PATROBAS 2111-Environmental-Studies-Notes-2023

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES NOTES
MARENGONI COLLEGE
lOMoARcPSD|30011525
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
COURSE OUTLINE
Introduction to environmental resources; Land and land forms, soils and their management,
forests and their management, water and marines, acqua culture and management techniques,
energy, techniques of harnessing energy, mining, geology. ecology, principles of ecology, energy
flow in ecosystems, application of ecology, anthropogenic effects freshwater and marine aquatic
ecosystems development, human ecology, assessment of community needs, principles of
community development, cultural and indigenous issues, gender issues, use of participatory
rural/urban issues, community preparedness, pollution and waste management, identification of
sources of pollution, impact of pollution on environment, toxic/hazardous waste, recycling,
reusing of resources, garbage disposal, environmental law; land use and environment,
tourism/forestry law, water resources law, energy law, mineral resources law, global
environmental conventions. Environmental conservation, Environmental impact assessment
framework, impact assessment methods, reclamation programs, wasteland conservation.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course unit the students should be able to:
1. Define and explain the meaning of environment and environmental studies
2. Describe the elements of the environment
3. Explain the various environmental resources
4. Explain ecology and describe various ecosystems
5. Discuss the role of the community in development and environmental conservation
6. Define and explain pollution
7. Define and explain waste management
8. Critique environmental law in Kenya
9. Discuss the effectiveness of EIA in environmental conservation
10. Discuss the future of environmental conservation in Kenya
REFERENCES
lOMoARcPSD|30011525
•
1. Benny Joseph (2009): Environmental Studies.Tata McGraw-Hill publishing company,New
Delhi.
2. Miller, G. T.,JR (2006): Environmental Science eleventh edition, Brooks/ Cole, New Delhi.
3. Muthoka G. Assumpta B; Zipporah K. (1998): Environmental Education,Longhorn
publishers,Nairobi.
4. Njuguna G.N. (2007): Environmental Planning and management,ARTS press.Nairobi.
5. Rana S.V. S.(2010): Environmental Studies,Rastogi Publications India.
6. Waswa, F., Otor,S., Olukoye, G., and Mugendi, D., (eds) 2007. Environmental and
Sustainable Development: A Guide for Higher Education in Kenya. Volume 2 School of
Environmental Studies and Human Sciences, Kenyatta University.
TOPICS
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
• BASIC CONCEPTS IN ECOLOGY
• BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
• BIODIVERSITY
• NATURAL RESOURCES
• POLLUTION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT
• ENVIRONMENTAL LAW
• ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK
Downloaded by Patrobas Andes (wafulawamwalwa@gmail.com)

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
•
TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES/SCIENCE,
DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE
Definitions and concepts
Environmental studies: The study of the quality of environment and all aspects of human
environment (physical, biological, social, economic and cultural environment), their degradation
and current issues.
Environment: is the sum total of all the conditions and influences that affect the development
and life of all organisms on earth
• The environment covers both Physical or abiotic and the living or biotic factors
• The abiotic factors include; soils, water ,air ,energy and chemicals etc
• The biotic factors include all plants, animal and microbes (bacteria, viruses,
fungus) present in the surroundings.
The objectives of environmental science/studies include:
• To promote environmental awareness
• To investigate environmental pollution
• To understand environmental safety
• To promote proper waste disposal
• To conform with legal aspects of the environment • Goals of environmental

education
The three main goals of environmental studies include;
• To learn how life on earth has survived and thrives
• To understand how we interact with the environment

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
•
• To find ways we deal with environmental problems and live more sustainably
Other goals include:
• To raise consciousness about environmental conditions
• to teach environmentally appropriate behavior
• To create environmental ethics that fosters awareness about the ecological

interdependence of economic, social and political factors in human activity and
the environment.
Qualities of environmental education
• It is evolving to be education for sustainable and ethical development at local and

global level
• It will prepare the next generation to plan appropriate strategies for addressing
environmental issues
• Knowledge of environment is not an end but rather beginning
• It does not advocate a particular view or course of action.
The Importance of studying the environment in the present day context:
• The health of natural environment is critical to the long term future of the planet
and to the quality of life of people today
• To make human existence safe and secure, achieve a disease free world
To understand the impacts man have on the environment and mitigation steps that can be
taken Functions of Environment in relation to man
• recreation

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
•
• source of natural resources, agriculture, minerals and forestry which man
consumes directly and or indirectly
• sink; for receiving wastes produced by man and his activities
The capacity of the environment to carry out these functions is damaged by human
activities which imposes four stresses on the environment:
• Eutrophic : the task of decomposing wastes produced by consumption and

production activities
• Exploitative: cropping of plants, extraction of minerals and hunting of animals
• Disruptive: Brought about by activities like deforestation, construction of

highways and towns
• Chemical and industrial : stress which results from industrial development
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT
• Physical environment: refers to geographical climate and weather or physical

conditions where in and individual lives
• Social environment: includes individual’s social, economic and political

conditions wherein he lives. The moral, cultural and emotional forces influence
the life and nature of individual behavior.
• Psychological environment: It enables us to understand the personality of the

individual. Both the person and his goal form psychological environment.
COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
• Non living components
• Lithosphere(Rocks, soils and solid air)

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
•
• Hydrosphere(water components; oceans, seas, glaciers ,rivers, lakes, ponds and
underground water
• Atmosphere(thin spherical envelope of gases surrounding the earth surfaces)
• Living components or biotic components

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
• consists of flora and fauna including man
• Energy component
• This includes solar energy, geo-chemical energy, Thermal electrical, Hydro-

electrical energy, nuclear atomic energy, energy due to radiation etc that helps the
real life of organisms.
CONCEPTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES/SCIENCE
• Sustainability: The capacity of the earth natural systems and human cultural
systems to survive, flourish and adapt to changing environmental conditions into
the very long term future
Steps our government is taking to ensure environmental sustainability include:
• to protect water resources through catchment management initiatives
• increase in protected areas and securing the wildlife corridors and migratory
routes
• solid waste management system and plastic bag initiative
• reduce the rate of deforestation and increase national forest cover
• address issue of trans-boundary pollution and reduction in the consumption of

ozone depleting substances
• Reduce the rate of biodiversity loss e.g. . exploiting fish stocks within safe
biological limits
• principles of sustainability
• Reliance on solar energy: The sun warms the planet and provides energy that
plants use to produce nutrients or the chemicals necessary for life, for
themselves, for use and most animals. The energy contained in the sun’s radiation
is solar energy. Without it, life as we know would not exist. The sun also powers

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
indirect forms of solar energy such wind and flowing water, which would not
exist without the sun’s energy and which we can use to produce electricity.
• Biodiversity: short term for biological diversity; is the astounding variety of

different organisms, the natural systems in which they exist and interact (such as
deserts, grasslands, forests, and oceans), and the natural services that these
organisms and living systems provide free of charge (such as renewal of top soils,
that makes the top layer of the earth crust, pest control, air and water
purification),The feeding relationships and other interactions, species also
provide population control that limits the ultimate population size of any species.
Biodiversity also provides countless ways for life to adapt
to changing environmental conditions, without it, most life would have been
wiped out long time ago
• Chemical cycling/ Nutrient cycling: is the circulation of chemicals from the

environment (mostly from soil and water) through organisms and back to the
environment is necessary for life. Natural processes keep the cycle going, and the
earth receives no new supplies of these chemicals. Thus for life to sustain itself,
these chemicals must cycle in this way indefinitely. Without chemical cycling
there would be no air, no water, no soil, no food, and no life. This also means
there is little waste in nature, other than in the human world, because the wastes
of organisms become nutrient raw materials for other organisms.
• Sustainable development: The development that meets the needs of the present
generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs
Principles of sustainable development:
• addressing the root cause of problems and not symptoms
• pursuing ethical business (corporate social responsibility)
• Conducting EIA, Auditing, monitoring and Evaluation

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
• Ensuring Equity and social welfare(gender equity)
• Good governance
• Focusing on needs and not wants
• Participatory decision making(partnership, collaboration and networking)
• Respect for indigenous knowledge
• stewardship as opposed to utilitarian
• Thinking globally and acting locally
• Components of sustainable development
• population stabilization
• integrated land use planning
• conservation of biodiversity
• air and water pollution control
• Renewable energy resources
• Recycling of wastes and residues
• Environmental education and awareness at all levels
• Environmental Protection: Is a practice of protecting the natural environment on

individual, organizational or governmental levels for the benefits of the natural
environment. It may also be referred to as policies and procedures aimed at
conserving the natural resources, preserving the current state of the natural
environment and where possible reversing its degradation.
Objectives of environmental protection:
• controlled, restricted and mindful use and exploitation of natural resources

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
10
• maintenance and protection of environmental quality
• protecting and balancing of the ecosystem
• achievement of sustainable development
• environmental awareness among people
• working out pollution problems
• environmental education and training
punishment of the polluters

• Personal and social responsibility for action: Environmental quality relies on the
everyday actions of individuals. Lifestyle choices and demands can limit
resources and impact on the quality of our social and natural environments. The
quality of environment depends, to a large extent, on people taking positive action
to help resolve environmental problems.
• Interdependence: This concept highlights the relationships between all living

things (including people) and their physical environment. A useful way of looking
at the environment is to view it as a set of interrelated systems; biophysical,
social, economic, and political systems. The biophysical system provides life-
support system for all life. A social system provides rules and structures that
enable people to live together. An economic system provides ways of producing
and exchanging goods and services. Through a political system, people make
decisions about how social and economic systems use the biophysical
environment.
The concept of interdependence emphasizes the links between cultural, social, economic,
and biophysical concerns that provide;
• a viable natural environment capable of supporting life
• a sufficient economy that provides sustainable livelihoods for all

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
11
• nurturing communities that provide opportunities for meeting social, cultural and
spiritual needs
• an equitable system of governance that ensures all citizens have fair access to
levels of income and political power which allow them to participate fully as
members of society
TOPIC TWO: ECOLOGY
• Definitions/concepts
• importance of studying ecology
• principles of ecology and applications of ecology
• components and structure of an ecosystem
• functions of an ecosystem; food chain and food web, energy flow in an ecosystem,
cycling of matter(chemicals), ecological pyramids, ecological succession
• major human impacts on terrestrial ecosystem
• anthropogenic effects on freshwater and marine aquatic ecosystems
• biodiversity , their values, threats and conservation
• human ecological concepts
Basic ecological concepts
Ecology: the study of interrelationship between living things and their biotic and abiotic
environment which determines the distribution and abundance of species
Human Ecology: how humans interrelate with the environment as a basis for informed and
accountable decision making on resource use and development (also called social/ physical
ecology)

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
12
Biosphere: interface of air , water and land forming life support layer of the environment.
Biosphere constitutes all earths ecosystem functioning together on a global scale (N.B biosphere
is the largest ecosystem while habitat is the smallest ecosystem)
Ecosystem: is a natural unit consisting of all plants and micro-organisms in an area functioning
together with all of the non-living physical factors of the environment. An ecosystem is a system
that arises from the integration of all living and non-living. Ecosystems are productive engines
of the planey earth and hence life support systems for humans and other life forms because of the
products and services they provide.
Habitat: characteristic place where organisms inhabits. It is the smallest ecosystem ever known.
Ecological niche: the range of variations of an environmental factors or resource within which n
organism can survive, grow, reproduce and maintain a viable population e.g. temperature,
relative humidity, pH, radiation, salinity, nutrient levels, concentrations of pollutants and levels
of tolerance from neighboring organisms.
Basic principle characteristics of ecosystems
• all ecosystems consists of two major components biotic and abiotic
• the non-living environment is an essential part of ecosystem since it supplies energy in

the form of sunlight, in addition to controlling the functioning of the ecosystem and the
interrelationships among the number of its biotic communities
• ecosystems is a major structural and functional unit of ecology, its structure is related to
its species diversity, the more complex ecosystems have higher diversity and vice-versa
• Its function is related to energy flow and material flow and material recycling through
and within the system.
• The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
the more complex the structure the lesser energy it needs to maintain
• It matures by passing from less complex states. Early stages of each succession have an
excess of potential energy and a relatively high energy flow per unit of biomass. later

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
13
(mature) stages have less energy accumulation and its flow through more diverse
complex
• both environment and energy fixation given ecosystem are limited and cannot be
exceeded without causing serious undesirable components
Kinds of ecosystems
1. Natural ecosystems
 operate by themselves under natural conditions without any major

interference by man
 based on particular kind of habitats, these are further divided into (a)
Terrestrial(Land based) ;forests, grasslands, mountains and deserts
(b) aquatic(water-open); this may further be divided into:
(i) freshwater: which may be Lotic (running water e.g. rivers, springs
and streams)
(ii) Lentic (standing water e.g. lakes ,ponds, ditch and swamps )
 Marine (salt water e.g., oceans, shallow seas and estuary, mangroves etc)
2.Artificial ecosystems (man-made).
 man-made ecosystems depend upon human efforts for their sustenance because they
do not possess self-regulatory mechanisms
 they have little diversity
 exhibit simple food webs
 they have little recycling of nutrients
 they depend upon human efforts for protection and provision of inputs

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
14
 they are maintained by artificially by man where by additional energy and planned
manipulations by natural balance is disturbed regularly e.g cropland, urban
industrial ,laboratory, aquariums and water reservoirs.
 Components of and ecosystem
 living(biotic) components
(i) producers: green plants and some bacteria which manufacture their
own food
(ii) consumers: animals which obtain their food from

producers( primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary
consumers e.t.c)
(iii) Decomposers /Recyclers: bacteria and fungi that decompose dead

organic matter and convert it into simpler parts. They are recyclers
of the biosphere.
 Abiotic components of an ecosystem:
(i) organic compounds(carbohydrates, proteins and lipids)
(ii) Inorganic substances: water, ammonia, gases(carbon, nitrogen,

carbon dioxide involved in natural cycles
(iii) Physical: climatic, rainfall, humidity, temperature.
 Functions of an ecosystem:
 Food chain :The transfer of energy from the source in plants through a
series of organisms by repeated eating and being eaten
 Food web :Inter-locking patterns formed by several food chains that are
linked together
 Energy flow in an ecosystem:

