduced in

India. The village should be made a self-governing unit. He

favoured the distribution of land to the cultivator,

co-operative farming, and cancellation of agriculture debt.

Ram Manohar Lohia and Socialism:

● Rammanohar Lohia became the most prominent socialist leader in the

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

● He gave a theory of mobilization of the backward classes. He

4. Karl Marx on the theory of Marxism (communism).

inevitably create class conflict.

Class conflict and the demise of capitalism

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

and turn resentful toward business owners.

● The bourgeoisie also employ social institutions, including government, media,

● Ultimately, the inherent inequalities and exploitative economic relations between

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

What to read and how to read Torts :

What to read and how to read Constitution 1 : https://youtu.be/dBhEbkU3yIk

Frequently Asked Questions:

Which books to buy for LL.B. course: https://youtu.be/Tq-aqsog_yM

How to write answers in Law Examination: https://youtu.be/ION1o68tpgA

How to Study Law Subjects: https://youtu.be/jo74ChtR3J0

How to Prepare for Exam: https://youtu.be/WH8tiIGRmXQ

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

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