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GENE
&
T I
ANALYSIS
C SPRINCIPLES

6e

Robert J. Brooker
 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

10.4 Sizes of Eukaryotic Genomes and 14.3 Regulation of the trp Operon 349 18.3 Bacteriophage λ Reproductive
Repetitive Sequences 235 14.4 Translational and Posttranslational Cycle 444
10.5 Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosomes in Regulation 353 18.4 HIV Reproductive Cycle 450
Nondividing Cells 237 14.5 Riboswitches 354
10.6 Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosomes
During Cell Division 243 19 GENE MUTATION AND DNA

15
REPAIR 461
GENE REGULATION IN

11
EUKARYOTES I:
19.1 Effects of Mutations on Gene Structure
TRANSCRIPTIONAL AND
DNA REPLICATION 252 TRANSLATION
and Function 462
REGULATION 361 19.2 Random Nature of Mutations 468
11.1 Structural Overview of DNA 19.3 Spontaneous Mutations 470
Replication 252 15.1 Regulatory Transcription Factors 362 19.4 Induced Mutations 475
11.2 Bacterial DNA Replication: The 15.2 Chromatin Remodeling, Histone 19.5 DNA Repair 479
Formation of Two Replication Forks at Variants, and Histone
the Origin of Replication 256 Modification 369
11.3 Bacterial DNA Replication: Synthesis of
New DNA Strands 259
11.4 Bacterial DNA Replication: Chemistry
15.3 DNA Methylation 376
15.4 Insulators 378
20 RECOMBINATION,
IMMUNOGENETICS, AND
TRANSPOSITION 491
15.5 The ENCODE Project 379
and Accuracy 266 20.1 Homologous Recombination 491
15.6 Regulation of Translation 380
11.5 Eukaryotic DNA Replication 268 20.2 Immunogenetics 497
20.3 Transposition 499
PA R T I V
MOLECULAR PROPERTIES
16 GENE REGULATION IN
EUKARYOTES II:
EPIGENETICS 388
PA R T V
OF GENES 278
16.1 Overview of Epigenetics 388 GENETIC TECHNOLOGIES 511

12 GENE TRANSCRIPTION AND

RNA MODIFICATION 278
16.2
16.3
Epigenetics and Development 393
Paramutation 398

12.1
12.2
Overview of Transcription 278
Transcription in Bacteria 281
16.4 Epigenetics and Environmental
Agents 400
16.5 Role of Epigenetics in Cancer 405
21 MOLECULAR
TECHNOLOGIES 511

12.3 Transcription in Eukaryotes 286 21.1 Gene Cloning Using Vectors 512
21.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction 519
12.4
12.5
RNA Modification 291
A Comparison of Transcription
and RNA Modification in Bacteria
17 NON-CODING RNAs 411
21.3
21.4
DNA Sequencing 524
Gene Mutagenesis 526
and Eukaryotes 300 17.1 Overview of Non-coding RNAs 412 21.5 Blotting Methods to Detect Gene
17.2 Non-coding RNAs: Effects on Chromatin Products 529

13 TRANSLATION OF mRNA 306

Structure and Transcription 416
17.3 Non-coding RNAs: Effects on
Translation, mRNA Degradation, and
21.6 Methods for Analyzing DNA- and RNA-
Binding Proteins 531

13.1 The Genetic Basis for Protein

Synthesis 306
13.2 The Relationship Between the Genetic
RNA Modifications 417
17.4 Non-coding RNAs and Protein
Targeting 422
22 BIOTECHNOLOGY 539

Code and Protein Synthesis 309 22.1 Uses of Microorganisms in

13.3 Experimental Determination of the
Genetic Code 315
13.4 Structure and Function of tRNA 319
13.5 Ribosome Structure and Assembly 322
13.6 Stages of Translation 324
17.5 Non-coding RNAs and Genome Biotechnology 539
Defense 423 22.2 Genetically Modified Animals 542
17.6 Role of Non-coding RNAs in Human 22.3 Reproductive Cloning and Stem
Disease 427 Cells 546
22.4 Genetically Modified Plants 551

14 GENE REGULATION IN 18 GENETICS OF VIRUSES 433

22.5 Human Gene Therapy 555

BACTERIA 336

14.1 Overview of Transcriptional

Regulation 337
18.1 Virus Structure and Genetic
Composition 433 23 GENOMICS I: ANALYSIS
OF DNA 563

18.2 Overview of Viral Reproductive 23.1 Overview of Chromosome

14.2 Regulation of the lac Operon 339 Cycles 438 Mapping 564
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

23.2 Cytogenetic Mapping via

Microscopy 564
23.3 Linkage Mapping via Crosses 567
25.3
25.4
25.5
Genetic Testing and Screening 621
Prions 623
Genetic Basis of Cancer 624
28 COMPLEX AND QUANTITATIVE
TRAITS 707

23.4 Physical Mapping via Cloning and DNA 25.6 Personalized Medicine 634 28.1 Overview of Complex and Quantitative
Sequencing 570 Traits 707
23.5 Genome-Sequencing Projects 574
23.6 Metagenomics 582 26 DEVELOPMENTAL
GENETICS 643
28.2 Statistical Methods for Evaluating
Quantitative Traits 709
28.3 Polygenic Inheritance 712

24
26.1 Overview of Animal Development 643 28.4 Identification of Genes that Control
GENOMICS II: FUNCTIONAL
GENOMICS, PROTEOMICS, AND 26.2 Invertebrate Development 647 Quantitative Traits 715
BIOINFORMATICS 589 26.3 Vertebrate Development 659 28.5 Heritability 717
26.4 Plant Development 662 28.6 Selective Breeding 722
24.1 Functional Genomics 590

29
26.5 Sex Determination in Animals 666
24.2 Proteomics 595

27
24.3 Bioinformatics 600 EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS 732

POPULATION GENETICS 675 29.1 Origin of Species 733

PA R T V I 29.2 Phylogenetic Trees 738
27.1 Genes in Populations and the Hardy-
Weinberg Equation 675 29.3 Molecular Evolution 746
GENETIC ANALYSIS OF
INDIVIDUALS AND 27.2 Overview of Microevolution 680 *Appendix A: Experimental Techniques
POPULATIONS 611 27.3 Natural Selection 681 can be found on the website for this
textbook: www.mhhe.com/
27.4 Genetic Drift 689

25
brookergenetics6e
MEDICAL GENETICS AND 27.5 Migration 692
CANCER 611 Appendix B
27.6 Nonrandom Mating 692
Solutions to Even-Numbered
25.1 Inheritance Patterns of Genetic 27.7 Sources of New Genetic Variation 694 Problems and All Comprehension
Diseases 612 and Concept Check Questions B-1
25.2 Detection of Disease-Causing Alleles via Glossary G-1
Haplotypes 618
Index I-1

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Robert J. Brooker is a professor in the Department of Genetics,

Cell Biology, and Development and the Department of Biology
Teaching and Learning at the University of Minnesota–
Minneapolis. He received his B.A. in biology from Wittenberg
University in 1978 and his Ph.D. in genetics from Yale University
in 1983. At Harvard, he conducted postdoctoral studies on the
lactose permease, which is the product of the lacY gene of the lac
operon. He continued to work on transporters at the University of
Minnesota with an emphasis on the structure, function, and
regulation of iron transporters found in bacteria and C. elegans. At
the University of Minnesota, he teaches undergraduate courses in
biology and genetics.