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
15
(i) first law of thermodynamics
(ii) Second law of thermodynamics:
 Biogeochemical cycling/ Nutrient cycling: The cycling movement

of minerals from their reservoirs (air, water, and soil) to the living
components and back to the reservoirs.
 Ecological Pyramids: The graphical representation of different

trophic levels in an ecosystem. They are use to illustrate the
feeding relationship between organisms
Types of ecological pyramids:
(i) Pyramid of Number: To show the number of individuals in

each trophic level. Pyramid of number is upright incase of
grassland and pond ecosystems
(ii) Pyramid of biomass: To show the total biomass of

individuals in each trophic level. Pyramid of biomass is
better than pyramid of number in showing the relationships
between organisms. Pyramid of biomass is upright in case
of grassland and forest ecosystem where as inverted in
case of a pond ecosystem.
(iii) Pyramid of energy: To show the amount of energy in each

trophic level. The pyramid of energy flow is always upright
because there is always loss of energy while moving from
each trophic level. Therefore the energyreaching the next
trophic level is always decreasing
Ecological succession:
 a series of changes in a community in which new populations of organisms

gradually replace existing ones

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
16
(i) primary ecological succession:
• involves establishment of biotic communities in lifeless areas

where there is no soil in a terrestrial ecosystem or no bottom
sediments in an aquatic ecosystems
• Examples include a bare rock exposed by a retreating glacier,

newly cooled lava, an abandoned highway or parking lot and
newly created shallow pond or reservoir.
• It takes hundreds to thousands of years because of the need to

build up fertile soil or aquatic sediments to provide the nutrients
needed to establish a plant community.
(ii) secondary ecological succession:
• a series of communities or ecosystems with different

species develop in places containing soils or bottom
sediment
• this type of succession begins in an area where an

ecosystem has been disturbed ,removed, or destroyed, but
some soil or bottom sediment remains
• candidates of secondary succession include; abandoned

farmlands, burned or cut forests ,heavily polluted streams,
and land that has been flooded
• because some soils or sediment is present, new vegetation

can begin to grow, usually within few weeks
• it begins with the germination of seeds already in the soil

and the seeds imported by wind or in droppings of birds
and other animals.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
17
 Primary and secondary succession is important natural services that tend to

increase biodiversity, and thus sustainability of communities and
ecosystems, by increasing species richness and interactions among
species. Such interactions in turn enhance sustainability by promoting
population control and by increasing the complexity of food webs. This
then enhance the energy flow and nutrient cycling, which is a functional
components of biodiversity
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND FUNCTIONS

ECOSYSTEM ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION EXAMPLES
SERVICES
Gas regulation Regulation of atmospheric chemical composition Carbon dioxide-oxygen balance, ozone for UV3 protection and
Sox levels
Climate regulation Regulation of global temperature, precipitation and

Green house gas regulations, dimethyl sulfoxide production
other biologically mediated climatic processes at affecting cloud formation
global or local levels
Water regulation Regulation of hydrological flows Provision of water for agriculture(such as irrigation), or

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
18
IN SUMMARY ECOSYSTEM SERVICES ARE:
 Ecosystem services are tangible and intangible benefits human beings obtain from
ecosystems. They include both goods and services and could be long term and short –
term.
1. Provisioning: tangible materials obtained from the ecosystem e.g. food ,fiber, fuel,
biochemical products, genetic materials, energy and fresh water

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
19
2. Regulatory services: benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes

e.g.
disease and pest control, pollination, seed dispersal, soil and air purification, climate
regulation(moderation) and waste management
3. Cultural services: are non-material benefits, people get from ecosystem e.g. for
spiritual and religious values, recreation, and tourism, knowledge systems, education
services, national symbol, choice of settlement and civilization(cultural landscapes)
4. Supporting services: These are necessary for production of all other three services.
Their impacts are either indirectly or occur over very long time e.g. nutrient cycling,
oxygen production, habitat for wildlife and cycling of water, primary production
which makes available food and forage and pasture and for soil formation
Human impacts on terrestrial ecosystems:
 desert:
 large desert cities
 destruction of soil and underground habitat by off road vehicles
 depletion of ground water
 land disturbance and pollution from mineral extraction
 Grasslands:
 conversion to cropland
 release co2 to atmosphere from burning grassland
 overgrazing by livestock
 oil production and off road vehicle in arctic tundra
 Forests

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
20
 changing for agriculture, livestock grazing, timber and urban development
 conversion of diverse forests to tree plantations
 damage from off-road vehicles
 pollution of forest streams
 Mountains
 agriculture
 timber and mineral extraction
 hydroelectric dams and reservoirs
 air pollution blowing in from urban areas and power plants
 soil damage from off-road vehicles Marine ecosystems

Ecological services:
 climate moderation
 Co2 absorption
 nutrient cycling
 reduced storm impact(Mangroves, barrier islands, coastal wetlands
 habitat and nursery areas
 genetic resources and biodiversity
 scientific information
Economic services of marine ecosystems:
 food

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
21
 animal and pet feed
 pharmaceuticals
 harbors and transportation routes
 coastal habitats for humans
 recreation
 employment
 oil and natural gas
 minerals
Human impacts on Marine ecosystems and coral reefs

Marine ecosystems Coral reefs
Half of coastal wetlands lost to agriculture urban Ocean warming

development
Over1/5 of mangrove forests lost to agriculture, development Soil erosion
and shrimp farming
Beaches eroding because coastal development and rising sea

Algae growth from fertilizer
levels run-off
Ocean bottom habitats degraded by dredging and trawley bleaching

fishing
At least 20% of coral reef severely damaged and 25-33% more

Rising sea level
threatened
Increased UV-exposure
Damage from anchors
Damage from fishing and

driving
Human activities that are disrupting and degrading marine ecosystems

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
22
Major threats to marine systems from human activities include:
 run-off from non-point sources of pollutants such as fertilizers, pesticides and livestock
waste
 overfishing which depletes, populations of commercial fish species
 point source pollution such as sewage from cruise ships and spills from oil tankers
 use of fishing trawlers, which drag the weighted nets across the ocean bottom, degrading
and destroying its habitats
 invasive species that can deplete the populations of native aquatic species and cause
economic damage
 climate change enhanced by human activities which is warming the oceans nd making
them more acidic, this could cause rise in sea levels during this century that would
destroy coral reefs and flood coastal marshes and coastal cities
APPROACHES USED TO REHABILITATE AND RESTORE ECOSYSTEMS WE HAVE

DAMAGED
Ecological restoration: the process of repairing damage caused by humans to the biodiversity and
dynamics of natural ecosystems. Examples include; replanting forests, restoring grasslands,
restoring coral reefs, restoring wetlands and stream banks, reintroducing native species,
removing invasive species and freeing river flows, by removing dams
1. restoration: returning a degraded habitat or ecosystem to a condition as similar as

possible to its natural state
2. Rehabilitation: turning a degraded ecosystem into functional or useful ecosystem without

trying to restore it to its original conditions. Examples include; removing pollutants and
replanting to reduce soil erosion in abandoned mining sites and landfills and in clear cut
forests.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
23
3. Replacement: replacing a degraded ecosystem with another type of ecosystem. For

example a degraded forest could be replaced by a productive pasture or tree plantation
4. Creating artificial ecosystems: for example, creating artificial wetlands, to help reduce
flooding or to treat sewage.
TOPIC THREE: BIODIVERSITY
The land, air and seas of our planet are home to the tiniest insects and the largest animals, which
make up a rich tapestry of interconnecting and interdependent forces.
This is life, this is biodiversity.
Biodiversity found on Earth today consists of many millions of distinct biological species, the
product of four billion years of evolution.
However, the word “Biodiversity” is relatively new, and is thought to have first been coined as a
contraction of the term “biological diversity” in 1985 and then popularized by a number of
authors
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth, it includes all organisms, species, and populations; the
genetic variation among these; and their complex assemblages of communities and ecosystems.
The manifestation of biodiversity is the biological resources (genes, species, organisms,
ecosystems) and ecological processes of which they are part. Biodiversity is therefore considered
at 3 major levels:
• Genetic diversity.
• Species diversity.
• Ecosystem diversity.
Genetic diversity
This is the variety of genetic information contained in all of the individual plants, animals and
microorganisms occurring within populations of species. Simply it is the variation of genes
within species and populations.
Species diversity
This is the variety of species or the living organisms.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
24
Species Richness - This refers to the total count/number of species in a defined area. Various
indices are used including the Mangalet index and Menhink index.
Species Abundance - This refers to the relative numbers among species. If all the species have
the same equal abundance, this means that the variation is high hence high diversity, however if
the one species is represented by 96 individuals, whilst the rest are represented by 1 species
each, this is low diversity.
Taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity - This considers the genetic relationships between the
different groups of species. The measures are based on analysis, resulting into a hierarchical
classification representing the phylogenetic evolution of the taxa concerned.
Ecosystem diversity
This relates to the variety of habitats, biotic communities and ecological processes in the
biosphere.
Importance of biodiversity
a. Ethical and moral values: Every form of life on earth is unique and warrants respect
regardless of its worth to human beings; this is the ecosystems right of an organism. Note
that every organism has an inherent right to exist regardless of whether it’s valuable to
human beings or not. Humankind is part of nature and the natural world has a value for
human heritage. The well-being of all future generations is a social responsibility of the
present generations, hence the existence of an organism warrants conservation of the
organism.
b. Aesthetic value: Human beings derive great enjoyment from natural environment. The
shapes, structure and colour stimulate our senses and enrich our culture. This is illustrated
majorly in the popularity of biodiversity conservation measures and the myriad of the many
organizations which fight for the protection of different organisms. A lot of money is paid to
conserve wildlife for their value in nature through many organizations. Wild species
enhance our appreciation and enjoyment of the environment through:
• Leisure activities e.g. bird watching and nature trailing;
• Spotting activities e.g. spot hunting, spot fishing, diving and mushroom picking;
• Hearing, touching or just seeing wildlife;
• Enjoyment as seen in art and culture e.g. dolls and teddy bears.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
25
c. Utilitarian values: These contribute to our material well-being, besides our feelings and
emotions, they are things that will give us satisfaction and include conservative and
productive materials from biodiversity e.g. agricultural materials or food sources, medicine,
industrial raw materials, educational values and scientific research.
d. Ecological values: Biodiversity maintains the integrity of the environment through:
• Maintaining CO2/O2 balance. It is through biodiversity that sequential balance of CO 2 and

O2 is maintained. The greenhouse effect is as a result of CO 2 accumulation in the
atmosphere, ozone layer depletion also occurs overtime making the earth warmer and
more prone to natural calamities.
• Regulation of biochemical cycles e.g. O2, hydrological cycles etc. Biological resources
are important media in biochemical cycles, without which the cycles are not complete.
• Absorption and breakdown of pollutants and waste materials through decomposition, e.g.
in food webs and food chains where the flow of energy goes through production
consumption decomposition without which breakdown and absorption of materials will
not be complete. In an ecosystem there is no waste as decomposition will take place to
purify our environment by transforming the waste to other forms of biodiversity.
• Determination and regulation of the natural world climate whether local, regional or
micro through influencing temperature, precipitation and air turbulence.
• Acting as indicators of environmental changes e.g. the greenhouse effect as a result of
global warming causes changes in weather seasonality and also affects crops among
others.
• Protective services, e.g. protection of human beings from harmful weather conditions by
acting as wind breaks, flood barriers among others.
LOSSES IN BIODIVERSITY
Today’s threats to species and ecosystems are the greatest recorded in recent history and virtually
all of them are caused by human mismanagement of biological resources often stimulated by
misguided economic policies and faulty institutions.
Principal threats to biodiversity

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
26
A threat by definition refers to any process or event whether natural or human induced that is
likely to cause adverse effects upon the status or sustainable use of any component of biological
diversity.
1. Habitat alteration / destruction
Increased unsatisfiable demand for resources results to land use changes hence loss to genetic
diversity, species reduction and increased ecosystem changes such as random population
changes, disease outcrops, habitat fragmentation among others resulting in biodiversity losses.
2. Overharvesting / over-exploitation of biological resources
This results when individuals of a particular species are taken at a higher rate than can be
sustained by the natural reproductive capacity of the population being harvested. This can be
through hunting, fishing, trade, food gathering etc. Overharvesting will lead to extinction of
resources or the biological resources, eventually leading to loss of species. For species that are
protected by the law and overharvesting occurs, this is known as poaching, if the law allows for
harvesting of a resource, this is known as cropping.
3. Pollution
Chemical or thermal pollution is a threat to biodiversity. Species in habitats are increasingly

being harmed by industrial activities and pollution from excessive use of agro-chemicals such as
DDT, oil spills, acid precipitation etc.
4. Introduced species / biological invasions
This can be intentional or accidental. Species introduced in an ecosystem will cause changes in
the ecosystem. Introduced species are organisms arising in areas/ habitats in which they were
previously not native. Such introduced species are usually referred to as biological pollutants.
Some of the ecological impacts of the invasion include hybridization, out competition,
disruption of original ecosystem, plant pathogenic influences, disease transmission, disruption of
foodwebs and to some situations extinction.
Species may be introduced intentionally for:
• Ornamental concerns;
• Agriculture;
• Hunting and spotting activities; • Biotechnology for scientific research;

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
27
• Trade.
5. Climatic changes
This is of great concern especially when global CO 2 increases in the atmosphere resulting to
global warming. Most species originate within a very narrow physiological limit; hence nature
has a range of tolerance maintained for ecosystem stability. Changes may be gradual or abrupt
such that if the limit is exceeded the upper or lower species suffers extinction.
6. Human population
As the human population is increasing, there exists insatiable demand for raw materials which is
bound to cause changes in biodiversity. It is therefore vital to control human population which
will result in biodiversity conservation.
7. Institutional / policy failure
Some institutions are created to manage biological resources. However, the institutions/policy
fail to internalize the values of biodiversity within the decision making process of their Nations
and individuals. Such institutions/policies in place should have a holistic approach towards
biodiversity conservation rather than part conservation.
Biodiversity conservation Conservation
Conservation broadly means sound land or water use planning. It is concerned with the
maintenance of natural systems and with their moderate, systematic, planned and regulated
utilization and exploitation for the long-term benefit of mankind.
Conservation has been defined as “As management of the benefit of all life including humankind
of the biosphere so that it may yield sustainable benefit to the present generation which
maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of the future generations.
This incorporates the preservation, maintenance, sustainable use (conservation), recovery and
enhancement of the components of biological diversity, where:
• Conservation - is the sustainable use of resources and encompasses protection as well as
exploitation and;
• Preservation - is an aspect of conservation meaning to keep something without altering
or changing it.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
28
Objectives of conservation
To maintain essential ecological processes and life support system;
A) To preserve biological diversity;
B) To ensure that any utilization of species and ecosystems is sutainable.

