Interaction of Mechanical and Physiological Factors in Relation To Muscle Function

MOVEMENT SCIENCE | MODULE 2
INTERACTION OF MECHANICAL
AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS • Type II
IN RELATION TO MUSCLE - Paler bc it contains fewer
FUNCTION mitochondria & small
amounts of myoglobin
Muscle Fiber Types - A.K.A fast-twitch, phasic, or
- Type I, II, IIa, IIb fast glycolytic or fast
- Most skeletal mm contain a oxidative glycolytic
mixture of both types, w/ the - Larger in diameter than type
proportion of 1 type more I
predominant than the other - Predominant at birth (quick
type in a mm. jerky movements of a baby)
- Movement mms (gastric,
Motor unit hamstrings, UE flexors)
- Functional unit of mm produce force & power
contraction rapidly but have low
- Includes the alpha motor endurance
nerve and all of the mm - Produce force & power
fibers that it innervates rapidly but have low
- Can be classified based on endurance. Therefore, they
contractile speed can’t sustain activity for
prolonged periods
• Type I - Muscles: nonpostural /
- A.K.A slow-twitch tonic or mobility muscles:
slow oxidative bc these fibers gastrocnemius, hamstrings,
depend on aerobic or upper extremity flexors
oxidative energy metabolism
- Dark  Type IIa
- Contains large numbers of - Fast oxidative glycolytic
mitochondria & a high - A transition fiber type
concentration of myoglobin between the slow oxidative
*Myoglobin – mm hemoglobin type I and the fast glycolytic
that stores oxygen type IIb since it possesses
- Innervated by small diameter characteristics of each
axons of the motor nerve &
are recruited after type I &  Type IIb
type IIa - Fast glycolytic
Ex. Postural mm: soleus, - Develop greater contraction
peroneals, quadriceps, gluteals, force and complete a single
rectus abdominis, UE extensors, twitch in a significantly
erector spinae, short cervical shorter time than type I
flexors (vital for stabilizing the Ex. Biceps brachii (involved in large
body in positions e.g., standing for or quick bursts of activity)
long periods of time)
Muscle Activity & Strength

Muscle contraction – occurs when
several motor units fire
asynchronously, and the
magnitude of that mm contraction
is dependent upon the # of motor
units firing & how often they fire
Muscle Activation - A muscle is able

to produce different types of
muscle tension, either with or
without movement
• %s of pure type IIb decreases &
the %s of type IIa increase w/
endurance training. Types of Muscle Contraction
• Type I become faster & type II • Isometric
convert to slower, more oxidative - mm produces force w/ no
types w/ endurance exercise apparent change in the jt
• Type I become more plenty & angle
slower w/ deconditioning - isos: equal, metron: measure
- called static or holding
Questions: contractions
1.Which among the muscle - stabilizes the jt during
fibers will produce the greatest functional activities
force
- Type IIb Ex. To reach forward with the
hand, the scapula must be
2.Which among the muscle stabilized against the thorax.
fibers is slow to fatigue? Fast
to fatigue? • Concentric
- slow, I; fast, II - Shortening of the mm
- A.K.A positive work
3.Which among the muscle - Occurs as the mm shortens &
fibers is used to maintain the mm’s proximal & distal
posture? insertion pts move closer
- Type I towards each other
- Produces acceleration of
• Type I & IIb are opposite to each body segments
other, while IIa is a blend of the
two Ex. (a) The quadriceps mm when a
• As we age, muscle fibers also person rises from a chair, (b)
change with a reduction in the elbow flexors when a person lifts a
amount of type II glass of water to her mouth
• Eccentric mm was constant throughout

- Mm lengthens during the excursion
activation - Seldom occur when mms are
- A.K.A negative work acting thru the lever systems
- Occurs as the mm lengthens of the body
& the mm’s pts of insertion - Contraction that causes a jt
move away from each other to move thru some ROM (ex.
- Often occurs against gravity Flexing the elbow while
as the mm controls the speed holding a weight in the hand)
w/ which gravity moves the
jt • Isokinetic
- Decelerates body segments & - Contraction occurs when the
provides shock absorption as rate of movement is constant
when landing from a jump or - During isokinetic exercise,
in walking the resistance accommodates
the external force at the
Ex. (a) Quadriceps activates skeletal lever so that the mm
eccentrically when the body moves maintains maximum output
from standing to sitting, (b) elbow throughout the full ROM
flexors when lowering the glass of
water from the mouth to table *Isometric & Isotonic activities are
sometimes referred to as
*Positive work (concentric) – force contractions
exerted by the mm to produce *Shortening doesn’t occur in
movement of a jt; the motion is isometric and eccentric activity
produced by the mm
If you are to relate the different
*Negative work (eccentric) – types of muscle contraction to an
occurs when an outside force external resistance that you are to
produces jt motion while the mm give to a person, please remember
controls the rate at which that that:
motion occurs; an external force • In concentric contraction, the
(often gravity) is responsible for force generated by the muscle
motion that is done to the mm should be greater than the
during negative work external resistance (concentric
force > resistance)
• Isotonic • In isometric contraction, the
- Contraction of a mm force generated by the muscle
detached from the body & should be equal with the external
lifting a load vertically resistance (Isometric force =
against gravity resistance)
- Shortening of the mm • In eccentric contraction, the
occurred & the load on the external resistance overcomes the
force generated by the muscle sh flexes & the elbow flexes when
(eccentric force < resistance) the biceps contracts.
Muscle Anatomic Activity • In a closed chain activity: if the