DEDICATION

To my wife, Deborah, and our children, Daniel, Nathan, and Sarah

P R E FAC E

I
students may be provided with online lectures, “flipping the class-
room” typically gives students more responsibility for understanding
the textbook material on their own. Along these lines, Genetics:
Analysis & Principles, Sixth Edition, is intended to provide students
n the sixth edition of Genetics: Analysis & Principles, the with a resource that can be effectively used outside of the classroom.
content has been updated to reflect current trends in the field. In Here are several of the key pedagogical features:
addition, the presentation of the content has been improved in a
∙ 
NEW! A new feature called Genetic TIPS provides a
way that fosters active learning. As an author, researcher, and
teacher, I want a textbook that gets students actively involved in consistent approach to help students solve problems in
learning genetics. To achieve this goal, I have worked with a genetics. This approach has three components. First, the
­talented team of editors, illustrators, and media specialists who student is made aware of the Topic at hand. Second, the
have helped me to make the sixth edition of Genetics: Analysis & question is evaluated with regard to the Informaiton that is
Principles a fun learning tool. available to the student. Finally, the student is guided
Overall, an effective textbook needs to accomplish four through one or more Problem-Solving Strategies to tackle
goals.14 First, it needsCHAP toT provide
E R 1 :: comprehensive,
OVERVIEW OF GENETICS accurate, and up- the question.
to-date content in its field. Second, it needs to expose students to
the techniques and skills they will need to become successful in
that field. words,
Third, what an effective
scientifictextbook
question should
was thehave pedagogical
researcher trying
features, such to answer?
as formative assessment, that foster student learn- GENETIC TIPS THE QUESTION: All of the Genetic TIPS
begin with a question. As an example, let’s consider the following
ing. And 3. finally,
Next, the figure follows
it should inspirethe experimental
students so theysteps wantthe to scientist
pursue question:
that field as took to test the
a career. Thehypothesis.
hard workEach thatfeatured
has gone experiment con-
into the sixth The coding strand of DNA in a segment of a gene is as follows:
edition oftains two parallel
Genetics: Analysisillustrations labeled has
& Principles Experimental
been aimed Levelat ATG GGC CTT AGC. This strand carries the information to make a
achieving and Conceptual
all four of theseLevel. goals!The Experimental Level helps you region of a polypeptide with the amino acid sequence, methionine-
to understand the techniques followed. The Conceptual glycine-leucine-serine. What would be the consequences if a mutation
Level helps you to understand what is actually happening changed the second cytosine (C) in this sequence to an adenine (A)?
at each step in the procedure.
FLIPPING
4. The raw data THE for eachCLASSROOM
experiment are then presented. T OPIC: What topic in genetics does this question address? The
5. Last, an interpretation of the data is offered within the text. topic is gene expression. More specifically, the question is about
A recent trend in science education is the phenomenon that is some- the relationship between a gene sequence and the genetic code.
The rationale behind this approach is that it enables you to see the
timesexperimental
called “flipping the classroom.” This phrase refers to the idea
process from beginning to end. As you read through
that some of the activities that usedwillto be done I NFORMATION: What information do you know based on the
the chapters, the experiments help youintoclass
see theare relationship
now done
question and your understanding of the topic? In the question,
outside of class, and vice versa.
between science and scientific theories. For example, instead of spending
the entire As class time lecturing over textbook and other materials, you are given the base sequence of a short segment of a gene and
a student of genetics, you will be given the opportunity told that one of the bases has been changed. From your understanding
sometoofinvolve
the classyourtimemind is in
spent engaging students
the experimental process. in various
As you are activi-
read- of the topic, you may remember that a polypeptide sequence is
ties, ing
such anas problem solving,
experiment, you mayworking through
find yourself case about
thinking studies, and
different determined by reading the mRNA (transcribed from a gene) in
designing experiments.
approaches This approach
and alternative is called
hypotheses. activepeople
Different learning.can For
view groups of three bases called codons.
manytheinstructors,
same datathe and classroom
arrive at hasverybecome
differentmore learner centered
conclusions. As you
rather teacherthrough
progress centered. theAexperiments
learner-centeredin thisclassroom
book, youprovides
will enjoy a P ROBLEM-SOLVING S TRATEGY: Compare and contrast.
rich genetics
environment far morein which
if youstudents can interact
try to develop your own withskills
eachatother and
formulat- One strategy to solve this problem is to compare the mRNA
withingtheirhypotheses,
instructors.designingInstructorsexperiments,
and fellow students often provide
and interpreting data. sequence (transcribed from this gene) before and after the mutation:
Also, some
formative of the questions in the
assessment—immediate problem
feedback thatsets are aimed
helps at refin-
each student Original: AUG GGC CUU AGC
ing these
understand skills.
if his or her learning is on the right track. Mutant: AUG GGC AUU AGC
Finally,
What are some it is worthwhile
advantages to of point
activeoutlearning?
that science is a social
Educational
discipline. As you develop your skills at scrutinizing
studies reveal that active learning usually promotes greater learning experiments, ANSWER: The mutation has changed the sequence of bases in the
gains.it In
is fun to discuss
addition, activeyour ideasoften
learning with focuses
other people,
on skillincluding
developmentfellow mRNA so that the third codon has changed from CUU to AUU.
students and faculty members. Keep in mind that you do not need Because codons specify amino acids, this may change the third
rather than on the memorization of facts that are easily forgotten.
to “know all the answers” before you enter into a scientific discus- amino acid to something else. Note: If you look ahead to Chapter 13
Students become trained to “think like scientists” and to develop a
(see Table 13.1), you will see that CUU specifies leucine, whereas
skill sion. Instead,
set that enables it isthem
moretorewarding to view
apply scientific science asAan
reasoning. ongoing
common AUU specifies isoleucine. Therefore, you would predict that the mu-
and never-ending dialogue.
concern among instructors who are beginning to try out active learn- tation would change the third amino acid from leucine to isoleucine.
ing is that they think they will have less time to teach and therefore
will cover
Genetic less material.
TIPS Will However,
HelpthisYou maytonot be the case.
Improve Although
Your
Problem-Solving Skills Throughout Chapters 2 through 29, each chapter will contain sev- ix
As your progress through this textbook, your learning will involve eral Genetic TIPS. Some of these will be within the chapter itself
two general goals: and some will precede the problem sets that are at the end of each
x PREFACE
∙ 
Genes → Traits: Because genetics is such a broad discipline,
ranging from the molecular level to populations, many
instructors have told us that it is a challenge for students to
see both “the forest and the trees.” It is commonly mentioned
that students often have trouble connecting the concepts they
have learned in molecular genetics with the traits that occur
at the level of a whole organism (i.e., What does
transcription have to do with blue eyes?). To try to make this
connection more meaningful, certain figure legends in each
chapter, designated Genes → Traits, remind students that
molecular and cellular phenomena ultimately lead to the
traits that are observed in each species (see Figure 14.8).
∙ 
Learning Outcomes: Each section of every chapter begins
with a set of learning outcomes. These outcomes help
students understand what they should be able to do once they
have mastered the material in that section.
∙ 
Formative Assessment: When students are expected to learn
textbook material on their own, it is imperative that they are
regularly given formative assessment so they can gauge
whether they are mastering the material. Formative
assessment is a major feature of this textbook and is bolstered
by Connect—a state-of-the art digital assignment and
assessment platform. In Genetics: Analysis & Principles, Sixth
Examples of Specific Content Changes
Edition, formative assessment is provided in multiple ways.
to Individual Chapters
1. As mentioned, a new feature called Genetic TIPS is
aimed at helping students refine their problem solving
skills.
2. Each section of every chapter ends with multiple-choice
questions. Also, compared with the previous edition, many
chapters in the sixth edition are divided into more sections
that are shorter in length. Formative assessment at the end
of each section allows students to evaluate their mastery of
the material before moving on to the next section.
3. Most figures have Concept Check questions so students
can determine if they understand the key points in the
figure.
4. Extensive end-of chapter questions continue to provide
students with feedback regarding their mastery of the
material.
5. The textbook material is supported by digital learning
tools found in Connect. Questions and activities are
assignable in Connect, and students also have access to
our valuable adaptive study tool, SmartBook. With this
tool, students are repeatedly given questions regarding
the textbook material, and depending on their answers,
they may advance ahead in their reading, or they are
given specific advice on what textbook material to go
back and review.
Overall, the pedagogy of Genetics: Analysis & Principles,
sixth edition, has been designed to foster student learning. Instead of
being a collection of facts and figures, Genetics: Analysis & Prin-
ciples, Sixth Edition, by Rob Brooker, is intended to be an engaging
and motivating textbook in which formative assessment allows stu-
dents to move ahead and learn the material in a productive way. We
welcome your feedback so we can make future editions even better!
SIGNIFICANT CONTENT CHANGES
IN THE SIXTH EDITION
∙ 
NEW! A new problem-solving feature called Genetic TIPS
has been added to the sixth edition. The Genetic TIPS are
found within each chapter and three or four are found at the
end of each chapter.
∙ 
NEW! The topic of Epigenetics has been expanded to a
whole chapter, which is now Chapter 16.
∙ 
NEW! A new chapter on non-coding RNA has been added,
which is Chapter 17. This long-overdue chapter is in
response to a remarkable explosion in our appreciation for
the roles of non-coding RNAs in many aspects of molecular
biology. Note: Although two new chapters have been added
to this edition, the overall page length of the sixth edition is
not longer than the fifth edition.
∙ 
NEW! CRISPR-Cas systems: The role of the CRISPR-Cas
system in providing prokaryotes with a genome defense
mechanism is described in Chapter 17, and its use by
researchers to mutate genes is described in Chapter 21.
∙ 
Chapter 2. Mendelian Inheritance: Several Genetic TIPS
have been added to help students work through problem-
solving strategies involving Mendelian inheritance.
∙ 
Chapter 3. Chromosome Transmission During Cell Division
and Sexual Reproduction: The discussion of the random
alignment of homologs during metaphase of meiosis I was
expanded.
∙ 
Chapter 4. Extensions of Mendelian Inheritance: The topic
of gene interaction was streamlined to focus primarily on
examples in which the underlying molecular mechanisms are
known.
∙ 
Chapter 5. Non-Mendelian Inheritance:A common
misconception among students is that you can use a Punnett
square to deduce nonMendelian inheritance patterns.
Throughout the chapter, this misconception has been laid to
rest, and students are given effective strategies to predict
offspring genotypes and phenotypes.
∙ 
Chapter 6. Genetic and Linkage Mapping in Eukaryotes:
When looking at experiments involving linkage, student
often find it very difficult to identify the recombinant
offspring. In various parts of the chapter, a strong effort has
been made to make it clear that recombinant offspring have
inherited a chromosome that is the product of a crossover.
Along these same lines, a new figure (see Figure 6.6) has
been added involving the experiments of Curt Stern showing
that recombinant offspring carry chromosomes that are the
product of a crossover. Also, Figure 6.8 has been revised to
emphasis this point.
∙ 
Chapter 7. Genetic Transfer and Mapping in Bacteria:
Figure 7.13 is a new figure showing the increase in methicillin
resistance in certain Staphylococcus aureus strains.