Categories of Conservation
There are two categories of conservation as under:
(1) In Situ Conservation
This is the conservation of genetic resources through their maintenance within natural or
even human-made ecosystems in which they occur. It includes a system of protected areas of
different categories, managed with different objectives to bring benefit to the society. For
example National parks, Nature Reserves, Natural Monuments, Cultural Landscapes,
Biosphere Reserve etc. Evidently in situ conservation is not practicable for domesticates.
(2) Ex Situ Conservation
This is conservation outside habitats by perpetuating sample population in genetic resource

centers, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections etc. or in the form of gene pools and
gamete storage for fish; germplasm banks for seeds, pollen, semen, ova, cells etc. Plants are
more readily maintained than animals. In this kind of conservation vital role is played by
seed banks, botanical gardens, pollen storage, tissue culture and genetic engineering.
Sustainable development
This refers to development that meets the needs of the current generation without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their needs; it simply refers to intra and intergenerational
equity.
A balance between the environment, development and society results to sustainable development
which ensures biodiversity conservation.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
29
This is only possible in the presence of good enforced and implemented policies/ conventions,
environmental institutions (e.g. NEMA for Kenya) and political stability among others
Existing Measures for Conserving Biodiversity in Kenya
Zoological gardens - These are refuge areas for rare animals that could disappear without captive
breeding e.g. zoos and aquariums. They are conservation areas for preservation of genetic stocks
for re-introduction to the wild when conditions become favorable. They are also used for
educational and scientific research.
Botanical gardens/Arboretums - These are areas for research and exhibition of plants,
documentation of local flora, preserving samples of rare and endangered species and
maintenance of specimen collections for future use. It acts like a museum for plants e.g. the East
African Botanical Garden in Nairobi.
Seed banks - Ex-Situ approach where storage of conservation materials in form of seeds is
monitored with regard to viability through germination tests and purity analysis. The objective is
to ensure that genetic continuity is maintained.
National parks and game reserves - These are different from zoological gardens and are
established on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems with the objective to preserve wildlife that
cannot co-exist with human beings and human activities. National parks are under the
jurisdiction of central government while game reserves are managed by the local county council.
Challenges in the conservation and management of wildlife in Kenya:
a) Land use: Land is one of the most important resources in Kenya as it is the base upon
which activities like agriculture, wildlife conservation, urban development, human
settlement and infrastructure are carried out. Wildlife conservation is not one of the
formally recognized land use options in Kenya. This has been exacerbated by lack of a
national land use policy and planning. Consequently, there have been remarkable land use
changes over the years. These land use changes particularly agriculture and rural and
urban developments have negatively affected wildlife across the landscape.
(a) Destruction of wildlife habitats: Wildlife habitats provide an important resource base for
rural people’s livelihoods. However, rapidly increasing populations, poverty, demand for
fuel wood and other complex socio-economic factors have put enormous pressure on the
scarce productive lands forcing large segments of the rural poor to resort to poor land use

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
30
practices. Poor cultivation methods, deforestation, charcoal burning and overgrazing, are
some of the main factors causing severe wildlife habitat degradation.
(b) Insecurity: Insecurity in most of the wildlife areas is a serious threat and challenge to
wildlife conservation and management efforts. The security relates to both the protection
of wildlife, communities living in those areas and visitors. This situation has been
exacerbated by the state of insecurity in the neighbouring countries which has led to the
proliferation of small arms in the region.
(c) Insecure tenure to land and illegal allocation: Insecure tenure to land in some of the
wildlife conservation areas has contributed to the general apathy by the local community
towards wildlife. In other areas, unclarified tenure has increasingly become a critical
issue. These have resulted in the increased animosity between the national wildlife
agency and communities. Furthermore, local authorities who hold parcels of land in trust
for the residents have also abused the trusteeship through illegal allocation and change of
user. These changes have had negative impacts on wildlife conservation and
management in such areas.
(d) Inadequate Incentives: Wildlife resources are found both within and outside protected
areas. Whereas protected areas have been set aside for purposes of wildlife conservation,
areas outside protected areas which serve as dispersal areas are communally or
individually owned. Currently there are inadequate incentives to motivate communities
and land owners to adopt land use practices that are compatible with wildlife
conservation and management. Indeed, the situation is aggravated by the existence of
incentives in other sectoral policies that distort land use decisions.
(e) Protected area management and Partnerships: Most of wildlife protected areas were
established without due regard to the surrounding landscapes. Consequently, boundaries
between protected areas and the wider landscapes and communities are becoming
distinct through the erection of fences and other barriers. In terms of wildlife
management, the rigid boundaries between protected areas and the surrounding
landscapes have compromised integrated and effective management of wildlife.
Conservation and management of wildlife outside protected areas has not been integrated
into the broader protected area management and there are limited partnerships between
communities living adjacent to protected areas with park management authorities.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
31
(f) Management Plans: The lack of comprehensive integrated management plans and
lethargy in implementing them where they exist is a majorchallenge for wildlife
conservation and management. This can be attributed to the non-participatory manner in
which these plans have been developed, inadequate resources for their implementation
and lack of a monitoring framework for the implementation these management plans.
(g) Management effectiveness assessment and prioritisation: Given the enormous and
competing social challenges such as poverty, health care and education, wildlife
conservation and management receives fewer resources, yet its scope is wide. Efficient
and effective wildlife conservation and management requires regular assessments and
strategic actions aimed at addressing wildlife priority issues.
(h) Inadequate accurate scientific data: Accurate scientific information on wildlife
resources is critical for informed decision making by the wildlife managers and other
stakeholders. Yet, investment in long-term studies of wildlife ecosystems and the
maintenance of long-term wildlife data sets have been inadequate. This has impaired
understanding of the ecosystem principles and rational decision. In addition, lack of
linkages between research institutions, universities and the relevant wildlife agencies
continues to pose a challenge.
(i) Illegal and unsustainable off-take of wildlife and bush meat trade: Inadequate law
enforcement, ineffective regulatory mechanisms, low penalties, lucrative markets for
bush meat and rising poverty indices have contributed to escalating illegal taking of
wildlife, illegal international wildlife trade and bush meat trade.
(j) Human Wildlife Conflict and Compensation: Increasing human-wildlife conflict (HWC)
is a major problem in wildlife areas. Acute water shortage and inadequate dry season
pasture has severely affected wildlife, livestock and humans. As competition for the
available resources continues, there have been rising levels of human wildlife conflicts.
In addition to climate variability, increased HWCs have been attributed to extending
human activities in areas originally preserved for wildlife. Currently, compensation is
paid by the government. The amounts payable, which relate to human injury and death,
are very low and there is no compensation for wildlife damage to crops, livestock and
property. In addition, the bureaucratic process followed before payment of compensation
disadvantages a large majority of the rural poor.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
32
(k) Pollution: Pollution by human activities continues to cause drastic modifications of

wildlife habitats. The introduction of solid wastes and other pollutants into water and
land intentionally or accidentally negatively affects wildlife populations causing death or
their impairment.
(l) Biopiracy: Biopiracy of genetic materials, soil micro-organisms, animals, and indigenous
knowledge identified, developed and used by local communities is both a threat and a
challenge to wildlife conservation and management.
(m)Climate change: Globally, the climate is changing resulting in direct physiological
impacts on individual species, changes in abiotic factors, changed opportunities for
reproduction and recruitment and altered interactions among species. Climate change
may also produce more conducive conditions for the establishment and spread of
invasive species, as well as change the suitability of microclimates for native species and
the nature of interactions among native communities. There is inadequate data on the
impacts of climate change on biodiversity.
(n) Conservation of shared wildlife resources: Habitat requirements for wildlife species are
critical for their survival and reproduction. Most wildlife species have evolved and
adapted to large home ranges, some of which straddle the boundaries of two or more
countries. This affects their life cycle and migration raising the need to promote a
harmonized approach to the conservation and management of shared wildlife resources.
(o) Invasive alien species: Invasive alien species are a major threat to wildlife resources
particularly in arid and semi arid areas and aquatic ecosystems. Invasive alien species
can transform the structure and species’ composition of ecosystems by repressing or
excluding native species, either directly (out-competing them) or indirectly (changing the
way nutrients are cycled through the system). The control of these invasive species is a
major management challenge, often involving very high environmental and financial
costs.
NB. Research on the effects of solid waste on biodiversity
TOPIC FOUR : INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL/ ENVIRONMENTAL RESOUCES
• Definitions

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
33
• classifications of natural resources
• potential values of natural resources
• concepts in valuation of natural resources
• methods of sustainable resources management
• case study examples of natural resources and their conservation status: forests, wildlife,
land, minerals, energy, water, fisheries
DEFINITIONS
• Natural resources: Are naturally formed materials or energy in nature that are essential or
useful to humans/ to develop society
• Natural services: Are processes in nature such as purification of the air and water,
renewal of top soils which supports life and human economies
• Natural capital: The natural resources and natural services that keeps us and other life
forms alive and support human economies.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF NATURAL RESOURCES
• On the basis of origin
• Biotic resources: these are obtained from biosphere i.e. living and organic materials such
as wildlife, fisheries, forests, grasslands etc
• Abiotic resources: They come from non-living, non-organic materials ( such as water ,air,
heavy metals (copper, iron, silver, gold and mercury etc)
• On the basis of Renewability
• Renewable resources: Resources that can be replaced within the average life span of
human beings. Examples are; biotic resources that have capacity to reproduce itself such
as food resources, wood resources, some energy resources (solar, hydroelectric and wind)

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
34
• Non-renewable resources: Resources that cannot be replaced within the average life span
of human beings. Examples are fossil fuels, some water resources, metallic ores (such as
copper and aluminum) non metallic mineral resources (salt and sand) and soils. These
resources form over periods spanning from hundreds to million years.
• On the basis of renewability
• Inexhaustible resources: are resources which cannot be exhausted by human consumption

e.g .energy resources such as solar radiation, wind power, hydroelectric power, and
tidal power.
• Exhaustible resources: these are available in limited quantities and will be used up as a
result of continuous use e.g. coal and petroleum
• considering the stage of development of resources
• Potential resources: exist in a region and may be used up in the future
• Actual resources: Have been surveyed, the quality and quantity determined and are
actually being used. The development of actual resources depends upon the technology
available.
• Reserve resources: They are part of actual resources which can be developed profitably in
the future
• Stock Resources: They have been surveyed but cannot be used by organisms due to lack
of technology.
NB. Resources have three main characteristics; Utility, Limited availability and potential for
depletion
Resource depletion occurs whenever a resource is utilized faster than it is replaced by natural
processes.
POTENTIAL VALUES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
35
• Ethical values: refers to the right of the resource to exist. Like trees have a right to live
and wetlands have a right to remain as wetlands
• Aesthetic Values: is the beauty or pleasant appearance of natural resources. Something

external that appeals to human senses.
• Emotional values: Is one that is external to the human senses. Sometimes called a “sense
of place”. For instance mountain terrain is considered as ideal places for a restful,
meditative retreat.
• Ecological/ environmental services: refers to intangible value that contributes to the

cycles of life. For instance, trees produce a lot of oxygen, air cleaning, improve soil
fertility, control soil erosion ,water recycling and humidity control and wildlife habitats,
wetlands filter rain water before it is stored as ground water
• Economic values: Are values associated with what can be bought or sold and for how
much money. for example the long term economic benefits of a rain forest through
tourism, medicinal products, native food far exceeds benefits from logging ,mining or
ranching.
CONCEPTS IN VALUATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
• Non-sustainable resource Management: Most resources are extracted with one goal in
mind- short-term economic gain. All other factors are ignored or dismissed in any cost
benefit analysis (CBA) that may be performed to evaluate the long term benefit of the
resource extraction project. In CBA, one compares the cost of a project to its benefits.
When benefits exceed the costs, then there is a net benefit to society.
• Net Yield for Non-Renewable resources: Net yield claims that a resource can continue to
be extracted as long as the resources used in the extraction do not exceed the resources
gained. For instance, changes in car designs by the mid-sixties diminished the demand for
chrome metal and therefore, the price of chrome. Many chrome mines around the world
closed down because the cost of mining exceeded.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
36
• Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) proposes that the best way to extract renewable
resources is to harvest as much as possible to the point where the harvest rate equals the
renewal rate. To harvest more would lead to depletion. MSY is a actively applied to
management of biological resources, in which case limited harvesting is encouraged
because if population abundance is too high, further population growth is inhibited by
overcrowding and competition.
METHODS OF SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
There are three common methods of Sustainable Resource Management.
• PRESERVATION: Refers to the policy that forbids the exploitation of a resource because
it is threatened, endangered, nearly depleted, or simply to maintain it in its natural state.
• CONSERVATION: Involves the reduction in the use of natural resource by efficiency

improvements, recycling or re-use, and the substitution of other resources.
• Efficiency improvements: Is cheaper and often more effective than other two methods of
conservation. Efficiency improvement is applied when the same task is accomplished
with fewer resources, or a task is improved using the same quantity of resource.
• Reuse differs from recycling in that the same product is used again without any alteration.
Recycling alters a product either completely or partially before it is reused. Most papers
and metals are recycled. Drink bottles are re-used. Clothes are mostly reused.
Automobiles are mostly re-used and sometimes, recycled. Soil for crop cultivation is
commonly recycled.
• The two methods of conservation are particularly useful to reduce solid waste in landfills
and reduce depletion. for instance tires can be recycled into various products such as
alternative fuels, rubber mats, automobile parts and playground surfaces
• Substitution: refers to the replacement of one resource by another to reduce depletion of

the replaced resource. Aluminum for instance, is more abundant metal on earth than
copper. Since 1970s when aluminum processing became cheaper, it has been used to

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
37
replace copper in many electrical and heating products. The major draw back with
substitution is that it does not always reduce pollution
• RESTORATION: Involves the return of a degraded resource to its original state.

Restoration also involves the recovery of an animal/ plant population to sustainable
levels.
NB: Preservation and conservation are far less expensive than restoration. However, because of
the increase in the number of degraded environments, restoration, presently has become popular
form of environmental management practices.
CASE STUDY OF RESOURCES
1. FORESTS
A forest is considered as a land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than
5metres and a canopy cover of more than 10 % or trees able to reach these thresholds in
situ.
Types of forests
a) closed canopy : land covered by trees with a canopy cover of more than 40% and
height exceeding 5 meters (natural forests and plantation forests)
b) Primary forests: Forest of native species, in which there are no clear visible
indications of human activity and ecological processes are not significantly disturbed
c) Woodland: refers to the type of land cover characterized by trees and shrubs.
d) Plantations: forest or other woodland of introduced species and in some cases native
species, established through planting or seeding, may include areas of native species
characterized by few species , straight tree lines and /or even aged stands.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
38
e) Semi-Natural forest: forest or other woodland of native species established through

planting, seeding or assisted by natural regeneration. Areas established by planting
are described as planted semi-natural forest
f) Planted forests: planted forests combines areas of plantations and of planted semi-
natural forest regeneration, in terms not only of regeneration method, but also
planting stock, tending and management techniques.
Major causes of destruction and degradation of Tropical forests
Underlying causes:
 not valuing ecological services
 Crop and timber export
 Government policies
 Poverty
 Population growth
Direct Causes:
 roads
 fires
 settler farming
 cash crops
 Cattle ranching
 Logging

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
39
 Tree plantations
ECOLOGICAL SERVICES OF FORESTS ECONOMIC SERVICES OF

FORESTS
 Support energy flow and Chemical
cycling  fuel-wood
 Reduce erosion  lumber
 Absorb and release water  pulp to make paper
 purify water and air  mining
 influence local and regional climate  livestock grazing
 store atmospheric carbon  Recreation
 Jobs
Impacts of human activities and natural forces on the forests
• clearing and burning of forests for agriculture, cattle rearing and timber extraction
• clear cutting and conversion of forest land in hilly areas for agriculture,
plantation and housing
• Forests affected by acid deposition originating from industries
• Pesticides spraying to control insects in forest plantations leads to poisoning all

the way up the food chain and unintended loss of species
• Dams build in forest areas for hydropower and water drown huge areas,
destroying species and depriving people of their land
• In wilderness areas like the arctic, oil exploration and military activities disrupt
the ecosystem, contaminating areas leading to decline of species
• The harvesting of old growth forest destroys critical habitat for endangered
species.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
40
DEFORESTATION
• Is the temporary or permanent removal of large expanses of forests for

agriculture, settlement or other use
• deforestation has harmful environmental effects and can reduce biodiversity and
degrade environmental services provided by forests
• Effects of deforestation are listed below:
 decreased soil fertility from erosion
 runoff of eroded soils into aquatic systems
 Premature extinction of species with specialized niches
 Regional climate change from extensive clearing
 Release of Carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
 Acceleration of flooding
 Loss of habitat for native and migratory species such as birds and butterflies.
CONSERVATION OF FORESTS
Conservation: management for the benefit of all life, including man, of this biosphere so
that it may yield sustainable benefit to the present generation along with maintaining its
potential to meet the needs and aspirations of the future generations.
a) There are two types of conservation:

In situ conservation: This is the method in which conservation of genetic
resources is done through their maintenance within natural or man-made
ecosystems in which they originally occur.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
41
b) Ex- Situ Conservation: This is the method in which conservation is done outside
their natural habitats by creation of zoos, botanical gardens, genetic resource
centres, gamete banks
The necessary steps towards conservation of forests are:
 a good campaign on the awareness of forests be done in village areas especially

among tribal forest people. They should be educated about the utility of conservation
of forests.
 the use of woodlots has to be curtailed in the industries. industries that use wood as
raw materials should be compelled to grow their own plantation to meet their
requirements
 Tribal people inhabiting forest regions should be provided with cheap fuels and
fodder in subsidized rates so that they need not to cut down forests
 A social forests project has to be intensified. Local people of each area to be involved
in the project.
 research on intensive plantation has to be encouraged by the government and NGOs
 conservation through law
 practice reforestation/afforestation
 Practice silviculture: Enrichment planting to add value to poor forest stands by

planting high value trees (fast growing trees, economically important trees, high
quality trees).This is done additionally to ensuring favourable conditions for natural
regeneration.
WETLANDS
 Refers to an area where plants and animals have adapted to temporary, seasonal or
periodic flooding by saline, brackish or freshwater.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
42
 this areas are transitional between dry land and permanently inundated areas and
therefore support characteristic plants and animals that support characteristic plants
and animals that are adapted to seasonal drying and inundation with water.
 The principle determinants of the occurrence of a wetland are : impeded drainage,

characteristic soils and plants.
 Typical wetlands are usually shallow (,6m deep) with water that is flowing or static
 since the water is warmer than in deep lakes and light can penetrate to the bottom,
wetlands are the most productive ecosystems
 Types of wetlands include shallow lakes, ponds and dams, marshes(dominated by

grasses and reeds with few trees), swamps(dominated by trees and shrubs), flood
plains, deltas, estuaries, creeks, mangroves and coral reefs
 Because of wetland’s productivity and economic potential , they have not been fully
exploited. Conversion of wetlands to agriculture has not been sustainable because
diminishing soil fertility, high water table and high fertilization levels required to
sustain viable production.
 wetlands management challenges include; overexploitation, pollution and

sedimentation occasioned by catchment degradation, poor or lack of land use
planning, poor farming practices, poverty ,climate change and low levels of
awareness and education on sustainable development impede sustainable
management and wise use of country’s wetland resources.
 Wetland s provide a number of free ecological and economic services, which

include:
 filtering and degrading toxic wastes and pollutants
 reducing flooding and erosion by absorbing storm water and releasing it slowly, and by
absorbing overflows from streams and lakes

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
43
 maintaining stream flows during dry periods
 helping to recharge ground water aquifers
 helping to maintain biodiversity by providing habitats for variety of species
 Supplying valuable products such as fishes and shellfish, blueberries, cranberries, wild
rice and timber
 providing recreation for bird watchers, nature photographers, boaters, anglers, and
waterfowl hunters
WATER RESOURCES
 Water resources consist of seas and oceans(97%), polar ice caps (2.3%) and freshwater
in rivers, lakes, streams and ground water(0.66%)
 water is essential for sustenance of all living organisms including plants and animals
 the water resources are limited and are not likely to last for more than a century
 Watershed is an area enclosed by drainage basins of small or big water course of a river
or stream. Water basins n Kenya include; rift valley basins, L. Victoria basins, Athi River
basins, Tana River basins and Ewaso Ngiro basin.
 water has no alternative; it is known as life’ it is essential for sustenance of all living
organisms including plants, animals and man
 All plants, insects, animals and men have 60-95% water in their bodies. This water is
partly released in the form of sweat, excreta, urine and vapour. So all these species
require a lot of water daily. Besides much water is also needed for body growth and
nutrition. So it is absurd to think of life without water.
 But our unstable water resources like any other natural resources are finite and likely to
be exhausted within a century. More over it is getting polluted by man-made activities
and unfit for use sooner than expected.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
44
 Water crisis is more serious than food or population crisis since food production or
population problems are irrelevant without water supply.
 Most Kenya’s surface water originates in localized catchments in five mountain areas
namely; Mt. Kenya, Aberdares, Mau complex, Mt. Elgon and Cherengany. These critical
sources are commonly referred to as Kenya’s water towers and they support major
sectors of the economy.
Ecological services of water
 water is one of the key components of ecosystems and provides critical ecological
services to the environments
 Water is a universal solvents and provides media in which most of the components of the
environment is contained. Plant nutrients for example are absorbed through a solvent
media; water therefore influences plant growth and production of agricultural goods and
food security.
 Water provides a buffer to extremely hot climate conditions by providing a cooling effect
and humidity to both organisms and environment. In extreme drought conditions, both
plants and animals suffer desiccations due to lack of water in the body.
 freshwater is a habitat to countless species of plants and animals including fish,

mammals and reptiles, therefore provide other ecological environmental goods and
services to humanity including maintenance of human health, 75% of human body is
reportedly made up of water  purification of air and water
 nutrient cycling
 Production of food and waste water treatment
Economic uses of water:
• domestic and household water supply
• industrial water supply

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
45
• waste water treatment  irrigation

• recreation and tourism
• watering livestock
• transportation corridors
• drinking and
• energy generation(HEP)
Challenges and threats to water Resources in Kenya
 pollution loading from point and non-point sources, use of agrochemicals and pesticides
 waste dumping
 river diversions
 trans-boundary water resource conflicts
 water use conflicts
 siltation in lakes, rivers and dams
 over extraction of surface and ground water
 eucalyptus growing
 encroachment into wetlands and riparian areas
 encroachment into ground water recharge zones
 invasive species
 oil spills
Conservation of water resources
 pollution control

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
46
 watershed /catchment protection and conservation
 control abstraction
 build human capacity and institutions(WARMA)
 behavior change (efficient utilization of available water)
 use of efficient irrigation technologies like drip irrigation
 awareness creation
ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy resources in Kenya can be classified into :
i. Renewable energy sources: are sources which can be replaced or can be used
indefinitely, without fear of running out. Examples include; wind power, wave power,
solar power, hydropower, biofuels (biomass fuels), and biogas.
ii. Non-renewable energy sources: these energy sources include coal, oil, gas, petroleum
and diesel. Non renewable are finite in supply because their rate of formation is slow.
iii. sustainable power supplies: Are not exactly renewable but they will last for a very long
time from a small amount of radioactive material
Classification of energy with advantages and disadvantages of various energy types

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
47
Energy Type Advantages Disadvantages

Renewable  widely available  Un-reliable supply
 lower running costs  Usually produced in small

quantities
 decentralized power production
 often very difficult to store
 Low pollution
 currently per unit cost is
 Available for the foreseeable
more compared to other
future
types
Non-Renewable  available in highly concentrated  Highly polluting

form
 Available only in afew
 easy to store places
 Reliable supply  High running cost
 Low cost per unit energy produced  Limited supply and will
as the technology is matured one day get exhausted
Sustainable(Nuclear  Highly reliable  Risks of radioactivity
power)
 Produces large amount of energy  High waste disposal costs
with very little carbon dioxide
emissions  High capital investment
and maintenance costs
 Uses small amount of raw
materials per unit energy
production
Threats to energy resources
• population pressure
• Rural –urban migration
• Unstable fossil fuel prices
• unaffordable cost of alternatives
• Lack of access to alternative energy sources

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
48
• Ineffective legal and regulatory framework
• competing land-uses
• inefficient transformation and end-use technologies
• increased of extreme weather episodes
• un-employment
Social political factors influencing policy on Renewable energy supply in Kenya
• security of supply
• diversification of supply
• economic supply
• sustainability and climate change
• health and safety
• legislation
• planning
• structure of energy market
• economic conditions
Oppositions to nuclear energy power are based on several premises as follows:
• people have general distrust of technology they do not understand, especially when that
technology carries with it, the potential for catastrophic accidents or the hidden, but real,
capacity to induce cancer
• problems involving lax, safety, operation failures, and cover-ups by nuclear plants and
their regulatory agencies have occurred in US, Canada and Japan

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
49
• The problem with high construction costs and unexpected short operational life times
have already been mentioned. The economic argument can also be used to oppose nuclear
power
• The nuclear industry has repeatedly presented nuclear energy as safe, arguing that the
probabilities of accident occurring are very low but when accidents occur, probabilities
become realities and the argument are moot.
• Nuclear power plants are viewed as prime targets for terrorist attacks, which could bring
about a potentially devastating release of radioactivity
• There remains the crucial of disposing of nuclear waste.
Conservation of energy
• Promote energy saving technologies/devices such as energy saving stoves and fireless
cookers
• switching from non-renewable to renewable energy sources
• Improved supply and distribution efficiency
• use of charcoal kiln as an efficient and comparatively clean mechanism for conversion of
wood into charcoal
• Promote establishment of wood lots using early maturing tree species
• provide economic incentives and technological mechanisms for the use of liquid
petroleum Gas (LPG), biogas, wind and solar energy
• Promote diversification of energy sources(including nuclear power) taking into
consideration the necessary precautionary and safety measures
• Promote catchment area conservation and integrated river basin management
• Promote on-farm tree planting taking into account appropriate tree species and sites for
fuel wood supply.
LAND RESOURCES
 Land is one of the most important components of life support system which has been
exploited abused over enturies

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
50
 In Kenya ,most people consider land as the only resource endowment
 land encompasses soils, surface topography, underlying deposits, climate, water, plants
and animal communities
 land supports a range of terrestrial and subterranean natural resources such as water air,
soil, minerals
 land provides a habitat for species fauna and flora and buttresses a variety of ecosystem
services
 land is also an important factor of production and this is underlined by the fact that it is a
major source of livelihood in Kenya’s agriculture accounting for 23.6% of the countries
GDP. Challenges of Land in Kenya
 scarcity
 user-related conflicts
 land fragmentation
 overcrowding
 proliferation of informal settlements as well as
 environmental degradation
These challenges may be blamed on among others:
 increased population
 inadequate implementation of relevant land policies
 fragmented land laws
 inequitable distribution of land
 inadequate titling and registration

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
51
 Ineffective dispute resolution mechanisms.
Land degradation and desertification
 Land degradation is defined as the long term loss of ecosystem function and productivity
caused by disturbances from which the land cannot recover unaided.
 land degradation occurs slowly and cumulatively and has long lasting impacts on rural
people who become increasingly vulnerable
 Desertification is permanent reduction in the productivity of arid and semi-arid and

seasonally dry areas.
 Possible causes of land degradation include; extended drought, overgrazing, erosion,

deforestation and over cultivation.
 Three major practices that exposes soil to erosion and soil degradation include; over
cultivation, overgrazing and deforestation.
Impacts of land degradation and desertification are:
 reduction in crop and pasture productivity
 reduction in fuel and non-timber forest products
 poverty and food insecurity
 damages to soil
 loss of habitats
 water shortage and siltation,
 reduce biodiversity and ecosystem services
Land opportunities in Kenya:
 production of food and livestock keeping

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
52
 development of infrastructure(roads, dwellings and settlement)
 sources of investment: extraction of minerals, timber and water
 investment, collateral, ecotourism
 reclamation, restoration and use of degraded land
Conservation of land resources:
 development of a comprehensive national land use policy
 soil erosion control and prevention strategies
 develop a suitable land management plan for conservation of a land resource bas
 optimum application of organic manures, chemical fertilizers and bio-fertilizers and

other agrochemicals to ensure suitable agriculture while maintaining and increasing
productivity
 promote integrated land use planning
 research on organic matter, nutrient balance, Carbon dioxide build up in the environment,
climate changes, biomass production, organic matter production and long term carbon
storage
 land pollution control
 check overgrazing
 Practice sustainable agriculture whose goals are to maintain productive top soils, keep
food safe and whole some, reduce use of fertilizers and pesticides and keep farm
economically viable.
TOPIC FIVE : BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
53
CYCLES OF MATTER (BIOGECHEMICAL CYCLES)
Most living organisms are made of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, and
phosphorus.
These make up life’s important compounds like water, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids,
and proteins.
Matter is recycled within and between ecosystems!
Biogeochemical cycles – loops through which elements pass as they are recycled in
ecosystems.
Are powered by the flow of energy.
Nutrients – needed by organisms to build tissues and carry out life functions. Pass through
organisms and environments through biogeochemical cycles.
Limiting nutrient – nutrient whose supply limits the productivity of an ecosystem
Cycles of matter, often based on elemental cycles, are of utmost importance in the environment.
Global geochemical cycles can be regarded from the viewpoint of various reservoirs, such as
oceans, sediments, and the atmosphere, connected by conduits through which matter moves
continuously. The movement of a specific kind of matter between two particular reservoirs may
be reversible or irreversible.
The fluxes of movement for specific kinds of matter vary greatly as do the contents of such
matter in a specified reservoir.
Cycles of matter would occur even in the absence of life on Earth but are strongly influenced by
life forms, particularly plants and microorganisms. Organisms participate in biogeochemical
cycles, which describe the circulation of matter, particularly plant and animal nutrients, through
ecosystems. As part of the carbon cycle, atmospheric carbon in CO2 is fixed as biomass; as part
of the nitrogen cycle, atmospheric N2 is fixed in organic matter.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
54
The reverse of these kinds of processes is mineralization, in which biologically bound elements
are returned to inorganic states.
Biogeochemical cycles are ultimately powered by solar energy, which is fine-tuned and directed
by energy expended by organisms. In a sense, the solar-energy-powered hydrologic cycle acts as
an endless conveyer belt to move materials essential for life through ecosystems.
EXOGENIC AND ENDOGENIC CYCLES
Endogenic cycles; Materials cycles which predominantly involve subsurface rocks of various
kinds such as Phosphorus and suiphur cycle do not have a gaseous component.
Exogenic cycles: material cycles; which occur largely on Earth’s surface and usually have an
atmospheric component. Many are exogenic cycles in which the element in question spends part
of the cycle in the atmosphere—O2 for oxygen, N2 for nitrogen, CO2 for carbon
In general, sediment and soil can be viewed as being shared between the two cycles and
constitute the predominant interface between them.
Most biogeochemical cycles can be described as elemental cycles involving nutrient elements
such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
All sedimentary cycles involve salt solutions or soil solutions that contain dissolved substances
leached from weathered minerals; these substances may be deposited as mineral formations, or
they may be taken up by organisms as nutrients
EXOGENIC CYCLES
1.NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen is continually being recycled between the soil and the air by natural processes.
Lightning provides the energy for atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen to react, forming nitrogen
oxides. For example: N2(g) + O2(g) Þ 2NO(g)
N2(g) + 2O2(g) Þ 2NO2(g)