- Anatomical designs that distal segment of a mm’s
influence how a mm reacts to attachment is stabilized, then the
simulation & also how a mm proximal segment is the moving
performs during functional end of the mm.
activities. • When the proximal end is
stabilized and the elbow flexes, the
These factors can predict activated biceps produces a
muscle function when all of the concentric force; however, when
following conditions are the elbow extends with gravity, the
present: biceps produce an eccentric force
1. The proximal attachment is
stabilized Reasons why anatomic actions of
2. The distal attachment moves muscles cannot fully explain the
toward the proximal actions/movements that the
attachment (concentric muscle can produce during
contraction) functional activities:
3. The distal segment moves - Muscles perform functional
against gravity or a activity conjointly, either with
resistance the assistance of other
4. The muscle acts alone. muscles acting as synergists
* These circumstances rarely occur or with other muscles
in normal function. assisting joint or segmental
4. What are the reasons why stabilization.
anatomic actions of muscles - Since gravity plays a
cannot fully explain the profound role in functional
actions/movements that the activities, it is interesting to
muscle can produce during realize that muscles that are
functional activities? named for their function and
⁃ THE CIRCUMSTANCES ABOVE the joint they cross may not
(1-4) RARELY OCCUR IN be the muscles that perform
NORMAL FUNCTION. the activity.
Activity production occurs with the

• If the proximal biceps brachii realization that movement results
attachment is stabilized, the elbow from the of modification of these
will flex when the mm activates factors:
• When any mm contracts, it 1. Proximal attachments often
shortens at both ends, so if neither move toward fixed distal
end of the biceps is stabilized, the attachments (closed kinematic
chain)
2. Contractions can be concentric, lengthening to allow the movement

eccentric, or isometric to occur.
3. Movement of the distal segment
is often assisted by the force of • Synergist
gravity - A mm that contracts at the
4. Muscles seldom if ever act alone same time as the agonist
—they more often act with other - It may provide identical or
muscles. nearly identical activity to
that of the agonist
• Eccentric force production of Ex. The brachioradialis working
mms commonly occurs during with the brachialis during elbow
functional antigravity activity. flexion obstructs an unwanted
action of the agonist.
Ex. When the wrist extensors
Muscle Functional Activity prevent wrist flexion when the long
Classifications of Muscles According finger flexors contract to grasp an
to Roles: object. This type of synergistic
• Agonist activity is a common functional
- Prime movers feature of mms that perform more
- Principle muscle producing a than one motion.
motion or maintaining a
posture Ex. Wrist radial deviation: flexor
- Actively contracts to produce carpi radialis performs both wrist
a concentric, eccentric, or flexion and radial abduction;
isometric contraction. similarly, the extensor carpi radialis
longus performs both wrist
• Antagonist extension and radial abduction.
- A muscle or a muscle group When frontal plane radial abduction
that provides the opposite occurs, both muscles act
anatomic action of the synergistically to radially abduct
agonist the wrist while the extension and
- During functional activities, flexion actions of the muscles are
it’s usually inactive during neutralized.
the activity so it neither
contributes to nor resists the - Another way synergists act is
activity, but its passive to stabilize proximal joints for
elongation or shortening distal jt movement. When
allows the desired activity to synergists act in this manner,
occur. they work isometrically at jts
Ex. When a fork is brought to the that aren’t being moved by
mouth, the biceps is the agonist the agonists to stabilize the
providing the movement while the proximal jt, allowing the
triceps is the antagonist that desired motion at the more
remains relaxed, passively distal segment to occur.
stabilize the upper extremity to