∙ 
Chapter 8. Variation in Chromosome Structure and Number:
Several Genetic TIPS have been added to help students solve
problems that involve changes in chromosome structure and
chromosome number.
∙ 
Chapter 9. Molecular Structure of DNA and RNA: The
section on the discovery of the DNA double helix has been
streamlined to focus on the key experiments.
∙ 
Chapter 10. Chromosome Organization and Molecular
Structure: The topic of bacterial chromosome structure has
been updated, which includes a new figure (see Figure 10.3)
and a discussion of microdomains.
∙ 
Chapter 11. DNA Replication: A new figure has been added
on the initiation of DNA replication in eukaryotes (see
Figure 11.20).
∙ 
Chapter 12. Gene Transcription and RNA Modification: The
information on alternative splicing has been moved to this
chapter.
∙ 
Chapter 13. Translation of mRNA: Several Genetic TIPS
have been added to help students understand the relationship
between the genetic code and the synthesis of polypeptides.
∙ 
Chapter 14. Gene Regulation in Bacteria: The information
on catabolite activator protein has been updated.
∙ 
Chapter 15. Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes I: Transcriptional
and Translation Regulation: The material on eukaryotic gene
regulation is now divided into two chapters. Chapter 15
focuses on transcriptional and translational regulation.
∙ 
Chapter 16. Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes II: Epigenetics:
This topic has now been expanded to an entire chapter. A
new subsection has been added on the role of epigenetics in
vernalization, which is the process in which some plant
species require an exposure to cold in order to flower the
following spring. Also, a new section has been added on the
intriguing topic of paramutation.
∙ 
Chapter 17. Non-coding RNA: This new chapter begins
with an overview of the general functions of non-coding
RNAs, and then the subsequent sections explore certain
topics in greater detail, such as their role in chromatin
modification, transcription, translation, protein targeting, and
genome defense (e.g., the CRISPR-Cas system).
∙ 
Chapter 18. Genetics of Viruses: The material on the
integration of phage λ has been added to this chapter, along
with a brief discussion of Zika virus. Also, information on
the origin of HIV and the occurrence of HIV infection
worldwide and in the US has been updated.
∙ 
Chapter 19. Gene Mutation and DNA Repair: The information
on the mismatch repair system has been updated.
∙ 
Chapter 20. Recombination, Immunogenetics, and
Transposition: Section 20.2 has been revised to focus on
immunogenetics.
PREFACE xi
∙ 
Chapter 21. DNA Technologies: A new subsection has
been added on gene mutagenesis, which includes a
description of the Crispr-Cas system for inactivating
and mutating genes.
∙ 
Chapter 22. Biotechnology: Several Genetic TIPS have been
added to help students appreciate the uses of molecular
techniques in biotechnology.
∙ 
Chapter 23. Genomics I: Analysis of DNA: The information
has been updated regarding completed genome sequences
and other aspects of genomics.
∙ 
Chapter 24. Genomics II: Functional Genomics, Proteomics,
and Bioinformatics: A new subsection has been added
on the method called RNA-Seq (see Figure 24.3). The
Bioinformatics section has been reorganized with an emphasis
on gene prediction and homology.
∙ 
Chapter 25. Medical Genetics and Cancer: Several
Genetic TIPS have been added to help students
understand how mutations play a role in certain
diseases, including cancer.
∙ 
Chapter 26. Developmental Genetics: The information on
Hox genes in development, and the role of the SRY gene is
human sex determination, have been updated.
∙ 
Chapter 27. Population Genetics: The topic of inbreeding
has been expanded.
∙ 
Chapter 28. Complex and Quantitative Traits: The topic of
the identification of QTLs is now found in its own
subsection.
∙ 
Chapter 29. Evolutionary Genetics: The cladistics method
for constructing a phylogenetic tree is compared with the
UPGMA method.
Suggestions Welcome!
It seems very appropriate to use the word evolution to describe the
continued development of this textbook. I welcome any and all
comments. The refinement of any science textbook requires input
from instructors and their students. These include comments re-
garding writing, illustrations, supplements, factual content, and
topics that may need greater or less emphasis. You are invited to
contact me at:
Dr. Rob Brooker
Dept. of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Development
University of Minnesota
6-160 Jackson Hall
321 Church St.
Minneapolis, MN 55455
brook005@umn.edu
612-624-3053
 ®

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xiv PREFACE

components that need to be assembled to produce a book. I would

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The production of a textbook is truly a collaborative effort, and I
am deeply indebted to many people. All six editions of this text-
book went through multiple rounds of rigorous revision that in-
volved the input of faculty, students, editors, and educational and
media specialists. Their collective contributions are reflected in
the final outcome.
Deborah Brooker (Freelance Developmental Editor) metic-
ulously read the new material, analyzed every figure, and offered
extensive feedback. Her attention to detail in this edition and pre-
vious editions has profoundly contributed to the accuracy and
clarity of this textbook. I would also like to thank Jane Hoover
(Freelance Copy Editor) for understanding the material and work-
ing extremely hard to improve the text’s clarity. Her efforts are
truly appreciated.
I would particularly like to acknowledge the many people at
McGraw-Hill Education whose skills and insights are amazing.
My highest praise goes to Elizabeth Sievers (Lead Product Devel-
oper), who carefully checks all aspects of textbook development
and makes sure that all of the pieces of the puzzle are in place.
I am also grateful to Justin Wyatt (Brand Manager) for overseeing
this project. I would like to thank other people at McGraw-Hill
who have played key roles in producing an actual book and the
supplements that go along with it. In particular, Jayne Klein (Senior
Content Project Manager), has done a superb job of managing the
also like to thank Carrie Burger (Content Licensing Specialist),
who acted as an interface between me and the photo company. In
addition, my gratitude goes to David Hash (Designer), who pro-
vided much input into the internal design of the book as well as
created an awesome cover. Finally, I would like to thank Patrick
Reidy (Executive Marketing Manager), whose major efforts begin
when the sixth edition comes out!
I would also like to extend my thanks to everyone at Aptara
who worked with great care in the paging of the book, making sure
that the figures and relevant text are as close to each other as pos-
sible. Likewise, the people at Photo Affairs, Inc. have done a great
job of locating many of the photographs that have been used in the
sixth edition.
Finally, I want to thank the many scientists who reviewed
the chapters of this textbook with special attention to the new
Chapter 17, Non-coding RNAs. Their broad insights and construc-
tive suggestions were an overriding factor that shaped its final
content and organization. I am truly grateful for their time and
compassion.
∙ 
Susan Carpenter University of California, Santa Cruz
∙ 
Johnny El-Rady University of South Florida
∙ 
Terri McElhinny Michigan State University
∙ 
Douglas Wendell Oakland University
∙ 
Jeremy Wilusz University of Pennsylvania Perelman School
of Medicine

REVIEWERS Reggie Cobb, Nash Community College Thomas Peavy, California State University–
Dan Choffnes, Carthage College Sacramento
Previous editions Laurie Cotroneo, Southern Utah University Rongsun Pu, Kean University
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Amy Abdulovic-Cui, Augusta State
Robert Hinrichsen, Indiana University of Julian Shull, Appalachian State University
University
Pennsylvania Jeffry Shultz, Louisiana Tech University
Steve Alas, California State Polytechnic
Margaret Hollingsworth, University at Ronald Wagner, Central Washington
University, Pomona
Buffalo University
Harvey Babich, Stern College for Women
Mitrick Johns, Illinois University Carey Waldburger, William Paterson
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Vermont
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Louisiana
Norah R. McCabe, Washington State Jessica Wooten, The University of Findlay
Mirjana Milosevic Brockett, Georgia
University
Institute of Technology
R. Deborah Overath, Texas A&M
Madhusudan Choudhary, Sam Houston
University–Corpus Christi
State University
 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 The Molecular Expression
of Genes
1.2 The Relationship Between
Genes and Traits
1.3 Fields of Genetics
1.4 The Science of Genetics

1
CC (for “carbon copy”
or “copy cat”), the first
cloned pet. In 2002, the
cat shown here was
­produced by cloning,
a procedure described
in Chapter 22.
© Corbis

OVERVIEW OF GENETICS
Hardly a week goes by without a major news story involving a
genetic breakthrough. The increasing pace of genetic discoveries
has become staggering. The Human Genome Project is a case in
point. This project began in the United States in 1990, when the
National Institutes of Health and the Department of Energy
joined forces with international partners to decipher the massive
amount of information contained in our genome—the DNA
found within all of our chromosomes (Figure 1.1). Remarkably,
in only a decade, they determined the DNA sequence (the order
of the bases A, T, G, and C) of over 90% of the human genome.
The completed sequence, published in 2003, has an accuracy
greater than 99.99%; less than one mistake was made in every
10,000 base pairs!
In 2008, a more massive undertaking, called the 1000 Ge-
nomes Project, was launched to establish a detailed understand-
ing of human genetic variation. In this international project,
researchers set out to determine the DNA sequence of at least
1000 anonymous participants from around the globe. In 2015,
the sequencing of over 2500 genomes was described in the jour-
nal Nature.
Studying the human genome allows us to explore fundamen-
tal details about ourselves at the molecular level. The results of the
Human Genome Project and the 1000 Genomes Project have shed
considerable light on basic questions, like how many genes we
have, how genes direct the activities of living cells, how species
evolve, how single cells develop into complex tissues, and how
defective genes cause disease. Furthermore, such understanding
may lend itself to improvements in modern medicine by leading to
better diagnoses of diseases and the development of new treat-
ments for them.
The journey to unravel the mysteries within our genes has
­involved the invention of many new technologies. For example, re-
searchers have developed genetic techniques to produce medicines,
such as human insulin, that would otherwise be difficult or impos-
sible to make. Human insulin is synthesized in strains of Esche-
richia coli bacteria that have been genetically altered by the addition
of genes that encode the polypeptides that form this hormone. The
bacteria are grown in a laboratory and make large amounts of hu-
man insulin. As discussed in Chapter 22, the insulin is purified and
administered to many people with insulin-dependent diabetes.

1
2 C H A P T E R 1 :: OVERVIEW OF GENETICS

Chromosomes
DNA, the molecule of life
Cell
The adult human body
is composed of trillions
of cells.

Most human cells contain

the following:
Gene
• 46 human chromosomes,
found in 23 pairs

C G

T A
T A
• 2 meters of DNA

G
C G

T A

T A
• Approximately 22,000

T A
genes coding for

A T

C G
proteins that perform

A T
most life functions
DNA
• Approximately 3 billion
DNA base pairs per set mRNA
of chromosomes,
containing the bases A,
T, G, and C

Amino acid

Protein (composed of amino acids)

FI G U RE 1.1 The human genome. The human genome is a complete set of human chromosomes. People have two sets of chromosomes—one
set from each parent—which are found in the cell nucleus. The Human Genome Project revealed that each set of chromosomes is composed of a DNA
sequence that is approximately 3 billion nucleotide base pairs long. Estimates suggest that each set contains about 22,000 different genes that encode
­proteins. As discussed later, most genes are first transcribed into mRNA and then the mRNA is used to make proteins. This figure emphasizes the DNA
found in the cell nucleus. Humans also have a small amount of DNA in their mitochondria, which has also been sequenced.
CONCEPT CHECK: How might a better understanding of our genes be used in the field of medicine?