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
55
These oxides dissolve in water vapour in the atmosphere and eventually fall to the ground as
rain.
Atmospheric nitrogen is also converted into nitrogen compounds by nitrogen-fixing bacteria

found in the root nodules of some plants.
Nitrogen compounds are released into the soil as a result of the decay of animal waste products
and by the decay of dead plants and animals. In the soil, the ammonia formed during decay
processes is converted into nitrates by the action of nitrifying bacteria: Ammonia Þ Ammonium
compounds Þ Nitrites Þ Nitrates
Nitrogen compounds may also be added to soil as artificial fertilizers. Ammonium nitrate is
widely used by farmers and gardeners to provide growing plants with essential nitrogen.
Nitrogen compounds are taken out of the soil by plants, which use them to make proteins and
other essential chemicals. Animals subsequently eat the plants.
Nitrogen compounds in the soil are converted to nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria.
Diagram (below)
2.CARBON CYCLE
• This cycle shows that carbon may be present as gaseous atmospheric CO2, constituting a
relatively small but highly significant portion of global carbon. Some of the carbon is
dissolved in surface water and groundwater as HCO3- or molecular CO2 (aq).
• A very large amount of carbon is present in minerals, particularly calcium and magnesium
carbonates such as CaCO3. Photosynthesis fixes inorganic C as biological carbon,
represented as {CH2O}, which is a constituent of all life molecules.
• Another fraction of carbon is fixed as petroleum and natural gas, with a much larger amount
as hydro-carbonaceous kerogen (the organic matter in oil shale), coal, and lignite,
represented as CxH2x.
• Manufacturing processes are used to convert hydrocarbons to xenobiotic compounds with

functional groups containing halogens, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur. Though a

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
56
very small amount of total environmental carbon, these compounds are particularly
significant because of their toxicological chemical effects.
• An important aspect of the carbon cycle is that it is the cycle by which solar energy is
transferred to biological systems and ultimately to the geosphere and anthrosphere as fossil
carbon and fossil fuels.
• Organic, or biological, carbon, {CH2O}, is contained in energy-rich molecules that can react
biochemically with molecular oxygen, O2, to regenerate carbon dioxide and produce energy.
This can occur biochemically in an organism through aerobic respiration or it may occur as
combustion, such as when wood or fossil fuels are burned.
• Microorganisms are strongly involved in the carbon cycle, mediating crucial biochemical
reactions. Photosynthetic algae are the predominant carbon-fixing agents in water; as they
consume CO2 to produce biomass the pH of the water is raised enabling precipitation of
CaCO3 and CaCO3•MgCO3.
• Organic carbon fixed by microorganisms is transformed by biogeochemical processes to

fossil petroleum, kerogen, coal, and lignite. Microorganisms degrade organic carbon from
biomass, petroleum, and xenobiotic sources, ultimately returning it to the atmosphere as
CO2. Hydrocarbons such as those in crude oil and some synthetic hydrocarbons are degraded
by microorganisms. This is an important mechanism for eliminating pollutant hydrocarbons,
such as those that are accidentally spilled on soil or in water. Biodegradation can also be used
to treat carbon-containing compounds in hazardous wastes
• Processes which Co2 is get released into the atmosphere are; respiration by plants and
animals, erosion of limestone and feldspar, emission from volcanoes, burning of wood, coal,
petroleum and death and decomposition of plants and animals. Processes by which Co2 is
taken up from the atmosphere are; photosynthesis by plants and being dissolved in fresh and
sea water.
3.OXYGEN CYCLE
The oxygen cycle involves the interchange of oxygen between the elemental forms of gaseous
O2, contained in a huge reservoir in the atmosphere, and chemically bound O in CO2, H2O, and

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
57
organic matter. It is strongly tied with other elemental cycles, particularly the carbon cycle.
Elemental oxygen becomes chemically bound by various energy yielding processes, particularly
combustion and metabolic processes in organisms. It is released in photosynthesis. This element
readily combines with and oxidizes other species such as carbon in aerobic respiration or carbon
and hydrogen in the combustion of fossil fuels such as methane: CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O.
Elemental oxygen also oxidizes inorganic substances such as iron (II) in minerals: 4FeO + O2
=2Fe2O3.
A particularly important aspect of the oxygen cycle is stratospheric ozone, O3. A relatively small
concentration of ozone in the stratosphere, more than 10 kilometers high in the atmosphere,
filters out ultraviolet radiation in the wavelength range of 220-330 nm, thus protecting life on
earth from the highly damaging effects of this radiation. The oxygen cycle is completed by the
return of elemental O2 to the atmosphere. The only significant way in which this is done is
through photosynthesis mediated by plants.
Methods of release of oxygen in the atmosphere are; photosynthesis, breakdown of ozone into
oxygen by different atmospheric activities; different natural activities break down water and
released oxygen into the atmosphere. Oxygen is added into the atmosphere by; respiratory plants
and animals, dissolving of oxygen into the water
ENDOGENIC CYCLES
1.THE PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
The phosphorus cycle is crucial because phosphorus is usually the limiting nutrient in
ecosystems. There are no common stable gaseous forms of phosphorus, so the phosphorus cycle
is endogenic.
In the geosphere, phosphorus is held largely in poorly soluble minerals, such as hydroxyapatite a
calcium salt, deposits of which constitute the major reservoir of environmental phosphate.
Soluble phosphorus from phosphate minerals and other sources such as fertilizers is taken up by
plants and incorporated into nucleic acids which make up the genetic material of organisms.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
58
Mineralization of biomass by microbial decay returns phosphorus to the salt solution from which
it may precipitate as mineral matter. The anthrosphere is an important reservoir of phosphorus in
the environment. Large quantities of phosphates are extracted from phosphate minerals for
fertilizer, industrial chemicals, and food additives.
Phosphorus is a constituent of some extremely toxic compounds, especially organophosphate

insecticides and military poison nerve gases.
Phosphorus is an important element for all forms of life; as a phosphate (PO4)

(organophosphates) , it makes an important part of nuclear DNA and RNA; it also forms critical
component of ATP(Adenosine Triphosphate) an energy molecule. Phosphates are important for
growth and maintenance of bones and teeth.
2. THE SULFUR CYCLE
Plants and animals depend on continuous sulphur and its compounds for synthesis of some
amino acids.
Some sulphur bacteria serve as the media for exchange of sulphur within ecosystems
The sulphur cycle, is relatively complex in that it involves several gaseous species, poorly
soluble minerals, and several species in solution. It is tied with the oxygen cycle in that sulphur
combines with oxygen to form gaseous sulphur dioxide, SO2, an atmospheric pollutant, and
soluble sulphate ion, SO4-2
Among the significant species involved in the sulphur cycle are gaseous hydrogen sulphide,
H2S; mineral sulphides, such as PbS, sulfuric acid, H2SO4, the main constituent of acid rain;
and biologically bound sulphur in sulphur-containing proteins.
In so far as pollution is concerned, the most significant part of the sulphur cycle is the presence
of pollutant SO2 gas and H2SO4 in the atmosphere. The former is a somewhat toxic gaseous air
pollutant evolved in the combustion of sulphur-containing fossil fuels.
The major detrimental effect of sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere is its tendency to oxidize in
the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid. This species is responsible for acidic precipitation, “acid
rain,”

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
59
In polluted waters under anaerobic conditions, H2S is produced by bacteria giving deposits of
FeS. in unpolluted water under aerobic conditions, the sulphur bacteria transform sulphides into
sulphates for further production of proteins
CARBON CYCLE
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
60
NITROGEN CYCLE
 Nitrogen fixation
-process where bacteria (living in soil or on roots of legumes) convert nitrogen gas into
ammonia.
Denitrification
– Process where bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen gas.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
61
OXYGEN CYCLE
WATER CYCLE

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
62

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
63
TOPIC SIX : POLLUTION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT
 definition
 Types of pollution
 Causes of pollution
 effects
 measures
Pollution :is the introduction of contaminants into natural environment that cause adverse
change, in the form of killing of life, toxicity of environment, damage to ecosystems and
aesthetics of our surroundings.
Pollution may also be defined as an unwanted change in the environment which involves the
physical, biological and chemical changes involving air, water and land which affects the human
life in one way or the other”
Pollution has become a serious issue after World War II in developing countries due to
unchecked rapid industrialization. Pollution is the root cause of many diseases that kill and
disable living organisms
Point source pollution represents those activities where wastewater is routed directly into
receiving water bodies by, for example, discharge pipes, where they can be easily measured and
controlled.
In contrast, Non-point source water pollution, once known as “diffuse” source pollution, arises
from a broad group of human activities for which the pollutants have no obvious point of entry
into receiving watercourses. Obviously, non-point source pollution is much more difficult to
identify measure and control than point sources.
CHARACTERISTICS OF POLLUTANTS:

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
64
• They are long distance travelers and capable of spreading to the entire globe in relatively
short time
• they are persistent and long lasting and remain dangerous indefinitely
• they accumulate both in atmosphere and animal tissues
Major sources of pollutants:
 uncontrolled growth of population
 deforestation
 industrial development
 unplanned urbanization
 rise in living standards
 extensive agriculture
 poverty
 technological development
 lack of environmental awareness
 devolution in the field of communication
Hazardous waste classified based on ignitability, corrosivity, combustibility and toxicity
Hazardous waste will cause or significantly contribute to:
• An increase in mortality or
• An increase in serious, irreversible, or incapacitating reversible illness or

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
65
• Pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when
improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise managed
TOXICITY
· Acute toxicity = one massive dose kills you
· Chronic toxicity = long exposure to small doses typically resulting in cancer

(carcinogens)
SOURCES
· Point sources = factory discharge pipe, leaking storage tank, landfill, illegal dumps,
etc.
· Nonpoint sources = croplands, watershed runoff
· Industrial
· Agriculture
· Residential
TYPES OF POLLUTION:
 Air pollution
 water pollution
 Noise pollution
 Littering (spilling of oil in oceans)
 soil contamination(by lead , heavy metals)
 Radioactive contamination
 Thermal pollution

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
66
 Visual pollution
AIR POLLUTION
Definition: Air pollution is defined as the contamination of the indoor and outdoor environment
by any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the
atmosphere.
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

Sources of air pollution are either man made or natural. Man-made sources are what we focus on
because we may be able to effect some control of these sources.
 Household combustion devices
 motor vehicles
 industrial facilities
 forest fire
Pollutants Causing Air pollution

 particulate matter
 carbon monoxide
 ozone
 nitrogen dioxide
 sulfur dioxide
Organic: Organic origin e.g. gasoline, pollen, bacteria and viruses.

Inorganic: Inorganic origin e.g carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur
dioxide. If it is not organic it is inorganic.
GASEOUS POLLUTANS
For most pollutants the main source of emissions are from fossil-fuel combustion and vehicles.
Except for emissions of NOx, CO and VOCs (volatile organic compounds) from vehicle
exhausts, fuel consumption related emissiona are estimated by applying an appropriate emission
factor to statistics on annual fuel consumption. Amongst the principal pollutants, non

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
67
combustion emission sources are only significant for VOCs and ammonia (NH3). Sources of
non-combustion VOC emissions include natural gas leakage, motor spirit evaporation, petrol
refining, industrial process, solvent evaporation and natural sources. Over four-fifths of NH3
emission are from agricultural sources.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)
NO2 is a precursor to nitric acid, HNO 3 ,in the atmosphere and is a major contributor to acid rain,
although less important than SO2, which is discussed in the next. Nitric acid contributes only one
proton per molecule while sulfuric acid has two protons per molecule, and mass emissions of
sulfur compounds are larger than oxides of nitrogen. Finally, NO 2 and volatile organic
compounds (VOC) react photochemically in a complex series of reactions to produce smog,
which includes ozone, NO x, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), peroxybenzoyl nitrate (PBN) and other
trace oxidizing agents. Nitrogen oxides are acid gases and ozone pre-cursors and can affect
human health and vegetation. Nitrogen dioxide is thought to have both acute and chronic effect
on air ways and lung function particularly on people with asthma. Total emissions in the world
increased from 1970 due to increased road transport.
Two primary categories of control techniques for NOX emissions are (1) combustion controls, and
(2) flue gas treatment. A variety of combustion control techniques are used to reduce NOX
emissions by taking advantage of the thermodynamic and kinetic processes described above.
Some reduce the peak flame temperature; some reduce the oxygen concentration in the primary
flame zone; and one, reburn, uses the thermodynamic and kinetic balance to promote
reconverting NOx back to nitrogen and oxygen. In the second technique, some of the flue gas,
which is depleted in oxygen, is recirculated to the combustion air. This has two effects: (1) the
oxygen concentration in the primary flame zone is decreased, and (2) additional nitrogen absorbs
heat, i.e., acts as a heat sink, and reduces the peak flame temperature.
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
By far the largest source of sulfur emissions is from burning coal to generate electricity. The
declining trend in SO2emissions, is largely as a result of efforts to control SO2as a source of acid
rain, In coal, it is bound as iron pyrite, FeS2, mineral sulfates, elemental sulfur, and in organic

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
68
compounds and mercaptans. High sulfur coals typically contain 2 to 5% sulfur. Low sulfur coals
have less than 1% sulfur. Besides burning coal, sources of sulfur emissions include petroleum
refining, oil and gas production, sulfur and sulfuric acid manufacturing, ore smelting, waste
incineration, and petroleum coke calcining.
Sulphur dioxide causes constriction of the airways by stimulating nerves in the lining of the nose,
throat and airways of the lung. The latter effect is particularly likely to occur in those suffering
from asthma and chronic lung disease. The effects of sulphur dioxide on sensitive person appear
almost immediately at the start of exposure. Emissions are from power stations, road transport as
a result of sulphur content of fuel.
A variety of processes are available for control systems to treat SO2 emissions. Selection of the
best process for each facility must, of course, include a traditional assessment of capital vs.
operating costs. Additional considerations include operability, maintainability, plus site-specific
preferences for the handling of slurries, aqueous solutions, and dry powder.
CO2 (Carbon Dioxide)
• From burning of fossil fuels, felling and burning of forests

• Responsible for 50-60% of the enhanced greenhouse effect
• EC and USA responsible for 35% of this
• Has lifetime of >12 years CH4 (Methane)
• From anaerobic digestion, paddy fields, livestock, landfill gas, bogs, industry
• Responsible for 15-18% of the enhanced greenhouse effect
• Lifetime of 12 years
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)
• Anthropogenic - Present in small amounts but very potent

• Responsible for 14% of the enhanced greenhouse effect
• Lifetime of 100 years Ozone
• Mainly from photochemical reactions in vehicle smog, (VOCs and NOX)

• Responsible for 12 - 20% of the enhanced greenhouse effect

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
69
• Also HFC, (hydrofluorocarbons), PFC,(perfluorocarbons) and SHF,

(sulphurhexafluoride) Air pollution do have:
 health effect
 effect on cardiovascular health
 effects on breathing(asthma)
 Links to cancer
 Effects on children
 Health effects in relatively “clean areas”
Strategies to control air pollution
• the coal fuel should be replaced with gas fuel to control air pollution
• The automobiles must be designed with emission control system
• The waste must be removed and recycled in the industrial plants and refineries
• plants like pine and ribs need to be planted to metabolize the nitrogen oxides and other
pollutants
• Maintain a health distance between industrial area and residential areas
• The chimneys should be constructed tall in size so that the emissions must be released
higher up in the environment
• The sulphur must be removed after burning
• the gasoline must have anti knocking agents
• The mining areas should be planted with trees
• timely servicing of car helps to keep it in a good condition, also minimizes fuel
exhaustion
• using public transport helps to prevent the air pollution
• using alternative energy sources like solar energy, hydroelectric energy and wind energy
WATER POLLUTION