*Mms work more often as allow your firm grip to occur.
synergists than as agonists or • Another exercise example is a
antagonists sit-up. Lie supine with your lower
extremities fully extended and your
* When an agonist contracts, its hands on top of your head.
force causes both its proximal & Attempt to do a sit-up and notice
distal attachments to move. that both your trunk and your legs
lift off the surface. The hip flexors,
* To prevent movement of the mm like other muscles, contract at both
from both of its attachments & ends, so if one end is not
allow the desired movement to stabilized, both ends of the muscle
occur, one of the muscle’s move.
attachment sites must be
stabilized. • Triceps brachii and the biceps-
brachialis muscles during the
Stabilizers/Fixators – important motions of elbow flexion and
factors of joint motion; without extension: When the seated
them, agonistic movement is subject flexes the elbow to lift a
inefficient & ineffective load in the hand, the elbow flexors
contract concentrically as agonists.
During squat exercise: The antagonistic extensors are
The antagonist (hamstrings) works relaxed to elongate and permit
more as a synergist to the elbow flexion motion. As the elbow
quadriceps, not providing the extends to lower the load to the
movement but stabilizing the joint side, the flexors perform an
to permit the agonist’s desired eccentric activity and are still
motion of knee flexion to occur. classified as agonists. The
This rationale makes intuitive extensors remain inactive and are
sense since if an agonist and an still the antagonists.
antagonist both contracted with
comparable force, movement could • However, when the subject
not occur. moves to supine with the shoulder
in 90o of flexion and performs the
• One quick exercise is to close the same motions of elbow flexion and
hand into a very firm grip; you are extension, the agonist-antagonist
able to palpate tension not only in relationships are reversed. Here,
the finger flexors within the the elbow extensors are the
anterior forearm, but also in the agonists for elbow flexion
posterior forearm, biceps and (eccentric contraction) and for
triceps in the arm, and even the elbow extension (concentric
shoulder muscles. These muscles contraction), while the flexors are
all contract isometrically to the antagonists and remain relaxed
for both motions.
• An interesting switch in the

agonistic-antagonistic classification
also occurs with these same
motions of elbow flexion and
extension when the subject is in 5. Differentiate the following
supine with the arm at the side. classifications of muscles
Now the biceps-brachialis muscles according to roles:•Agonist
are the agonists for the first part of •Antagonist •Synergist –Note:
elbow flexion, but as the elbow use your anatomy background
passes 90deg, the direction of the to describe the synergist and to
resistance force changes, and the differentiate it from the fixator
triceps becomes the agonist. The •Fixator
agonist for elbow extension from
this position to 90deg is the - Agonist: prime mover,
triceps, but once the elbow moves muscle that contracts
on the other side of to 90deg, the - Antagonist: muscle that
elbow flexors (eccentric relaxes
contraction) control the elbow - Synergist: muscle that helps
movement to the start position. the agonist to do the
This change in responsibility movement; assists the
changes with gravity’s pull on the agonist
weight and the relative position of - Fixator: stabilizes certain
the center of mass to the pull of part of the body while motion
gravity. is happening
• The biceps acts as an agonist in MUSCLE CHARACTERISTICS

supination (along with the - Forces applied to muscles
supinator), and the triceps acts as produce stresses to those
a synergist to prevent elbow muscles.
flexion.
Stress
- A force or load that is applied to
• When a muscle has multiple
a body, segment, or muscle.
functions like the biceps but only - May occur as compression,
one of its motions is desired, the distraction, shear, torsional,
antagonist to the undesired motion bending, twisting, or any
is often recruited to serve as a combination of these stresses.
synergist so the undesired motion
is prevented from occurring. • Viscosity
- The resistance to an external
force that causes a permanent
deformation.
- A term that is usually applied to
fluids.
- Human tissue also has viscosity.

Clinicians use the fact that - Tissue that has viscoelasticity
elevating temperature reduces has the ability to resist
viscosity by applying heat to changing its shape when a force
tissue before stretching it. is applied to it, but if the force
- Lowering tissue temperature, on is sufficient to cause change,
the other hand, increases the the tissue is unable to return to
tissue’s viscosity. its original shape. Not only do
muscle and connective tissue
• Elasticity and Extensibility possess this quality, but all
- Closely related tissues do. In fact, all structures
- Directly related to each other do.
- Viscosity is indirectly related to - Very rigid structures (bones,
both of them *cartilages, *ligaments) are
more viscous and less elastic;
Extensibility - the ability to stretch, very pliable/flexible structures
elongate or expand. (ribs, trachea, nose, ribs) are
more elastic and less viscous.
Elasticity - the ability to succumb to - This property of viscoelasticity
an elongating force and then return to of any structure adheres to the
normal length when the force is stress-strain principle.
released.
6.What are the different
- The potential energy that is factors that influence muscle
released by tissue when it is performance OR force
stretched is also the energy that production?
allows tissue to return to its
⁃ Extensibility, elasticity,
normal length following release
viscosity, viscoelasticity,
of a stretch force.
- The more elasticity a tissue stress
possesses, the more
extensibility, or temporary STRESS-STRAIN
elongation, it is able to CURVE/PRINCIPLE
demonstrate. If you take two - How well those structures are
rubber bands (imagine 2 able to resist a stress is
muscles), a thick one and a thin dependent upon its ability to
one, and stretch them both with deform.
an equal amount of force, you
find that the thin one has more Strain - the amount of deformation it
elasticity than the thick one; it is able to tolerate before it succumbs
is able to stretch farther and to the stress.
still return to its normal length
when you release the stretch. - Although it varies from one
structure to another and from
• Viscoelasticity one type of tissue to another, a
Viscoelastic tissue - Muscle and curve for connective tissue
connective tissue have both properties serves to represent a generic
of viscosity and elasticity
stress-strain curve for human