New genetic technologies are often met with skepticism and

sometimes even with disdain. An example is mammalian cloning.
In 1997, Ian Wilmut and his colleagues created clones of sheep,
using mammary cells from an adult animal (Figure 1.2). More
recently, such cloning has been achieved in several mammalian
species, including cows, mice, goats, pigs, and cats. In 2002, the
first pet was cloned, a cat named CC (for “carbon copy” or “copy
cat”; see photo at the beginning of the chapter). The cloning of
mammals provides the potential for many practical applications.
With regard to livestock, cloning would enable farmers to use
cells from their best individuals to create genetically homoge-
neous herds. This could be advantageous in terms of agricultural
yield, although such a genetically homogeneous herd may be
more susceptible to certain diseases. However, people have be-
come greatly concerned with the possibility of human cloning.
This prospect has raised serious ethical questions. Within the past F I G URE 1 . 2 The cloning of a mammal. The lamb in the front
few years, legislation has been introduced that involves bans on is Dolly, the first mammal to be cloned. She was cloned from the cells
human cloning. of a Finn Dorset (a white-faced sheep). The sheep in the back is Dolly’s
Finally, genetic technologies provide the means to modify surrogate mother, a Blackface ewe. A description of how Dolly was
the traits of animals and plants in ways that would have been ­produced is presented in Chapter 22.
­unimaginable just a few decades ago. Figure 1.3a illustrates © Roslin Institute/Phototake

a striking example in which scientists introduced a gene from CONCEPT CHECK: What ethical issues may be associated with human cloning?

(a) GFP expressed in mice
GFP
(b) GFP expressed in the gonads of a male mosquito
FI GURE 1.3 The introduction of a jellyfish gene into
­laboratory mice and mosquitoes. (a) A gene that naturally occurs
in jellyfish encodes a protein called green fluorescent protein (GFP).
The GFP gene was cloned and introduced into mice. When these mice
are exposed to UV light, GFP emits a bright green color. These mice
glow green, just like the jellyfish! (b) The GFP gene was introduced
next to a gene sequence that causes the expression of GFP only in the
gonads of male mosquitoes. This allows researchers to identify and
sort males from females.
(a): © Advanced Cell Technology, Inc., Worcester, Massachusetts; (b): Photo taken by Flaminia
Catteruccia, Jason Benton and Andrea Crisanti, and assembled by www.luciariccidesign.com
CONCEPT CHECK: Why is it useful to sort male mosquitoes from females?
jellyfish into mice. Certain species of jellyfish emit a “green
glow” produced by a gene that encodes a bioluminescent protein
called green fluorescent protein (GFP). When exposed to blue or
ultraviolet (UV) light, the protein emits a striking green-colored
light. Scientists were able to clone the GFP gene from a sample
of jellyfish cells and then introduce this gene into laboratory
mice. The green fluorescent protein is made throughout the cells
of their bodies. As a result, their skin, eyes, and organs give off
an eerie green glow when exposed to UV light. Only their fur
does not glow.
The expression of green fluorescent protein allows research-
ers to identify particular proteins in cells or specific body parts.
1.1 THE MOLECULAR EXPRESSION OF GENES 3
For example, Andrea Crisanti and colleagues have altered mosqui-
toes to express GFP only in the gonads of males (Figure 1.3b).
This enables the researchers to identify and sort males from fe-
males. Why is this useful? Researchers can produce a population
of mosquitoes and then sterilize the males. The ability to rapidly
sort males and females makes it possible to release the sterile
males without the risk of releasing additional females. The release
of sterile males may be an effective means of controlling mosquito
populations because females mate only once before they die.
­Mating with a sterile male prevents a female from producing off-
spring. In 2008, Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie, and Roger
Tsien received the Nobel Prize in chemistry for the discovery and
the development of GFP, which has become a widely used tool
in biology.
Overall, as we move forward in the twenty-first century, the
excitement level in the field of genetics is high, perhaps higher
than it has ever been. Nevertheless, new genetic knowledge and
technologies will also create many ethical and societal challenges.
In this chapter, we begin with an overview of genetics and then
explore the various fields of genetics and their experimental
­approaches.
1.1 THE MOLECULAR
EXPRESSION OF GENES
Learning Outcomes:
1. Describe the biochemical composition of cells.
2. Explain how proteins are largely responsible for cell struc-
ture and function.
3. Outline how DNA stores the information to make proteins.
Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with heredity and
variation. It stands as the unifying discipline in biology by
­allowing us to understand how life can exist at all levels of
­complexity, ranging from the molecular to the population level.
Genetic variation is the root of the natural diversity that we
­observe among members of the same species and among differ-
ent species.
Genetics is centered on the study of genes. A gene is classi-
cally defined as a unit of heredity. At the molecular level, a gene
is a segment of DNA that produces a functional product. The func-
tional product of most genes is a polypeptide, which is a linear
sequence of amino acids that folds into units that constitute pro-
teins. In addition, genes are commonly described according to the
way they affect traits, which are the characteristics of an organ-
ism. In humans, for example, we speak of traits such as eye color,
hair texture, and height. The ongoing theme of this textbook is the
relationship between genes and traits. As an organism grows and
develops, its collection of genes provides a blueprint that deter-
mines its traits.
In this section, we examine the general features of life,
beginning with the molecular level and ending with popula-
tions of organisms. As will become apparent, genetics is the
4 C H A P T E R 1 :: OVERVIEW OF GENETICS Plant cell

common thread that explains the existence of life and its conti-
nuity from generation to generation. For most students, this
chapter should serve as an overview of topics they have learned
in other introductory courses such as General Biology. Even so,
it is usually helpful to see the “big picture” of genetics before
delving into the finer details that are covered in Chapters 2
through 29.
Nucleus

Living Cells Are Composed of Biochemicals

To fully understand the relationship between genes and traits, we
need to begin with an examination of the composition of living
organisms. Every cell is constructed from intricately organized
chemical substances. Small organic molecules such as glucose
and amino acids are produced from the linkage of atoms via
chemical bonds. The chemical properties of organic molecules
are essential for cell vitality in two key ways. First, the breaking
of chemical bonds during the degradation of small molecules pro- Chromosome
vides energy to drive cellular processes. A second important
function of these small organic molecules is their role as the Proteins
building blocks for the synthesis of larger molecules. Four impor-
tant categories of larger molecules are nucleic acids (i.e., DNA
and RNA), proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. Three of these—
nucleic acids, proteins, and carbohydrates—form macromolecules
that are composed of many repeating units of smaller building
blocks. RNA, proteins, and some carbohydrates are made from DNA
hundreds or even thousands of repeating building blocks. DNA is
the largest macromolecule found in living cells. A single DNA
molecule can be composed of a linear sequence of hundreds of
millions of building blocks called nucleotides!
The formation of cellular structures relies on the interac-
tions of molecules and macromolecules. For example, nucleo-
tides are connected together to make DNA, which is a constituent
of chromosomes (Figure 1.4). In addition, DNA is associated
with many proteins that provide organization to the structure of
chromosomes. Within a eukaryotic cell, the chromosomes are Nucleotides
contained in a compartment called the cell nucleus. The nucleus
is bounded by a double membrane composed of lipids and pro-
teins that shields the chromosomes from the rest of the cell. The NH2
organization of chromosomes within a cell nucleus protects the Cytosine N
H Guanine
chromosomes from mechanical damage and provides a single O
O– H
compartment for genetic activities such as gene transcription. As O N H
N
N
O P O CH2 H
a general theme, the formation of large cellular structures arises O–
O O– H2 N N
N
from interactions among different molecules and macromole- H
H H
H O P O CH2
O
cules. These cellular structures, in turn, are organized to make a OH H
O–
H H
H H
complete living cell.
OH H

Each Cell Contains Many Different
Proteins That Determine Cell Structure
and Function
To a great extent, the characteristics of a cell depend on the types
of proteins that it makes. The entire collection of proteins that a
cell makes at a given time is called its proteome. The range of
functions among different types of proteins is truly remarkable.
Some proteins help determine the shape and structure of a given
F I G URE 1 . 4 Molecular organization of a living cell. Cellular
structures are constructed from smaller building blocks. In this example,
DNA is formed from the linkage of nucleotides to produce a very long
macromolecule. The DNA associates with proteins to form a chromosome.
The chromosomes are located within a membrane-bound organelle called
the nucleus, which, along with many different types of organelles, is
found within a complete cell.
photo: © Biophoto Associates/Science Source
CONCEPT CHECK: Is DNA a small molecule, a macromolecule, or an organelle?
 1.1 THE MOLECULAR EXPRESSION OF GENES 5

cell. For example, the protein known as tubulin assembles into

large structures known as microtubules, which provide the cell
with internal structure and organization. Other proteins are in-
serted into cell membranes and aid in the transport of ions and
small molecules across the membrane. Enzymes, which acceler-
ate chemical reactions, are a particularly important category of
proteins. Some enzymes play a role in the breakdown of molecules
or macromolecules into smaller units. These are known as cata-
bolic enzymes and are important in the utilization of energy.
­Alternatively, anabolic enzymes and accessory proteins function
in the synthesis of molecules and macromolecules throughout the
cell. The construction of a cell greatly depends on its proteins that
are involved in anabolism because these are required to synthesize
all cellular macromolecules.
Molecular biologists have come to realize that the functions
of proteins underlie the cellular characteristics of every organism.
At the molecular level, proteins can be viewed as the active par-
ticipants in the enterprise of life.