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
70
 Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers
and ground water).
 Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water
bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.
Water pollutants:
• detergents
• chloroform
• food processing waste(fats and grease)
• insecticides and herbicides
• petroleum hydrocarbons(gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil)
• Lubricants(motor oil)
• from storm water runoff.
• plastics
• pesticides,
• heavy metals
• sewage
• radioactive waste
• Thermal effluents
Polluted water:
 domestic sewage
 industrial waste water

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
71
 agricultural waste water
 construction site storm water
 urban runoff (storm water)

Agricultural activity Impacts
Surface water Groundwater
Tillage/ploughing Sediment/turbidity: sediments carry phosphorus and
pesticides adsorbed to sediment particles; siltation of
river beds and loss of habitat, spawning ground, etc.
Fertilizing Runoff of nutrients, especially phosphorus, leading to Leaching of nitrate to

eutrophication causing taste and odour in public water groundwater; excessive levels are
supply, excess algae growth leading to deoxygenation a threat to public health.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
72
of water and fish kills.
Manure spreading Carried out as a fertilizer activity; spreading on frozen Contamination of ground-water,
ground results in high levels of contamination of especially by nitrogen
receiving waters by pathogens, metals, phosphorus
and nitrogen leading to eutrophication and potential
Contamination.
Pesticides Runoff of pesticides leads to contamination of surface Some pesticides may leach into
water and biota; dysfunction of ecological system in groundwater causing human
surface waters by loss of top predators due to growth health problems from
inhibition and reproductive failure; public health Contaminated wells.
impacts from eating contaminated fish. Pesticides are
carried as dust by wind over very long distances and
contaminate aquatic systems 1000s of miles away
(e.g. tropical/subtropical pesticides found in Arctic
mammals).
Feedlots/animal corrals Contamination of surface water with many pathogens Potential leaching of nitrogen,
(bacteria, viruses, etc.) leading to chronic public health metals, etc. to groundwater.
problems. Also contamination by metals contained in
urine and faeces.
Irrigation Runoff of salts leading to salinization of surface Enrichment of groundwater with

waters; runoff of fertilizers and pesticides to surface salts, nutrients (especially nitrate).
waters with ecological damage, bioaccumulation in
edible fish species, etc. High levels of trace elements
such as selenium can occur with serious ecological
damage and potential human health impacts.
Clear cutting Erosion of land, leading to high levels of turbidity in Disruption of hydrologic regime,
rivers, siltation of bottom habitat, etc. Disruption and often with increased surface
change of hydrologic regime, often with loss of runoff and decreased
perennial streams; causes public health problems due groundwater recharge; affects
to loss of potable water. surface water by decreasing flow
in dry periods and concentrating
nutrients and contaminants in
surface water.
Silviculture Broad range of effects: pesticide runoff and

contamination of surface water and fish; erosion and
sedimentation problems.
Aquaculture Release of pesticides (e.g. TBT1) and high levels of

nutrients to surface water and groundwater through
feed and faeces, leading to serious eutrophication.
Agricultural runoff (leached+ eroded material) may contain
• oil leaked from equipment – poisons fish, coats the water if major leakage
• metals e.g. lead, mercury – from buried pipes, weed killers: toxic to many organisms
• pesticides – may kill other non-target organisms off-site
• fertilizers – artificial eutrophication; some excess nitrates are harmful if ingested
• dead organic matter/animal waste – also a cause of artificial eutrophication, and may
contain harmful pathogens such as cholera, E. coli

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
73
• sediment from ploughed soils – sand, silt, clay: blocks waterways, fills up reservoirs and
hard to remove
• Both surface waters and groundwater may be affected.
MAJOR WATER POLLUTANT
Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases
the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural
biological communities.
• clogs water channels and reservoirs
• destroys aquatic life by reducing water volume
• may contain toxins and heavy metals  poisoning
• may contain excess nutrients  eutrophication
• very expensive to remove by dredging
Treating Polluted water
 suspended, solid particles and inorganic materials can be removed by use of filters  use
of biological filters and processes can naturally degrade the organic waste material  After
above two steps chemical additives are supplied to get rid of any left over impurities. Soil
erosion and sedimentation are necessarily linked, because ultimately most eroded soil ends up in
waterways
Major agriculture-related causes of water pollution are:
• clearing of vegetation for planting

• use of heavy equipment
• ploughing
• irrigation  overgrazing Land Use Issues
Types of Land Use
• Construction of buildings for residential use.

• Transportation network (streets, roads, parking lots, airports, railway lines, etc.) .
• Commercial sites (malls, distribution centers, mail & delivery centers, restaurants,
colleges & universities, hospitals, carwash and gas stations, etc.) .

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
74
• Recreational development (parks, playgrounds, etc.)

• Industrial Parks (factories, assembly facilities, mining, etc.) .
• Infrastructural facilities (drinking water purification, sewage treatment, electricity
production, telephone services, schools, etc.)
Impacts of Land Use
• Effects on drinking water (quantity and quality; excessive use and wastage may result in
inadequate supply; groundwater and surface water reservoirs may become contaminated)
• Destruction of habitats (altered or destroyed wetlands, reduced biodiversity in forests,
marshes, lakes, oceans, and tundra; introduction of alien or "exotic" species; damage to
vernal pools; etc.
• Introduction of toxic chemicals into ecosystems (mercury, pesticides, dioxins, PCBs, and
others)
• Reduction of open space (a lowered quality of life for people; reduced capability of
ecosystems to recover from perturbances, natural and human-based; loss of wilderness
experience)
PREVENTING WATER POLLUTION
 conserve water by turning off the tap
 mind what you throw down your sink or toilet
 don’t throw paints and oils in water channels
 use environment friendly household products, such as washing powder, household

cleaning agents
 take great care not to overuse pesticides and fertilizers
 Don’t throw litter into rivers, lakes or oceans. Help clean up any litter you see on beaches
or in rivers and lakes, make sure it is safe to collect the litter and put it in a nearby dustbin
STRATEGIES TO REDUCE WATER POLLUTION

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
75
Agricultural Strategies to Reduce Water Pollution
• use of organic or slow-release fertilizer – to reduce leaching, especially on slopes

• intercropping to reduce fertilizer use
• limited use of pesticides
• integrated pest management (IPM) and biological control to reduce pesticide use (see
below)
• planting “buffer zones” of vegetation in between fields, animal pens, and surface water to
contain leaching of fertilizer, pesticides, and manure
• composting manure so it does not end up in the water
SOIL POLLUTION
 Soil contamination or soil pollution is caused by the presence of xenobiotic

(human made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment.
It is typically caused by:
• industrial activity
• agricultural chemicals
• improper disposal of waste
Soil contaminants:
 petroleum hydrocarbons
 polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
 pesticides
 lead and other heavy metals
How to control soil pollution:
 treating wastes of industries

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
76
 treating nuclear waste
 proper disposal of plastics and other garbage materials
 limit the use of fertilizers and pesticides
 awareness about biological control methods and their implementation
 the grazing must be controlled and forest management should be done properly
 the afforestation and reforestation must take place
 Proper preventive methods like shields should be used in areas of wind erosion
and wind breaks.
Agricultural Strategies to Reduce Erosion/Sedimentation
We see that losing productive soil is doubly costly, because it reduces both terrestrial and aquatic
productivity. It’s in our best interest to conserve soil and to promote soil replenishment.
• No-till agriculture (conservation tillage) – avoid plowing altogether: slits are

made in the soil and seeds are injected. Weeds and roots of the previous crop are
left in to decay in the soil slowly. Some weeds are herbicides or removed in other
ways.
Advantages: cheaper, uses less fuel, holds more water and prevents soil compaction
• Terracing – in hilly areas, water flows straight down. By cutting “steps” along
the hillside the flow is interrupted, and some water/ sediment is held at each
terrace. Advantages: very effective traditional method
• Contour plowing – same principle as terracing, used in less hilly areas

perpendicular to a slope reduces the formation of downward paths for water to
flow Advantages: very effective, faster & cheaper

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
77
• Intercropping (strip cropping) – planting alternating rows of tall (row) and

short (cover) crops. The cover crops completely cover the ground and trap the
erosion and water from the row crops. Often nitrogen-fixing legumes are planted
to increase soil nutrients
Advantages: more pest-resistant than monocultures, reduce need for pesticide, may promote
soil fertility
• Agroforestry (alley cropping) – similar to intercropping except one or more of

the strips are trees. Several different crops are mixed together
Advantages: pest-resistant  less need for pesticide, may promote soil fertility, very
productive, traditional
• Windbreaks (shelterbelts) – reducing wind erosion by planting long rows of

trees to block the wind Advantages: timber for income, wildlife habitat, retains
soil moisture by retarding evaporation
LIGHT POLLUTION
 Light pollution, also known as photo pollution or luminous pollution, is

excessive, misdirected , or obstrusive artificial light. Pollution is the
adding of/ added light itself, in analogy to added sound, carbon dioxide,
etc.
 Light pollution causes:
• degradation of photic habitat by artificial light
• alteration of natural light levels in the outdoor environment
• due to indoor light pollution human health is compromised
CONTROL OF LIGHT POLLUTION
 Excessive lighting should be avoided
 for lighting an applicable design should be followed

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
78
 light engineering should be applied for streets
NOISE POLLUTION
 Noise pollution is displeasing or excessive noise that may disrupt the activity or
balance of human or animal life
 noise means digust or discomfort hearing from environment
Sources of noise:
 machines
 transportation system
 motor vehicles
 aircrafts
 trains
 poor urban planning
Effects of noise pollution:
 noise pollution affects both health and behavior  unwanted sound(noise) can
damage psychological health
 noise pollution can cause:
• annoyance
• aggression
• hypertension
• high stress levels

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
79
• hearing loss
• sleep disturbances and other harmful effects
 chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss
 older males exposed to significant occupational noise demonstrate significantly reduced

hearing sensitivity than their non-exposed peers
Noise pollution control
 The source path receiver concept:
 Noise pollution could be controlled by either reducing the noise at the source or by
preventing its transmission or by protecting the receiver.
 At the source: prevent the noise at the source for example; lubrication of machines
generally reduces the noise produced, tightening the loose nuts and reducing the
eccentricity generally reduces vibration and noise
 In the path: trying to prevent its transmission by modifying the path of transmission for
instance by: keeping the noisy machine covered in an enclosure so that the sound does
not escape and reach the receiver, construction of noise barriers on roadsides for the
benefit of the nearby residential communities and sound –proof the building: use heavy
curtains on the windows, acoustic tiles on the ceiling and walls, rugs on the floors, seal
all air leaks to reduce the noise coming in from outside
 Receiver: last solution if the two above does not work, then alternatively provide
earplugs in noisy places
 other strategies to control noise pollution:
• limited use of loudspeakers and amplifiers
• excursion control over noise producing vehicles
• industrial workers should be provided with ear-plugs

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
80
• delocalisation of noisy industries far away from dwelling units
• within a radius of 10 miles of airport, no buildings or factories should be allowed
• plants and trees should be planted all around the hospitals, libraries, schools and
colleges
• personal protection against noise can be taken by using, cotton plugs in the ear
BENEFITS THAT MAY BE GAINED BY THE REDUCTION OR PREVENTION OF

POLLUTION
1. Improved human health:
 reduction and prevention of pollution-related illness and pre-mature deaths
 reduction of workers stress caused by pollution
 increased worker productivity
2. Enhanced commercial or sport fishing:
 increased value of fish and shell-fish harvests
 increased sales of boats,motor,tackle and baits
 enhanced business serving fishermen
3. improved agricultural and forest production:
 reduction of pollution related damages
 more vigorous growth by removal of stress due to pollution  higher

farm profits, benefiting all agriculture related-industries
4. enhanced recreational opportunities:
 direct uses such as boating and swimming
 indirect uses such as observing wildlife

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
81
 enhanced business serving vacationers
5. Extended life time of materials and less necessity for cleaning:
 reduction of corrosive effects of pollution, extending lifetime of metals, textiles,

rubber, paint and other coatings  reduction of cleaning costs
6. enhanced real estate values:
 increased property values as the environment improves
WASTE MANAGEMENT
 Wastes: are unwanted materials or materials whose immediate alternative use may not
have been identified. Waste may be energy or matter. The waste matter may be solids,
liquids or gas
 Waste management: a whole range of means and ways of getting unwanted materials
from our immediate premise and surroundings. It is defined as the generation,prevention,
characterization, monitoring, treatment, handling, reuse and residual disposition of solid
waste
Major Categories of wastes:
1. solid waste: any unwanted or discarded material produced that is not a liquid or gas
Solid waste can be divided into two:
(a) industrial solid waste: produced by mines, farms and industries that simply supply
people with goods and services
(b) Municipal solid waste (MSW): often called garbage or trash, which consists of the
combined solid waste produced by homes and workplaces other than factories.
Examples include; paper and cardboard, food wastes, cans, bottles, yard wastes,
furniture, plastic metals, glass, wood and e-waste.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
82
2. Hazardous or toxic waste: wastes which threatens human health or the environment
because it is poisonous, dangerously chemically reactive, corrosive or flammable.
Examples include: industrial solvents, hospital medical wastes, car batteries
(containing lead and acids), household pesticide products, dry cell batteries
(containing mercury and cadmium), ash from incineration and coal burning power
plant.
Three largest classes of hazardous wastes are:
(a) organic compounds: solvents, pesticides, PCBs and dioxins
(b) Non-biodegradable toxic heavy metals: lead , mercury and arsenic
(c) highly radioactive waste produced by nuclear power plants and nuclear weapon.
How should we deal with solid waste
Approaches used:
 Waste management: attempt to control waste in ways that reduce their environmental
harm without seriously trying to reduce the amount of waste produced. It typically
involves mixing wastes together and then transferring them from one part of the
environment to another, usually by burying them, burning them or shipping them to
another location.
 waste reduction: this is where much less waste and pollution is produced, and wastes that
are produced are considered to be potential resources that can be reused, recycled or
composit.
 Integrated waste management: system that has several processes in operation. I.e. source
reduction, waste to energy, combustion, material recovery facilities, landfills and
compositing. This consists of variety of coordinated strategies for both waste disposal and
waste reduction.(as shown in the table)

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
83
First priority: Primary pollution and Second priority: secondary Last priority: waste
waste prevention pollution and waste management
prevention
Change industrial process to Re-use Treat waste o reduce toxicity

eliminate use of harmful chemicals
Use less of harmful product Repair Incinerate waste
Reduce packaging and materials in Recycle Burry waste in land fills

products
Make products that last longer and Compost Release waste into the
are recyclable, reusable or easy to environment for dispersal or
repair dilution
Buy reusable and recyclable

products
We can cut solid waste by: waste reduction is based on 3Rs
• reduce: consume less and live a simpler lifestyles
• reuse: rely more on items that we can use repeatedly instead of on throw away items, and
buy necessary items secondhand or borrow or rent them
• recycle: separate and recycle paper, glass, cans, plastics, metals and other items, and buy
products made from recyclable materials
Methods/Options of solid waste management or disposal
1. incineration (non-hazardous)
2. sanitary landfill (non-hazardous)
3. combustion waste to energy
4. recovery and recycling
5. composting