DNA Stores the Information for Protein Synthesis

The genetic material of living organisms is composed of a sub-
stance called deoxyribonucleic acid, abbreviated DNA. The
DNA stores the information needed for the synthesis of all cellular
proteins. In other words, the main function of the genetic blueprint
is to code for the production of proteins in the correct cell, at the
proper time, and in suitable amounts. This is an extremely compli-
cated task because living cells make thousands of different pro-
teins. Genetic analyses have shown that a typical bacterium can
make a few thousand different proteins, and estimates for the
­numbers produced by complex eukaryotic species range in the
tens of thousands.
DNA’s ability to store information is based on its structure.
DNA is composed of a linear sequence of nucleotides. Each
nucleotide contains one of four nitrogen-containing bases: ade- F I G URE 1 . 5 A micrograph of the 46 chromosomes found in a
nine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), or cytosine (C). The linear cell from a ­human male.
order of these bases along a DNA molecule contains information © CNRI/Science Source

similar to the way that groups of letters of the alphabet represent CONCEPT CHECK: Which types of macromolecules are found in chromosomes?
words. For example, the “meaning” of the sequence of bases
ATGGGCCTTAGC differs from that of TTTAAGCTTGCC.
DNA sequences within most genes contain the information to
as a karyotype. The DNA of an average human chromosome is an
direct the order of amino acids within polypeptides according to
extraordinarily long, linear, double-stranded structure that con-
the genetic code. In the code, a three-base sequence specifies
tains well over a hundred million nucleotides. Along the immense
one particular amino acid among the 20 possible choices. One
length of a chromosome, the genetic information is parceled into
or more polypeptides form a functional protein. In this way, the
functional units known as genes. An average-sized human chro-
DNA can store the information to specify the proteins made by
mosome is expected to contain about 1000 different protein-­
an organism.
encoding genes.
DNA Sequence Amino Acid Sequence

ATG GGC CTT AGC Methionine Glycine Leucine Serine The Information in DNA Is Accessed During
TTT AAG CTT GCC Phenylalanine Lysine Leucine Alanine the Process of Gene Expression
To synthesize its proteins, a cell must be able to access the informa-
In living cells, the DNA is found within large structures known as tion that is stored within its DNA. The process of using a gene se-
chromosomes. Figure 1.5 is a micrograph of the 46 chromosomes quence to affect the characteristics of cells and organisms is referred
contained in a cell from a human male; this type of image is known to as gene expression. At the molecular level, the information
6 C H A P T E R 1 :: OVERVIEW OF GENETICS
DNA
Gene
Transcription
RNA (messenger RNA)
Translation
Protein
(sequence of
amino acids)
Functioning of proteins within living
cells influences an organism’s traits.
FI GURE 1.6 Gene expression at the molecular
level. The ­expression of a gene is a multistep process.
During transcription, one of the DNA strands is used as a
template to make an RNA strand. During translation, the
RNA strand is used to specify the sequence of amino ­acids within a
polypeptide. One or more polypeptides produce a protein that functions
within the cell, thereby influencing an organism’s traits.
CONCEPT CHECK: Where is the information to make a polypeptide stored?
within genes is accessed in a stepwise process (Figure 1.6). In the
first step, known as transcription, the DNA sequence within a gene
is copied into a nucleotide sequence of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Protein-encoding genes (also called structural genes) carry the
information for the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide. When a
protein-encoding gene is transcribed, the first product is an RNA
molecule known as messenger RNA (mRNA). During polypeptide
synthesis—a process called translation—the sequence of nucleo-
tides within the mRNA determines the sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide. One or more polypeptides then fold and assemble into
a functional protein. The synthesis of functional proteins ultimately
determines an organism’s traits. As discussed further in Chapter 12
(look ahead to Figure 12.1), the pathway of gene expression from
DNA to RNA to protein is called the central dogma of genetics
(also called the central dogma of molecular biology). It forms a
cornerstone of our understanding of genetics at the molecular level.
1.1 COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is not a constituent of a cell’s proteome?
a. An enzyme
b. A cytoskeletal protein
c. A transport protein in the plasma membrane
d. An mRNA
2. A gene is a segment of DNA that has the information to produce
a functional product. The functional product of most genes is
a. DNA.
b. mRNA.
c. a polypeptide.
d. all of the above.
3. The function of the genetic code is to
a. promote transcription.
b. specify the amino acids within a polypeptide.
c. alter the sequence of DNA.
d. none of the above.
4. The process of transcription directly results in the synthesis of
a. DNA.
b. RNA.
c. a polypeptide.
d. all of the above.
1.2 THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN GENES AND TRAITS
Learning Outcomes:
1. Outline how the expression of genes leads to an organism’s
traits.
2. Define genetic variation.
3. Discuss the relationship between genes and traits.
4. Describe how genes are transmitted in sexually reproducing
species.
5. Explain the process of evolution.
A trait is any characteristic that an organism displays. In genetics,
we often focus our attention on morphological traits, those that
affect the appearance, form, and structure of an organism. The
color of a flower and the height of a pea plant are morphological
traits. Geneticists frequently study these types of traits because
they are easy to evaluate. For example, an experimenter can sim-
ply look at a plant and tell if it has red or white flowers. However,
not all traits are morphological. Physiological traits affect the
ability of an organism to function. For example, the rate at which
a bacterium metabolizes a sugar such as lactose is a physiological
trait. Like morphological traits, physiological traits are con-
trolled, in part, by the expression of genes. Behavioral traits
­affect the ways an organism responds to its environment. An ex-
ample is the mating calls of bird species. In animals, the nervous
system plays a key role in governing such traits. In this section,
we will examine the relationship between the expression of genes
and an organism’s traits.
The Molecular Expression of Genes Leads
to an Organism’s Traits
A complicated, yet very exciting, aspect of genetics is that our
observations and theories span four levels of biological organization:
 1.2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENES AND TRAITS 7

molecules, cells, organisms, and populations. This can make it

­difficult to appreciate the relationship between genes and traits.
To understand this connection, we need to relate the following
phenomena: Pigmentation gene Pigmentation gene
(dark allele) (light allele)
1. Genes are expressed at the molecular level. In other found in a dark butterfly found in a light butterfly
words, gene transcription and translation lead to the Transcription and translation
­production of a particular protein, which is a molecular
process.
2. Proteins often function at the cellular level. The function
of a protein within a cell affects the structure and workings
of that cell.
3. An organism’s traits are determined by the characteristics Highly functional Poorly functional
of its cells. We do not have microscopic vision, yet when pigmentation enzyme pigmentation enzyme
we view morphological traits, we are really observing the
properties of an individual’s cells. For example, a red (a) Molecular level
flower has its color because its cells make a red pigment.
The trait of red flower color is an observation at the
­organism level. Yet the trait is rooted in the molecular Pigment
characteristics of the organism’s cells. molecule
4. A species is a group of organisms that maintains a
Wing cells
­distinctive set of attributes in nature. The occurrence of a
trait within a species is an observation at the population
level. Along with learning how a trait occurs, we also Lots of pigment made Little pigment made
want to ­understand why a trait becomes prevalent in a
particular species. In many cases, researchers discover (b) Cellular level
that a trait ­predominates within a population because
it promotes the reproductive success of the members
of the population. This leads to the evolution of
­beneficial traits.
As a schematic example to illustrate the four levels of genetics,
Figure 1.7 shows the trait of pigmentation in butterflies. One
member of this species is dark-colored and the other is very light. Dark butterfly Light butterfly
Let’s consider how we can explain this trait at the molecular,
­cellular, organism, and ­population levels. (c) Organism level
At the molecular level, we need to understand the nature of
the gene or genes that govern this trait. As shown in Figure 1.7a, a
gene, which we will call the pigmentation gene, is responsible for
the amount of pigment produced. The pigmentation gene exists in
two different versions. Alternative versions of a specific gene are
called alleles. In this example, one allele confers a dark pigmenta-
tion and the other causes a light pigmentation. Each of these al-
leles encodes a protein that functions as a pigment-synthesizing
enzyme. However, the DNA sequences of the two alleles differ
slightly from each other. This difference in the DNA sequence
leads to a variation in the structure and function of the respective
pigmentation enzymes.
At the cellular level (Figure 1.7b), the functional differences
Dark butterflies are usually Light butterflies are usually
between the two pigmentation enzymes affect the amount of pig- in forested regions. in unforested regions.
ment produced. The allele causing dark pigmentation, which is
shown on the left, encodes an enzyme that functions very well. (d) Population level
Therefore, when this gene is expressed in the cells of the wings,
a large amount of pigment is made. By comparison, the allele F I G URE 1 . 7 The relationship between genes and traits at the
causing light pigmentation encodes an enzyme that functions (a) molecular, (b) cellular, (c) organism, and (d) population levels.
poorly. Therefore, when this allele is the only pigmentation gene CONCEPT CHECK: Which butterfly has a more active pigment-producing
expressed, little pigment is made. ­enzyme, the dark- or light-colored one?
8 C H A P T E R 1 :: OVERVIEW OF GENETICS

At the organism level (Figure 1.7c), the amount of pig-

ment in the wing cells governs the color of the wings. If the
pigment cells produce high amounts of pigment, the wings are
dark-colored. If the pigment cells produce little pigment, the
wings are light.
Finally, at the population level (Figure 1.7d), geneticists
would like to know why a species of butterfly would contain some
members with dark wings and other members with light wings.
One possible explanation is differential predation. The butterflies
with dark wings might avoid being eaten by birds if they happen to
live within the dim light of a forest. The dark wings would help to
camouflage the butterfly if it were perched on a dark surface such
as a tree trunk. In contrast, the lightly colored wings would be an
advantage if the butterfly inhabited a brightly lit meadow. Under
these conditions, a bird may be less likely to notice a light-colored
butterfly that is perched on a sunlit surface. A population geneti-
cist might study this species of butterfly and find that the dark-
colored members usually live in forested areas and the light-colored
members reside in unforested regions.