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
84
6. biotechnology
7. Land and ocean disposal (dumping)
1. landfills:
 In a landfill, the waste is put on or in the ground and is covered with earth.
besides there is no burning and because each days fill is covered with at least six
inches of earth, air pollution and population of vermin are kept down
 Often mining and extraction sites are used as landfills, providing a means to
restore land.
 Examples are: municipal solid waste landfill, bioreactor landfills, construction

and demolition debris and industrial landfills.
 there is a process used that eliminates the odors and dangers of waste before it is
placed into ground
 problems of land fills are:
• leachate generation and ground water contamination
• methane production and other land fill gases
• incomplete decomposition
• settling/siting issues
• it may occupy a lot of underground space so that future constructions may

never get a stable ground on which they can built.
2. Incineration/Burning:
 This is a type of disposal methods in which municipal solid wastes are burned at
high temperatures so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
85
 The biggest advantages of this method is that it can reduce the volume of solid
waste to 20-30% of the original volume, decreases spaces taken up and reduce
the stress on landfills
 This process is known as thermal treatment where solid waste materials are
converted by incinerators into heat, gas steam and ash.
 the process can generate fuel for heating and cooking
 the method can help to detoxify hazardous wastes and render them more suitable
for final disposal e.g. combustible carcinogens, pathogenically contaminated
materials
 drawbacks of combustion include; air pollution and offensive odors, combustion

facilities are expensive to build and their siting has the same problem as that of
landfill, combustion f ash is often loaded with metals and other hazardous
substances and must be disposed of in secure landfills, even if the process
generates electricity, the process wastes both energy and materials unless it is
augmented with recycling and recovery. To justify the cost of its combustion, the
combustion facility must have a continuous supply of Municipal Solid waste
3. Recovery and Recycling
 resource recovery is the process of taking useful discarded items for a specific
next use
 These discarded items are then processed to extract or recover materials and
resources or convert them to energy in the form of useable heat, electricity or fuel.
 Recycling is the process of converting waste products into new products to

prevent energy usage and consumption of fresh materials.
 Recycling is the third component of Reduce Reuse and Recycle waste hierarchy.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
86
 The idea behind recycling is to reduce energy usage, reduce volume of landfills,
reduce air and water pollution, reduce green house gas emissions and preserve
natural resources for the future use.
4. composting:
 this is easy and natural bio-degradation process that takes organic wastes
i.e.remains of plants and garden and kitchen waste and turns into nutrient rich
food for your plants
 composting , normally used for organic farming, occurs by allowing organic

materials to sit for months until microbes decompose it
 composting is one of the best methods of waste disposal as it can turn unsafe
organic products into safe compost
 on the other hand it is a slow process and takes a lot of space.
5. waste to energy (recover energy)
 Waste to energy (WtE) process involves converting of non-recyclbe waste items

into usable heat, electricity, fuel through a variety of processes.
 this type of source of energy is a renewable energy source as non-recyclable

waste can be used over and over again to create energy.
 it can also help to reduce carbon emissions by offsetting the need for energy from
fossil sources
 Waste- to –energy, also widely used by its acronym WtE is the generation of
energy in the form of heat or electricity from waste.
6. Solid waste management by biotechnology:
 according to biologists, bacteria and fungi are capable of decomposing organic

waste and it may be possible to recover resources by this processes

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
87
 Micro-organisms can be produced by genetic engineering. The promising

development is the isolation of bacteria which can break down polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs).
 New biodegradable plastics are important steps towards solving our solid waste
problems in respect of plastic wastes. On exposure to micro-organisms which
metabolize glucose, biodegradable polymers break down into short carbon chains
that decomposers can metabolize
 Photodegradable plastics have been developed, which breakdown on exposure to

sunlight.
II. Hazardous Waste Minimization Techniques
A. Source Reduction - hierarchy of preferable waste management options

1. Waste Reduction - reduce the amount of waste at the source
2. Waste Separation and concentration - isolate wastes from mixtures
3. Waste Exchange - transfer waste through clearing houses
4. Energy/Material recovery - reuse and recycle for the original or some other purpose
5. Incineration/Treatment - destroy, detoxify into less harmful purposes 6. Secure Land
Disposal -
B. Product Changes -
1. Product Substitution - change in the design and composition of end-products that allow
fundamental change in the manufacturing process or in the use of raw materials. There are
concerns over consumer acceptability, cost of the conversion, quality control, regulatory and
liability impacts - ex.
Reformulation of an industrial adhesive
2. Product Conservation - effective management of inventory with specialized shelf-lives
3. Changes in Product Composition - packaging a product – e.g. producing a water soluble
package for insecticides which dissolves

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
88
C. Source Control
1. Input Material Changes
a. Material Substitution - ex. disposable wipes vs. reusable shop towels
b. Material Purification - ex. adding a substance to restore acid acceptance levels for vapor
degreasing solvents
2. Technology Changes
a. Process Change - use of single solvent systems instead of multiple solvents which will
generate a single waste stream
b. Equipment, Piping or Layout Changes - ex. electronics plant uses a specially designed
machine with rotating brushes that scrubbed the copper sheet with pumice
c. Automation - bar codes can improve the accuracy of tracking and inventory and prevent
materials from being lost
3. Good Operating Practices
a. Procedural Measures - screening all materials coming into an industrial plant. Hazardous
materials experts must approve its acquisition
b. Materials Loss Prevention - a hazardous material will become a RCRA hazardous waste when
spilled. There should be a loss prevention program (pg. 204)
c. Management practices - proper maintenance procedures
d. Segregating Waste Streams - (a) prevent mixing of hazardous wastes with nonhazardous
wastes (b) isolate hazardous by containment (c) isolate liquid wastes from solid wastes
e. Material Handing Improvement - reduce wastewater volumes
f. Product Scheduling - optimize production schedules
D. Hazardous Waste Recycling - the effective use or reuse of a waste as a substitute for a
commercial product or to use a waste as an ingredient in an industrial process. Ex. the
distillation of spent solvents
1. Use and Reuse
a. Return of a Waste to the Original Process- black newspaper ink from waste inks
b. Substitution for Raw Material in Another Process -
2. Reclamation

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
89
a. Process Hazardous Waste for Product Recovery - recover silver from rinse water in a film
processing unit .The rinse water can be discharged through te sewer once the silver is removed
b. Processing Hazardous Waste as a By-Product - wastewater used for irrigation, sludge used as a
fertilizer. Waste exchange programs serve as a clearing house for data on available wastes and
raw materials needed. Waste exchanges have enjoyed limited acceptance.
TOPIC SEVEN : ENVIRONMENTAL LAW
 Basic concepts in environmental law
 EMCA,1999
 Principles of environmental law
 Global environmental Agreements
Environmental law: is principally concerned with ensuring a sustainable utilization of natural

resources according to a number of fundamental principles developed over years through both
municipal and international processes.
Principles of environmental laws:
 principles of sustainability
 principles of intergeneration equity
 principles of prevention
 the precautionary principle
 principles of public participation
 polluter pays principle
1. Principle of sustainability:

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
90
• requires that the natural resources should be utilized in a way and at a rate that does
not lead to the long term decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its
potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations
• it strives for equity in the allocation of the benefits of development and decries short
–term resource exploitation which does not consider the long term costs of such
exploitation
• in short, it advocates for prudent utilization of natural resources
2. The principle of intergenerational equity:
• the intergenerational equity focuses on the future generations as a rightful

beneficiary of environmental protection
• essentially ,the principle of intergenerational equity advocate fairness, so that

present generations do not leave future generations worse off by the choices they
make today regarding development
• Its implementation requires the utilization of natural resources in a sustainable

manner while avoiding irreversible environmental damage.
3. The principle of prevention:
• It states that” protection of the environment is best achieved by preventing

environmental harm in the first place rather than relying on remedies or
compensation for such harm after it has occurred.
• The reason behind this principle is that prevention is less costly than allowing
environmental damage to occur and then taking the mitigation measures
• At the international level, this principle has been particularly prominent in the
context of pollution.
4. The precautionary principle:

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
91
• It recognizes the limitation of science, as it is not always able to accurately predict

the likely environmental impacts of resource utilization. Thus environmental
problems occurring today such as ozone depletion and climate change were not
foreseen in good times by scientists.
• it thus calls for precaution in making of environmental decisions where there is

scientific uncertainty
• accordingly it is a closely related to the principle of prevention and can be viewed

as the application of the principle of prevention where scientific understanding of
a specific environmental threat is complete
• this principle requires that all reasonable measures must be taken to prevent the
possible deleterious environmental consequences of the development activities,
• Further, it demands that scientific uncertainty should not be used as a reason for
not taking cost-effective measures to prevent environmental problems.
• it stresses the need for EIA for any activity to ensure that adverse impacts of
proposed activities on the environment can be dealt with
5. The polluter pays principle:
• it requires that polluters of natural resources should bear the full environmental
and social costs of their activities
• It thus seeks to internalize environmental externalities by ensuring that the full

environmental and social costs of resource utilization are reflected in the ultimate
market price for the products of such utilization.
• since environmentally harmful products will tend to cost more, this principle
promotes efficient and sustainable resource allocation as consumers are likely to
prefer cheaper less polluting substitutes of such products
6. Principle of public participation:

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
92
• It seeks to ensure environmental democracy and requires that the public,

especially local communities, should participate in the environment and
development decisions that affect their lives.
• It requires that the public should have appropriate access to information

concerning the environment that is held by the public authorities, and should be
given an opportunity to participate in decision making processes.
• It requires that the public should be given effective access to judicial and
administrative proceedings.
• Accordingly, the public should have access to the judicial review of

environmental decision making.
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND COORDINATION ACT,1999
Environmental Management and Coordination Act, 1999 Assented to in1999 and commenced in
2000. An ACT of Parliament to provide for the establishment of an appropriate legal and
institutional framework for the management of the environment and for the matters
connected therewith and incidental thereto. EMCA, 1999
EMCA, 1999 Institutions under EMCA
NEMA: National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) is to exercise general

supervision and co-ordination over all matters relating to the environment and to be the principal
instrument of Government in the implementation of all policies relating to the environment/
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT COUNCIL: responsible for policy formulation directions for the
purposes of the Act. The Council also sets national goals and objectives, and determines policies
and priorities for the protection of the environment.
PROVINCIAL AND DISTRICT ENVIRONMENT COMMITTEES: Contribute to

decentralization of environmental management and enable participation of local communities.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
93
EMCA, 1999 PUBLIC COMPLAINTS COMMITTEE: provides the administrative mechanism

for addressing environmental harm.
Section 58 of EMCA requires an ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT LICENSE
EIA REGULATIONS (2) No licensing authority under any law in force in Kenya shall issue a
licence for any project for which an environmental impact assessment is required under the Act
unless the applicant produces to the licensing authority a licence of environmental impact
assessment issued by the Authority under these Regulations. Regulation 4 (3) states that “No
licensing authority under any law in force in Kenya shall issue a trading, commercial or
development permit or license for any micro project activity likely to have cumulative
significant negative environmental impact before it ensures that a strategic environmental plan
encompassing mitigation measures and approved by the Authority is in place”.
NOISE REGULATIONS, 2009 These Regulations prohibit a production of any loud,

unreasonable, unnecessary or unusual noise which annoys, disturbs, injures or endangers the
comfort, repose, health or safety of others and the environment.
WETLAND REGULATIONS, 2009
Specific sections have requirements that apply to wetlands in Kenya either in private or public
land. The regulations empower the District Environment Committee to co-ordinate, monitor and
advise on all aspects of wetland resource management within the district.
WATER QUALITY REGULATIONS
This includes the following:

•Protection of sources of water for domestic use;
•Water for industrial use and effluent discharge;
•Water for agricultural use. These Regulations outline:
•Quality standards for sources of domestic water;
•Quality monitoring for sources of domestic water;
•Standards for effluent discharge into the environment;

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
94
•Monitoring guide for discharge into the environment;
•Standards for effluent discharge into public sewers.
License to discharge to the environment.
WASTE MANAGEMENT REGULATIONS

These Regulations apply to all categories of waste. These include:
•Industrial wastes;
•Hazardous and toxic wastes;
•Pesticides and toxic substances;

•Biomedical wastes;
•Radio-active substances. These regulations outline requirements for handling, storing,

transporting, and treatment/ disposal of all waste categories. Disposal of waste by NEMA
licensed company.
CONTROLLED SUBSTANCES
These are basically ozone depleting gases
One needs a license to:
•Produce Controlled Substances.
•Import Controlled Substances. Transport Controlled Substances through Kenya. Export

Controlled Substances.
THE EMCA (CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY RESOURCES, ACCESS TO

GENETIC RESOURCES AND BENEFIT SHARING) REGULATIONS, 2006
Environmental Impact Assessment License to:

•Engage in activities with an adverse impact on any ecosystem; lead to the introduction of any
exotic species; lead to unsustainable use of natural resources, Any person who intends to access
genetic resources in Kenya needs an Access permit for genetic resources in Kenya with a
certificate from
National Council for Science and Technology

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
95
Other Important Acts

 Local Authority Act (Cap. 265)
 Physical Planning Act, 1999
 Land Planning Act (Cap. 303)
 Water Act, 2002
 Electricity Power Act No. 11 of 1997
 Building Code 2000
 Penal Code Act (Cap.63)
 Role and objectives of NEMA are to

 Coordinate various environmental management activities undertaken by lead agencies
 Promote integration of environmental considerations into development policies, plans,

programs and projects for sound environmental management
 Take stock of natural resources, their utilization and conservation in Kenya
 Establish and review land use guidelines in consultation with relevant lead agencies
 Examine land use patterns
 Carry out surveys to assist in the proper management and conservation of the
environment, among others
NEMA Management Board

 NEMA is managed by a Board consisting of Chair appointed by President, PS
responsible for matters relating to the Authority, DG appointed by the President, 3
directors who are officers of the Authority, seven members who are not public servants
appointed by the minister in consultation with the council and secretary to the Board
appointed by the Authority

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
96
 Term is renewable period of four years for all the members and Board shall hold at least
four meetings annually
 Qualifications of all the members except the PS and secretary to the Board is
postgraduate degree in environmental law, environmental science, natural resources or
social science
 DG must have at least postgraduate degree in Environmental law, environmental science,

natural resource management or relevant social science and at least fifteen years working
experience in relevant field
 DG is the CEO of NEMA responsible for the day to day management of the Authority’s
affairs
MULTILATERAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS
 Definition: A multilateral agreement is a treaty signed by and binding upon more than
two states. Many multilateral agreements create international institutions or international
organizations.
 Effective management of shared environmental resources requires regional and

international cooperation
 given the limited resources for environmental management, Kenya can benefit
significantly by committing herself to trans-boundary issues through increased funding
from regional and international cooperation
 Kenya is party to a number of multilateral and regional environmental agreements. These

agreements are important in providing a framework for conservation of shared resources
between countries.
 Examples of such MEAs and regional instruments include;
 The convention on biological diversity (CBD),