Inherited Differences in Traits Are

Due to Genetic Variation
In Figure 1.7, we considered how gene expression leads to vari- F I G URE 1 . 8 Two dyeing poison frogs (Dendrobates tinctorius)
ation in a trait of organisms, using the example of dark- versus showing different morphs within a single species.
light-colored wings in butterflies. Variation in traits among (Top): © Mark Smith/Science Source; (Bottom): © Dante Fenolio/Science Source

members of the same species is very common. For example,
some people have brown hair and others have blond hair; some
petunias have white flowers and others have purple flowers.
These are examples of genetic variation. This term describes
the differences in inherited traits among individuals within
a population.
In large populations that occupy a wide geographic range,
genetic variation can be quite striking. Morphological differ-
ences have often led geneticists to misidentify two members of
the same species as belonging to separate species. As an exam-
ple, Figure 1.8 shows two dyeing poison frogs that are members
of the same species, Dendrobates tinctorius. They display dra-
matic differences in their markings. Such contrasting forms
within a single species are termed morphs. You can easily imag-
ine how someone might m ­ istakenly conclude that these frogs are
not members of the same species.
Changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA underlie the
genetic variation that we see among individuals. Throughout this
textbook, we will routinely examine how variation in the genetic
material results in changes in an organism’s traits. At the molecu-
lar level, genetic variation can be attributed to different types of
modifications.
1. Small or large differences can occur within gene sequences.
When such changes initially occur, they are called gene
mutations. Mutations result in genetic variation in which
a gene is found in two or more alleles, as previously
described in Figure 1.7. In many cases, gene mutations
alter the expression or function of a protein that a gene
­encodes.
CONCEPT CHECK: Why do these two frogs look so different?
2. Major alterations can also occur in the structure of a
­chromosome. A large segment of a chromosome can be
lost, rearranged, or reattached to another chromosome.
3. Variation may also occur in the total number of chromo-
somes. In some cases, an organism may inherit one too
many or one too few chromosomes. In other cases, it may
inherit an extra set of chromosomes.
Variations of sequences within genes are a common source of ge-
netic variation among members of the same species. In humans,
familiar examples of variation involve genes for eye color, hair
texture, and skin pigmentation. Chromosome variation—a change
in chromosome structure or number (or both)—is also found, but
this type of change is often detrimental. Many human genetic dis-
orders are the result of chromosomal alterations. The most com-
mon example is Down syndrome, which is due to the presence of
an extra chromosome (Figure 1.9a). By comparison, chromosome
variation in plants is common and often leads to plants with supe-
rior characteristics, such as increased resistance to disease. Plant
breeders have frequently exploited this observation. Cultivated
varieties of wheat, for example, have many more chromosomes
than the wild species (Figure 1.9b).
Traits Are Governed by Genes
and by the Environment
In our discussion thus far, we have considered the role that genes
play in determining an organism’s traits. Another critical factor is

(a) (b)
FI GURE 1.9 Examples of chromosome variation. (a) A person
with Down syndrome. She has 47 chromosomes rather than the common
number of 46, because she has an extra copy of chromosome 21. (b) A
wheat plant. Cultivated wheat is derived from the contributions of three
wild species with two sets of chromosomes each, producing an organism
with six sets of chromosomes.
(a): © Stockbyte/Alamy RF; (b): © Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF
CONCEPT CHECK: Do these examples constitute variation in chromosome
structure or variation in chromosome number?
the environment—the surroundings in which an organism ex-
ists. A variety of factors in an organism’s environment pro-
foundly affect its morphological and physiological features. For
example, a person’s diet greatly influences many traits such
as height, weight, and even intelligence. Likewise, the amount
of sunlight a plant receives affects its growth rate and the color
of its flowers.
An interesting example of the interplay between genes and
the environment involves the human genetic disease phenylke-
tonuria (PKU). Humans have a gene that encodes an enzyme
known as phenylalanine hydroxylase. Most people have two
functional copies of this gene. People with one or two func-
tional copies of the gene can eat foods containing the amino
acid phenylalanine and metabolize it properly. A rare variation
in the gene that encodes phenylalanine hydroxylase results in a
nonfunctional version of this enzyme. Individuals with two cop-
ies of this rare, inactive allele cannot metabolize phenylalanine
properly. When given a standard diet containing phenylalanine,
individuals with this disorder are unable to break down this
amino acid. Phenylalanine accumulates and is converted into
phenylketones, which are detected in the urine. Individuals with
PKU can manifest a variety of detrimental traits, including men-
tal impairment, underdeveloped teeth, and foul-smelling urine.
Fortunately, through routine newborn screening in the United
States, PKU is now diagnosed early. Part of the treatment is a
diet that restricts phenylalanine, which is present in high-­protein
foods such as eggs, meat, and dairy products. Restricting phe-
nylalanine allows the affected child to develop normally.
PKU provides a dramatic example of how the environment and
1.2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENES AND TRAITS 9
an individual’s genes can interact to influence the traits of the
organism.
During Reproduction, Genes Are Passed
from Parent to Offspring
Now that we have considered how genes and the environment
govern the outcome of traits, we can turn to the issue of inheritance.
How are traits passed from parents to offspring? The foundation
for our understanding of inheritance came from Gregor Mendel’s
study of pea plants in the nineteenth century. His work revealed
that the genetic determinants that govern traits, which we now call
genes, are passed from parent to offspring as discrete units. We can
predict the outcome of many genetic crosses based on Mendel’s
laws of inheritance.
The inheritance patterns identified by Mendel can be ex-
plained by the existence of chromosomes and their behavior dur-
ing cell division. Like Mendel’s pea plants, sexually reproducing
species are commonly diploid. This means they contain two
copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. The two cop-
ies are called homologs of each other. Because genes are located
within chromosomes, diploid organisms have two copies of most
genes. Humans, for example, have 46 chromosomes, which are
found in homologous pairs (Figure 1.10a). With the exception
of the sex chromosomes (X and Y), each homologous pair con-
tains the same kinds of genes. For example, both copies of ­human
chromosome 12 carry the gene that encodes phenylalanine
­hydroxylase, which was discussed previously. Therefore, an indi-
vidual has two copies of this gene, which may or may not be
identical alleles.
Most cells of the human body that are not directly involved
in sexual reproduction contain 46 chromosomes. These cells are
called somatic cells. In contrast, the gametes—sperm and egg
cells—contain half that number (23) and are termed haploid
­(Figure 1.10b). The union of gametes during fertilization re-
stores the diploid number of chromosomes. The primary advan-
tage of sexual reproduction is that it enhances genetic variation.
For example, a tall person with blue eyes and a short person with
brown eyes may have short offspring with blue eyes or tall off-
spring with brown eyes. Therefore, sexual reproduction can re-
sult in new combinations of two or more traits that differ from
those of either parent.
The Genetic Composition of a Species Evolves over
the Course of Many Generations
As we have just seen, sexual reproduction has the potential to
enhance genetic variation. This can be an advantage for a popu-
lation of individuals as they struggle to survive and compete
within their natural environment. The term biological evolu-
tion, or simply, evolution, refers to the phenomenon that the
genetic makeup of a population changes from one generation to
the next.
As suggested by Charles Darwin, the members of a species
are in competition with one another for essential resources.
Random genetic changes (i.e., mutations) occasionally occur
­
10 C H A P T E R 1 :: OVERVIEW OF GENETICS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

17 18 19 20 21 22 XX 17 18 19 20 21 22 X

(a) Chromosomal composition found (b) Chromosomal composition found in

in human somatic cells of females a human gamete (23 chromosomes)
(46 chromosomes)

FI G U RE 1.1 0 The complement of human chromosomes in somatic cells and gametes. (a) A schematic drawing of the 46 chromosomes
of a human. With the exception of the sex chromosomes, these are always found in homologous pairs. (b) The chromosomal composition of a gamete,
which contains only 23 chromosomes, one from each pair. This gamete contains an X chromosome. Half of the gametes from human males contain a
Y chromosome instead of the X chromosome.
CONCEPT CHECK: The leaf cells of a corn plant contain 20 chromosomes each. How many chromosomes are found in a gamete made by a corn plant?

within an individual’s genes, and sometimes these changes lead to

a modification of traits that promote reproductive success. For 1.2 COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
example, over the course of many generations, random gene muta- 1. Gene expression can be viewed at which of the following levels?
tions have lengthened the snout and extended the tongue of the
a. Molecular and cellular levels
anteater, enabling it to probe into the ground and feed on ants.
When a mutation creates a new allele that is beneficial, the allele b. Organism level
may become prevalent in future generations because the individu- c. Population level
als carrying the allele are more likely to reproduce and pass the d. All of the above
beneficial ­allele to their offspring. This process is known as 2. Variation in the traits of organisms may be attributable to
­natural selection. In this way, a species becomes better adapted to a. gene mutations.
its environment. b. alterations in chromosome structure.
Over a long period of time, the accumulation of many
c. variation in chromosome number.
genetic changes may lead to rather striking modifications in a
species’ characteristics. As an example, Figure 1.11 depicts d. all of the above.
the evolution of the modern-day horse. Over time, a variety of 3. A human skin cell has 46 chromosomes. A human sperm cell has
morphological changes occurred, including an increase in a. 23.
size, fewer toes, and modified jaw structure. The changes can b. 46.
be attributed to natural selection. Over North America, where c. 92.
much of horse evolution occurred, large areas of dense forests d. none of the above.
were replaced with grasslands. The increase in size and
4. Evolutionary change caused by natural selection results in
changes in foot structure enabled horses to escape predators
species with
more easily and travel greater distances in search of food.
­Natural selection favored the changes seen in horses’ teeth, a. greater complexity.
because such changes allowed them to eat grasses and other b. less complexity.
types of vegetation that are more abrasive and require more c. greater reproductive success in their native environment.
chewing. d. the ability to survive longer.
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Title: The biography of a baby

Author: Milicent Washburn Shinn

Release date: September 26, 2023 [eBook #71734]

Language: English

Original publication: Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co, 1900

Credits: Tim Lindell, Turgut Dincer, David E. Brown, and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
(This file was produced from images generously made
available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

BIOGRAPHY OF A BABY ***
 THE BIOGRAPHY
OF
A BABY
BY
MILICENT WASHBURN SHINN

BOSTON AND NEW YORK

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
The Riverside Press Cambridge
COPYRIGHT, 1900, BY MILICENT WASHBURN SHINN

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

PRINTED
IN THE U. S. A.
 CONTENTS
PAGE
I. Baby Biographies in General 1
II. The New-born Baby: Structure and Movements 20
III. The New-born Baby: Sensations and Consciousness 39
IV. The Earliest Developments 58
Beginnings of Emotion and Progress in Sense
V. 78
Powers
VI. Progress toward Grasping 99
She learns to grasp, and discovers the World of
VII. 118
Things
VIII. The Era of Handling Things 141
IX. The Dawn of Intelligence 161
X. Beginnings of Locomotion 182
XI. Creeping and Standing 203
Rudiments of Speech; Climbing and Progress toward
XII. 224
Walking
XIII. Walking Alone; Developing Intelligence 238
 THE BIOGRAPHY OF A BABY

I
BABY BIOGRAPHIES IN GENERAL

“It is a well recognized fact in the history of science that the very
subjects which concern our dearest interests, which lie nearest our
hearts, are exactly those which are the last to submit to scientific
methods, to be reduced to scientific law. Thus it has come to pass
that while babies are born and grow up in every household, and
while the gradual unfolding of their faculties has been watched with
the keenest interest and intensest joy by intelligent and even
scientific fathers and mothers from time immemorial, yet very little
has yet been done in the scientific study of this most important of all
possible subjects—the ontogenetic evolution of the faculties of the
human mind.
“Only in the last few years has scientific attention been drawn to the
subject at all. Its transcendent importance has already enlisted many
observers, but on account of the great complexity of the phenomena,
and still more the intrinsic difficulty of their interpretation, scientific
progress has scarcely yet commenced.
“What is wanted most of all in this, as in every science, is a body of
carefully observed facts. But to be an accomplished investigator in
this field requires a rare combination of qualities. There must be a
wide intelligence combined with patience in observing and honesty in
recording. There must be also an earnest scientific spirit, a loving
sympathy with the subject of investigation, yet under watchful
restraint, lest it cloud the judgment; keenness of intuitive perception,
yet soberness of judgment in interpretation.”
I have appropriated these words of Dr. Joseph Le Conte because the
general reader is not likely to see them where they were originally
printed, in a little university study, and it is a pity to let the general
reader miss so good an introduction to the subject. Not all learned
men rate baby biography as highly as Dr. Le Conte does; but
probably all biologists do, and those psychologists who are most
strongly impressed with the evolutionary interpretation of life.
It is easy to see why one’s views of evolution affect the matter. In
botany, for instance, we do not think that we can understand the
mature plant by studying it alone, without knowledge of its
germinating period. If we omitted all study of radicle and plumule and
cotyledon, we should not only lose an interesting chapter from the
science, but even the part we kept, the classification and morphology
and physiology of the grown plant itself, would be seriously
misunderstood in some ways. So in other sciences: it is necessary to
understand how things came to be what they are, to study the
process of becoming, so to speak, before the completed result can
be understood. This is what we mean by “the genetic method” of
studying a subject.
Now, in proportion as one believes that the faculties of the human
mind unfold by evolutionary law, like a plant from the germ, he will
feel the need of studying these also genetically. As we find them in
our grown selves, they are often perplexing. What seems a single
complete, inborn faculty may really be made up of simpler ones, so
fused together by long practice that they cannot be discerned. We
know that this is the case with seeing. For instance, we give a glance
at a ball, and see its form with a single act of mind. Yet that act
became possible only after long drill in putting simpler perceptions
together. Many a test of form, turning objects over and over, passing
the hands round and round them, learning the absence of corners,
the equality of diameters, did we go through in babyhood, many an
inspection by eye, many an exercise of memory, connecting the
peculiar arrangement of light and shade with the form as felt, before
we could “see” a ball. Had this been understood in Froebel’s time, it
would have made a material difference in his suggestions as to
sense training in earliest infancy. So other powers that seem simple
and inborn may perhaps be detected in the act of forming
themselves out of simpler ones, if we watch babies closely enough,
and it may lead us to revise some of our theories about education.
There are enthusiasts, indeed, who would have us believe that child
study is going to revolutionize all our educational methods, but those
who are surest of these wonderful results, and readiest to tell
mothers and teachers what is the truly scientific thing to do with their
children, are not the ones who have done the most serious first hand
study of children. From indications so far, it is likely that the outcome
of such study will oftener be to confirm some good old-fashioned
ways of training (showing that they rested unconsciously on a sound
psychological basis) than to discover new ways. No substitute has
yet been found by scientific pedagogy for motherly good sense and
devotion.
Yet the direct study of child minds does bring out some new
suggestions of educational value, does give a verdict sometimes
between old conflicting theories, and always makes us understand
more clearly what we are doing with children. And on the purely
scientific side there is one aspect of especial interest in genetic
studies. That is, the possible light we may get on the past of the
human race.
It has long been observed that there are curious resemblances
between babies and monkeys, between boys and barbaric tribes.
Schoolboys administer law among themselves much as a tribal court
does; babies sit like monkeys, with the soles of their little feet facing
each other. Such resemblances led, long before the age of Darwin,
to the speculation that children in developing passed through stages
similar to those the race had passed through; and the speculation
has become an accepted doctrine since embryology has shown how
each individual before birth passes in successive stages through the
lower forms of life.
This series of changes in the individual is called by evolutionists the
Ontogenic Series; and the similar series through which the race has
passed in the myriads of ages of its evolution is called the
Phylogenic.
Now, of these two versions of the great world history, the phylogenic
is a worn and ancient volume, mutilated in many places, and often
illegible. The most interesting chapter of all is torn out—that which
records the passing over of man from brute to human, the beginning
of true human reason, speech, and skill. The lowest living races are
far beyond the transition line; the remains of the past can never tell
us how it was crossed, for before man could leave anything more
than bones—any products of his art, such as weapons, or signs of
fire—he had traveled a long way from his first human condition.
But from the ontogenic record no chapter can be torn out: a fresh
copy of the whole history, from alpha to omega, is written out every
time an infant is conceived, and born, and grows to manhood. And
somewhere on the way between the first cell of the embryo and
maturity each one must repeat in his own life that wonderful
transition into human intelligence. If we can thoroughly decipher tills
ontogenic record, then, what may we not hope to learn of the road by
which we human beings came?
We must not forget that the correspondence between these life
books is only a rough one. They are versions of the same world
story, but they have traveled far from their common origin, and have
become widely unlike in details. The baby has to take many short
cuts, and condense and omit inconceivably, to get through in a few
brief years a development that the race took ages for. Even the order
of development gets disarranged sometimes. For instance, primitive
man probably reached a higher development before he could talk
than babies have to now, after ages of talking ancestry: we must not
look to a child just learning to talk, to get an idea of what the minds
of men were like when they were just learning to talk. Again, the
human child is carrying on under the influence of adults an evolution
that primitive man worked out without help or hindrance from any
one wiser than himself; and that makes a great difference in the way
he does it.
The moral of all this is that people should be very cautious indeed in
drawing parallels between the child and the race, and especially in
basing educational theories on them. But if one is cautious enough
and patient enough, there are many hints about our race history to
be found in every nursery. Some of these I shall relate in the
following chapters.