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
97
 convention on wetlands of international importance especially as waterfowl

Habitat (Ramsar convention),
 convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES),
 The convention on migratory species (CMS),
 The World Heritage Convention,
 The Nairobi Convention
 United nations Framework Convention on Climate change (UNFCC) and
 The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
 Kenya is also an actor in UNESCO’s man and biosphere programme. Regionally, Kenya
plays a key role in both the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and
East African community and the associated protocols.
 In addition, Kenya is cooperating with other riparian states under the Nile basin initiative
(NBI) to ensure sustainable use of the Lake Victoria waters.
 MEAs and regional instruments are not self-executive and they cannot function in the
absence of their domestication. To achieve this, the following should be done:
 establish and strengthen coordination mechanisms to ensure consistent

negotiations, implementation and reporting of the MEAs and regional agreements
 Harmonize regional policies dealing with environmental resources
 promote and support the establishment of trans-boundary and/or trans-frontier

environmental protection, conservation and management initiatives as a basis of
enhancing the conservation of shared resources and their ecosystems through
relevant MEAs and regional instruments
 Keep a register of all MEAs and regional instruments to which Kenya is a party
and ensure their domestication and effective implementation and reporting.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
98
MEAs and MDGs BEING IMPLEMENTED IN KENYA
1. Ramsar Convention
 Ramsar convention otherwise known as the convention on conservation of

waterfowl and waterfowl habitats was signed in the city of Ramsar in Iran in the
year 1971
 Kenya is a contracting party to the Ramsar having ratified the treaty in 1974.
 The convention requires that the contracting parties undertake to prepare wetland
management plans and declare wetland areas as Ramsar conservation areas and
apply the guidelines put out by the convention for the conservation of such site
for other wetlands but also to declare wetlands as national parks, reserves and
wetland conservation areas
 Kenya has many such wetlands both fresh water and marine wetland with
potential for declaration as Ramsar sites. Recent inclusion in the list of Ramsar in
Kenya includes Tana River, lake Jipe and Lake Kanyaboli.
2. The convention on Migratory Species.
 Kenya is a signatory to the convention, which requires that the contracting parties
respect and conserve the migratory route and resting areas of migrants’ species.
 There are several species of birds, fish and sea mammals which only visit Kenya
at certain times of the year or appear in the coastal areas for nesting.
 some of such species are the sea turtles, dugongs, whales and sharks and the
migratory birds’ such species require that their habitat of temporary aboard while
on transit or breeding are protected.
 Kenya has declared some habitats as internationally important bird areas (IBAs),
tana Delta, Yala swamp, Saiwa swamps are such IBAs in Kenya.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
99
3. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna

(CiTES)
 Convention on International Trade in Endangered species of Wild Flora and Fauna also
known as CITES, which Kenya is a signatory prohibits trade or traffic of species of flora
and fauna which has been listed in what the convention describes as the appendices (I,II
and III).
 Appendix I, lists the species of organisms threatened with extinction and whose trade is
completely banned except in exceptional circumstances or the convention
 Appendix II, lists species not threatened with extinction but whose state may be
threatened if their trade is not strictly controlled at international levels
 Appendix III lists species that a contracting party feels its state is threatened with its
own jurisdiction and requires the cooperation of the members to manage trade as
international level.
 Kenya has approximately 159 species of plant considered threatened, 38% are found in
coast province, 71% species of birds threatened 27% found in coast province, 9 of the
threatened mammals 55% are found in coast province.
4. Conservation of biological Diversity
 Kenya is a signatory to the convention on conservation of Biodiversity (CBD)

which provides for fair and sustainable use of biodiversity resources` including
sharing the benefits out of use of the biological resources.
 The convention provides for recognition of those with the indigenous knowledge
providing them with access to resources and technologies to enable developing
countries benefit from their genetic resources.
 In order to domesticate this convention, Kenya has developed a biodiversity

strategy and has been accounting for its biodiversity to the CBD on a regular
basis.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
100
5. African Convention of the conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
 The African Convention for conservation of Nature and Natural resources

requires contracting parties to designate conservation areas within their waters
with the coming into the effect of the convention and provide a zonation plan in
order to conserve the protected areas.
 Kenya has had a long history of designating parks and reserves and to date several
management strategies including the integrated coastal zone Management (ICZM)
have been formulated for the conservation of the coastal zone/area.
6. United Nations Environmental Programme
 United Nations Environment programme came into being after the Stockholm
conference in 1972.
 Kenya participated and signed the convention. Through this conference UNEP
was born as well as the regional seas programmes. This resulted into several
activities that have been significance to the coastal region, promotion of regional
cooperation on the control of marine pollution and for the protection and
management of aquatic resources
 In addition, UNEP coordinates the environmental assessment ad reporting through

the state of the Environment reports, and more recently the global environmental
outlooks.
7. United Nation Framework on Convention of Climate Change (UNFCCC)
 United nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) came into

force during the earth summit in 1992 and followed by the Kyoto protocol in
1997.
 Kenya is a signatory to the UNFCCC and has ratified the convention among
many others, including the Kyoto protocol and many other subsequent protocols

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
101
 Since the signing of the convention, Kenya has achieved considerable miles
towards meeting the objectives of the protocol including development of National
Climate change response strategy (NCCRS), National Action plan on climate
change and National climate change adaptation Plan.
TOPIC EIGHT : ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
 What is EIA?
 Importance of EIA
 Impact assessment methods
 EIA process
 EIA is a tool used for decision making regarding developmental projects and
programmes.
 a formal process used to predict the environmental consequences of any

development projects.
 EIA ensures that the potential problems are foreseen and addressed at an early
stage in the project planning and design
EIA is considered as a project management tool for collecting and analyzing

information on the environmental effects of a project. As such, it is used to:
 identify potential environmental impacts,
 examine the significance of environmental implications,
 assess whether impacts can be mitigated,
 recommend preventive and corrective mitigating measures,
 inform decision makers and concerned parties about the environmental

implications, and
 Advise whether development should go ahead.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
102
 In EIA systems there are sequence of activities implemented in project in a

logical sequence and are termed as EIA process.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
80

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
104
Project screening Not all development projects require EIA. Project screening will help identify
the ones that actually do. Here in this section describes the various screening criteria.
Scoping The process of scoping helps determine the coverage or 'scope' of the EIA. It involves
identifying key issues and concerns of interested parties.the major objectives being ;to identify
who is concerned, to identify what their concerns are,to identifywy they are concerned and
identify the threshold of the concern
Project description and consideration of alternatives
Brief explanation on the concept of baseline data collection and its purposes.
Identification of environmental impacts Various types of environmental impacts of

development projects both beneficial and adverse are identified.
Impact prediction comparison of alternatives and determination of significance. This covers the
considerations for impact prediction, uncertainties in impact prediction and comparison of
alternatives for impact prediction.
Mitigation measures Described briefly under this section are the concept and objectives, types
and interesting points, of mitigation measures. It involves reviewing proposed actions to prevent
or minimize the potential adverse effects of the project,
Public consultation and participation Public participation is a necessary component of the

EIA. "Who are the public?", "How to involve them?", and "What are the benefits/disbenefits?"
The answers can be found under this section.
Environmental Monitoring
Environmental monitoring is defined as "an activity undertaken to provide specific information

on the characteristics and functions of environmental and social variables in space and time."
Environmental Auditing

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
105
Auditing refers to the examination and assessment of a certain type of performance. In the case
of an EIA, an audit assess the actual environmental impact, the accuracy of prediction, the
effectiveness of environmental impact mitigation and enhancement measures, and the
functioning of monitoring mechanisms.
The audit should be undertaken upon a project run in operation, for some time, and is usually
performed once or twice in the entire project cycle.
EIA Review and Report
Assess adequacies of issues addressed. Report on the methodologies used, results, interpretation
and conclusions.
Table: EIA benefits and flaws
Flaws
Benefits
Provides systematic methods of impact Time-consuming

assessment
Estimates the cost/benefit trade-off of Costly
alternative actions
Facilitates the public participation Little public participation in actual
implementation
Provides an effective Unavailability for reliable data (mostly
mechanism for coordination in developing countries)
environmental integration
negotiations feed back
Too focused on scientific

Top-level decision making analysis(sometimes)

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
106
Triggers an institutional building Poor presentation of EIA report(bulky
volumes, scientific explanation, difficult
to understand)
Achieve a balance between the impact of Compliance monitoring after EIA is
developmental and environmental concern seldom carried out
Reasons for using EIA
EIA has been developed as a result of the failure of traditional project appraisal techniques to
account for environmental impacts, resulting in: higher costs, failure of projects, significant
environmental change, and negative social effects.
Despite differences in individual EIA systems throughout the world, the EIA process shares
certain aims:
To provide decision-makers with analysis of the total environment so that decisions can be made
based on as nearly complete and balanced information as possible.
To assess and present intangible /unquantifiable effects that are not adequately addressed by
cost/benefit analysis and other technical reports. To provide information to the public on a
proposal.
To formalize the consideration of alternatives to a proposal being considered, in order that the
least environmentally harmful means of achieving the given objective can be chosen. To
improve the design of new developments and safeguard the environment through the application
of mitigation and avoidance measures. EIA is considered as a project management tool for
collecting and analyzing information on the environmental effects of a project.
As such, it is used to:
• Identify potential environmental impacts.
• Predict likely changes on the environment as a result of development

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
107
• Generate baseline data for monitoring and evaluation of the application of mitigation
measures during the project cycle
• Examine the significance of environmental implications.
• Assess whether impacts can be mitigated and propose mitigation measures for the
significant negative impacts of the project on the environment Recommend preventive
and corrective mitigating measures,
• Inform decision makers and concerned parties about the environmental implications
• Advise whether development should go ahead.
• Highlight environmental issues with a view to guiding policy makers, planners,

stakeholders and government agencies to make environmentally and economically
sustainable decisions
Environmental Auditing and monitoring
Environmental audit is the systematic documented, periodic and objective evaluation of

activities and processes of an ongoing project to determine how far these activities and programs
conform to the approved environmental management plan. A comprehensive EA promotes safe
and healthy environment at all stages of a project operations, as well as during project
decommissioning. The Goal of EA therefore is to establish if proponents are complying with
environmental requirements and enforcing legislation. After the initial audit of an ongoing
project, the proponent is required to carry out a self auditing study on the annual basis and
submit the report to the Authority.
BENEFITS OF USING EIA
 Reduced cost and time of project implementation
 cost saving modifications in project design

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
108
 increased project acceptance
 avoid impacts and violations of laws and regulations
 improved project performance
 avoid waste treatment/clean up expenses
The benefits to local communities from taking part in environmental impact assessment
include:
 a healthier local environment(forests, water sources, agricultural potential, recreation

potential, aesthetic values, and clean living in urban areas)
 improved human health
 maintenance of biodiversity
 decreased resource use
 fewer conflicts over natural resource use
 improved community skills, knowledge and pride
PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT IN EIA
Public involvement is a fundamental principle of the EIA process.
•This term includes public consultation (or dialogue) and public participation, which is a more
interactive and intensive process of stakeholder engagement.
•Timely, well planned and appropriately implemented public involvement programmes will
contribute to EIA studies and to the successful design, implementation, operation and
management of proposals.

lOMoARcPSD|30011525
109
Specifically public involvement is a valuable source of information on key impacts, potential
mitigation measures and the identification and selection of alternatives.
•It also ensures the EIA process is open, transparent and robust, characterised by defensible
analysis.
The purpose of public participation:
 To inform the stakeholders about the proposal and its likely effects
 To consolidate their inputs, views and concerns; and
 To take account of the information and views of the public in the EIA and decision
making
 reduce conflict through the early identification of contentious issues;
 provide an opportunity for the public to influence project design in a positive manner
(thereby creating a sense of ownership of the proposal);
 improve transparency and accountability of decision-making; and
 Increase public confidence in the EIA process.
Key objectives of public participation are:
a) Obtain local and traditional knowledge that may be useful for decision- making;
b) Facilitate consideration of alternatives, mitigation measures and tradeoffs;
c) Ensure that important impacts are not overlooked and benefits are maximised;

PATROBAS 2111-Environmental-Studies-Notes-2023

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PATROBAS 2111-Environmental-Studies-Notes-2023

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

lOMoARcPSD|30011525

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

• BASIC CONCEPTS IN ECOLOGY

• POLLUTION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

• ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK

Downloaded by Patrobas Andes (wafulawamwalwa@gmail.com)

Definitions and concepts

The objectives of environmental science/studies include:

• To promote environmental awareness

• To investigate environmental pollution

• To understand environmental safety

• To promote proper waste disposal

• To conform with legal aspects of the environment • Goals of environmental

• To learn how life on earth has survived and thrives

• To understand how we interact with the environment

Downloaded by Patrobas Andes (wafulawamwalwa@gmail.com)

Other goals include:

• To raise consciousness about environmental conditions

• to teach environmentally appropriate behavior

• To create environmental ethics that fosters awareness about the ecological

Qualities of environmental education

• It is evolving to be education for sustainable and ethical development at local and

• Knowledge of environment is not an end but rather beginning

• It does not advocate a particular view or course of action.

The Importance of studying the environment in the present day context:

Downloaded by Patrobas Andes (wafulawamwalwa@gmail.com)

• sink; for receiving wastes produced by man and his activities

• Eutrophic : the task of decomposing wastes produced by consumption and

• Exploitative: cropping of plants, extraction of minerals and hunting of animals

• Disruptive: Brought about by activities like deforestation, construction of

• Chemical and industrial : stress which results from industrial development

• Physical environment: refers to geographical climate and weather or physical

• Social environment: includes individual’s social, economic and political

• Psychological environment: It enables us to understand the personality of the

COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

• Non living components

• Lithosphere(Rocks, soils and solid air)

Downloaded by Patrobas Andes (wafulawamwalwa@gmail.com)

• Atmosphere(thin spherical envelope of gases surrounding the earth surfaces)

• Living components or biotic components

Downloaded by Patrobas Andes (wafulawamwalwa@gmail.com)

• consists of flora and fauna including man

• This includes solar energy, geo-chemical energy, Thermal electrical, Hydro-

CONCEPTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES/SCIENCE

Steps our government is taking to ensure environmental sustainability include:

• to protect water resources through catchment management initiatives

• solid waste management system and plastic bag initiative

• reduce the rate of deforestation and increase national forest cover

• address issue of trans-boundary pollution and reduction in the consumption of

Downloaded by Patrobas Andes (wafulawamwalwa@gmail.com)

• Biodiversity: short term for biological diversity; is the astounding variety of

• Chemical cycling/ Nutrient cycling: is the circulation of chemicals from the

Principles of sustainable development:

• addressing the root cause of problems and not symptoms

• pursuing ethical business (corporate social responsibility)

• Conducting EIA, Auditing, monitoring and Evaluation

Downloaded by Patrobas Andes (wafulawamwalwa@gmail.com)

• Ensuring Equity and social welfare(gender equity)

• Focusing on needs and not wants

• Participatory decision making(partnership, collaboration and networking)

• Respect for indigenous knowledge

• stewardship as opposed to utilitarian