Most studies of children deal with later childhood, the school years;
and these are almost always statistical in their method, taking the
individual child very little into account. My own study has been of
babyhood, and its method has been biographical. It is hard to get
statistics about babies, scattered as they are, one by one, in different
homes, not massed in schoolrooms. Now and then a doctor has
found material for good comparative investigations, and much effort
has been spent in trying to gather up measurements of babies’
growth; but on the whole the most fruitful method so far has been the
biographical one—that of watching one baby’s development, day by
day, and recording it.
I am often asked if the results one gets in this way are not
misleading, since each child might differ greatly from others. One
must, of course, use great caution in drawing general conclusions
from a single child, but in many things all babies are alike, and one
learns to perceive pretty well which are the things. Babyhood is
mainly taken up with the development of the large, general racial
powers; individual differences are less important than in later
childhood. And the biographical method of child study has the
inestimable advantage of showing the process of evolution going on,
the actual unfolding of one stage out of another, and the steps by
which the changes come about. No amount of comparative statistics
could give this. If I should find out that a thousand babies learned to
stand at an average age of forty-six weeks and two days, I should
not know as much that is important about standing, as a stage in
human progress, as I should after watching a single baby carefully
through the whole process of achieving balance on his little soles.
Yet there are not many baby biographies in existence. There are
scarcely half a dozen records that are full and consecutive enough to
be at all entitled to the name, and even of more fragmentary ones
the number in print as separate essays is scarcely larger. A good
many more, however, have been available in manuscript to students,
and many mothers no doubt keep such little notebooks. These notes
are often highly exact and intelligent, as far as they go (I have found
this especially true of the notebooks of members of the Association
of Collegiate Alumnæ), and afford important corroborations here and
there to more continuous records.
It was the Germans who first thought baby life worth recording, and
the most complete and scientific of all the records is a German one.
The first record known was published in the last century by a
Professor Tiedemann—a mere slip of an essay, long completely
forgotten, but resuscitated about the middle of this century,
translated into French (and lately into English), and used by all
students of the subject. Some of its observations we must, with our
present knowledge, set down as erroneous; but it is on the whole
exact and valuable, and a remarkable thing for a man to have done
more than a hundred years ago.
Perhaps Darwin, in 1840, was the next person to take notes of an
infant’s development; but they were taken only incidentally to
another study, and were not published for more than thirty years
(partly in “The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals,”
1873, partly in a magazine article in 1877). They are scanty but
important. In the interval before they were published two or three
small records had been published in Germany, and at least one
paper, that of M. Taine, in France.
In 1881, the first edition of Professor Preyer’s “model record” was
published, and before his death, in 1897, it had reached its third
edition in Germany, and had been widely circulated in America in Mr.
Brown’s excellent translation, “The Senses and the Will,” and “The
Development of the Intellect.” It did more to stimulate and direct the
study of infancy than any other publication. It has, however, the
limitations that were to be expected from Professor Preyer’s special
training as a physiologist, and is meagre on the side of mental,
moral, and emotional development. Professor Sully’s “Extracts from
a Father’s Diary,” published in part in 1881 and 1884 and fully in
1896, is richer on these sides, and also more readable.
Within the present decade, it is worth observing, the principal
records have been American, not German, and have been written by
women. Outside of America, only men, usually university professors,
have made extended records. Professor Preyer and Professor Sully
have both appealed in vain to their countrywomen to keep such
records, holding up American women for emulation. My “Notes on
the Development of a Child” were published in 1893 and 1899. In
1896 appeared Mrs. Hall’s “The First 500 Days of a Child’s Life,” a
brief record, and confined to a short period, but a very good one, and
perhaps the best for use as a guide by any one who wishes to keep
a record and finds Preyer too technical. Mrs. Moore’s “Mental
Development of a Child” is quite as much a psychological study as a
record, but is based on full biographical notes; it will be more used
by students than general readers. Mrs. Hogan’s “A Study of a Child,”
1898, is less scholarly than the others, but has a great deal of useful
material; it does not begin at birth, however, but with the fourteenth
month.
Perhaps I should say a word here as to the way in which I came to
make a baby biography, for I am often asked how one should go to
work at it. It was not done in my case for any scientific purpose, for I
did not feel competent to make observations of scientific value. But I
had for years desired an opportunity to see the wonderful unfolding
of human powers out of the limp helplessness of the new-born baby;
to watch this fascinating drama of evolution daily, minutely, and with
an effort to understand it as far as I could, for my own pleasure and
information. I scarcely know whence the suggestion had come;
probably almost by inheritance, for my mother and grandmother had
both been in somewhat notable degree observers of the
development of babies’ minds. But, unlike them, I had the notebook
habit from college and editorial days, and jotted things down as I
watched, till quite unexpectedly I found myself in possession of a
large mass of data.
A few days after my own notes began I obtained Professor Preyer’s
record, and without it I should have found the earliest weeks quite
unintelligible. For some months my notes were largely memoranda
of the likenesses and differences between my niece’s development
and that of Preyer’s boy, and I still think this is the best way for a new
observer to get started. As time went on, I departed more and more
from the lines of Preyer’s observations, and after the first year was
little influenced by them. Later, I devoted a good deal of study to the
notes, and tried to analyze their scientific results.
There is one question that I have been asked a hundred times about
baby biography: “Doesn’t it do the children some harm? Doesn’t it
make them nervous? Doesn’t it make them self-conscious?” At first
this seemed to me an odd misapprehension—as if people supposed
observing children meant doing something to them. But I have no
doubt it could be so foolishly managed as to harm the child. There
are thousands of parents who tell anecdotes about children before
their faces every day in the year, and if such a parent turns child
student it is hard to say what he may not do in the way of dissecting
a child’s mind openly, questioning the little one about himself, and
experimenting with his thoughts and feelings. But such observing is
as worthless scientifically as it is bad for the child: the whole value of
an observation is gone as soon as the phenomena observed lose
simplicity and spontaneity. It should be unnecessary to say that no
competent observer tampers with the child in any way. If Professor
Preyer, observing the baby as he first grasps at objects, notes down
the way in which he misdirects his inexpert little hands; if Mrs. Barus
keeps record of her boy’s favorite playthings; if I sit by the window
and catch with my pencil my niece’s prattle as she plays about below
—and if these babies afterward turn out spoiled, the mischief must
be credited to some other agency than the silent notebook.
Even direct experimenting on a child is not so bad as it sounds.
When you show a baby his father’s photograph to see if he
recognizes it, you are experimenting on him. The only difference
between the child student’s experimenting and that which all the
members of the family are doing all day with the baby, is that the
student knows better what he is trying to find out, and that he writes
it down.
Probably women are more skillful than men in quietly following the
course of the child’s mind, even leading him to reveal himself without
at all meddling with him or marring his simplicity. It has been so in a
marked degree in the cases I have seen. But no one who has good
judgment will allow himself to spoil both the child and his own
observation; and any one who has not good judgment will find plenty
of ways to spoil a child more potent than observing him.
 II
THE NEW-BORN BABY: STRUCTURE AND
MOVEMENTS.

“Its first act is a cry, not of wrath, as Kant said, nor a shout of joy, as
Schwartz thought, but a snuffling, and then long, thin, tearless á—á,
with the timbre of a Scotch bagpipe, purely automatic, but of
discomfort. With this monotonous and dismal cry, with its red,
shriveled, parboiled skin (for the child commonly loses weight the
first few days), squinting, cross-eyed, pot-bellied, and bow-legged, it
is not strange that, if the mother has not followed Froebel’s
exhortations and come to love her child before birth, there is a brief
interval occasionally dangerous to the child before the maternal
instinct is fully aroused.”
It cannot be denied that this unflattering description is fair enough,
and our baby was no handsomer than the rest of her kind. The little
boy uncle, who had been elated to hear that his niece resembled
him, looked shocked and mortified when he saw her. Yet she did not
lack admirers. I have never noticed that women (even those who are
not mothers) mind a few little æsthetic defects, such as these that
President Hall mentions, with so many counterbalancing charms in
the little warm, soft, living thing.
Nor is it women only who find the new baby enchanting—in
Germany, at least. Semmig, whose “Tagebuch eines Vaters” is one
of the earliest attempts at a record, is delighted even with the “dismal
and monotonous cry.” “Heavenly music of the first cry!” he exclaims,
“sacred voice of life, first sound of the poem of a heart, first note of
the symphony of human life, thou echo of God’s word! What sound is
like unto thee?” “Yes, it is so: the cry of the baby is music! When it is
still, especially in the night, one is uneasy; one longs for this primitive
expression of the little being, and is consoled, enraptured, when the
helpless creature breaks into loud wails, and says to us: I live, give
me what I need! Oh, cry of the baby in the night, nightingale song for
mother and father!”
Our baby was at least a handsome one from the doctor’s point of
view, strong, healthy, and well formed; and this is to be taken into
account as a determining factor in all the record that follows.
I thought that she must be out of the normal in the matter of legs, so
oddly brief were the fat little members. Afterward I learned that all
babies are built that way—and indeed that they are altogether so
different in structure from the grown man that Dr. Oppenheim, in his
book on “The Development of the Child,” comes near to saying that
we must regard the infant as a different animal form from the adult,
almost as the caterpillar is different from the butterfly. Common
speech recognizes this in the case of several of the higher animals,
naming the young form as differently as if it were a different species.
We say a colt, a calf, a puppy, a baby; not a young horse, cow, dog,
or man.
We call a baby a little copy of the man, but really if he were
magnified to man’s size and strength, we should regard him at first
glance as an idiot and monster, with enormous head and abdomen,
short legs, and no neck, not to speak of the flat-nosed, prognathous
face; and on the other hand, a baby that was really a small copy of
man’s body would seem positively uncanny. We see this in old
pictures, where the artist tried to depict babies by placing small-sized
men and women in the mother’s arms.
The middle point of the baby’s length falls a little above the navel,
the abdomen and legs together making up a little more than half the
whole length; in the man the legs alone make a trifle more than half.
In proportion to the baby’s total weight, its brain weighs seven times
as much as a grown person’s, its muscles little more than half as
much.
“The two [man and baby] do not breathe alike, their pulse rates are
not alike, the composition of their bodies is not alike.” The baby’s
body at birth is 74.7 per cent. water, ours 58.5 per cent. It is largely
due to its loose, watery structure that the baby’s brain is so heavy—
which shows the folly of trying to compare mental powers by means
of brain weights, as is so often done in discussing woman’s sphere.
As Donaldson says, if there were anything in that basis of
comparison, the new-born baby would be the intellectual master of
us all. The baby has bright red and watery marrow, instead of the
yellow, fatty substance in our bones; and its blood differs so from
ours in proportion of red and white corpuscles and in chemical make-
up as to “amount almost to a difference in kind,” says Dr.
Oppenheim, who adds that such a condition of marrow or blood, if
found in a grown person, would be considered an indication of
disease.
The organs are differently placed within the body, and even
differently formed. The bony structure is everywhere soft and
unfinished, the plates of the skull imperfectly fitted together, with
gaps at the corners; and it is well that they are, for if the brain box
were closed tight the brain within could never grow. Surgeons have
lately even made artificial openings where the skull was prematurely
perfect, to save the baby from idiocy. The bony inclosures of the
middle ear are quite unfinished, so that on the one side catarrhal
inflammations from the nose and throat travel up to the ear more
readily than in later life, while on the other side ear inflammations are
more likely to pass into the brain. The spine is straight, like an ape’s,
instead of having the double curve of human-kind, which seems to
be brought about by the pull of the muscles after we have come to
stand erect.
I have quoted these details from Oppenheim, and from Vierordt’s
and Roberts’s measurements, as given by Dr. Burk (“Growth of
Children in Height and Weight.”) Some of the figures are given
otherwise by other authorities. I might fill many pages with similar
details. Some of these differences do not disappear till full manhood,
others are gone in a few weeks after birth. And in them all there is so
constant a repetition of lower animal forms that anatomists are
brought to a confidence in the “recapitulation doctrine,” such as they
can hardly give to others by means of a few sample facts.
The most curious of all the monkey traits shown by the new-born
baby is the one investigated by Dr. Louis Robinson (“Nineteenth