tissue. *If the force or load is released at any
time during either of these two ranges
(toe region & elastic range), the tissue
returns to its normal length.
Plastic Range
- If the force applied continues to
increase, the tissue moves from
its elastic range into its plastic
range.
- In this range, there is
microscopic damage to the
structure; some of the tissue
ruptures because it is unable to
withstand this amount of stress.
- It is at this point that
permanent change in the
tissue’s length occurs.
- If the force is released at this
point, the tissue is elongated
compared to what it was prior
Initial section: Toe region to the stress application.
- In a resting state, tissue has a
crimped or wavy appearance. Necking Range
- When stress is applied to the - If the amount of stress
tissue, this slack is taken up continues to increase past the
within the toe region of the plastic range, the tissue moves
stress-strain curve. into the necking range.
- At this point, more and more
Elastic Range microscopic ruptures occur until
- Once the tissue is elongated to the tissue becomes
the point at which the slack is macroscopically damaged.
taken out of the structure so it - It is at this time that the force
becomes taut, the stress force or load required to create tissue
moves the tissue into the damage is less than previously
elastic range. because the tissue is
- This elastic range is the point at weakening.
which the tissue’s elastic
properties are stressed. Failure Range
- The tissue strain and the - If the stress increase continues,
amount of stretch move immediately before the tissue
through a linear relationship ruptures entirely, a give in the
when there is a direct structure is felt and then the
relationship between the tissue rips apart, moving into
amount of stress applied to the the failure range.
tissue and the tissue’s ability to - Continuity of the tissue is lost
stretch. when tissue failure occurs.
muscle to generate active

CREEP tension
- Elongation of tissue from the 6.What are the different
application of a low-level load factors that influence muscle
over time. performance OR force
- The changes that occur with production?
creep occur in the plastic range
• the muscle’s size;
of tissue or structures so the
• the architecture of muscle fibers;
changes are permanent.
- We experience creep on a daily • the passive components of the
basis. If you measure your muscle;
height in the morning and then • the physiological length of the
again in the evening, you will muscle or length-tension
discover that you are taller in relationship of the muscle;
the morning. The long-term • the moment arm length of the
effect of gravity on our tissues muscle;
causes this height difference by • the speed of muscle contraction;
the end of the day. • the active tension; and
It can be either advantageous or
• age and gender
deleterious:
Ex. An individual with a tight Achilles
tendon will find it very difficult to - Neurologic, metabolic,
effectively stretch such a large, firm endocrine, and psychological
structure using a normal short- term factors that affect muscle
stretch. However, using a prolonged strength, many other factors
stretch of perhaps 10 minutes may determine muscle strength
produce sufficient creep to increase - If bones create levers and
the flexibility of the Achilles. This is joints, muscles provide the
especially true if the prolonged stretch forces by which motion occurs
is repetitive. in the body. Motion of the
body’s levers occurs as muscles
*If a clinician wants to increase the which cross joints produce force
flexibility of a tight joint capsule, a to move those levers.
temporary change in the structure’s
length occurs with a stretch that MUSCLE SIZE
approaches the capsule’s elastic 2 Parameters: Length & Width
range. - If muscle fibers are placed side
by side—as in parallel to each
*If the clinician wants to improve other—the muscle’s width is
range of motion of the joint, the greater.
capsule must be stretched into its - If muscle fibers are placed end
plastic range. to end, they are in series to
each other.
MUSCLE STRENGTH - Parallel muscle fibers provide
- State of being strong, the greater force and series muscle
capacity of a muscle to produce fiber arrangements provide
force, and the ability of a greater speed of motion.
the contractile elements of

the cell.
To understand better: Myofibrils - contractile structures;
- Given two muscles of the same contain protein filaments— actin and
length, the muscle with a myosin. It is at the actin and myosin
greater width is stronger than level that muscle contraction occurs.
one that has a smaller diameter
or width. *A line that transects each fasciculus
- When there are muscles of at a right angle determines the
variable lengths crossing a physiologic cross section of a muscle.
joint, the longer muscles Hence, the fiber arrangement of a
provide that segment’s mobility muscle is fundamental to its strength.
whereas the shorter muscles
provide its stability. Muscle Fiber Arrangements
Ex. The short multifidus muscles that - Muscle fiber arrangement of an
attach from one spinal segment to the entire muscle at the
adjacent vertebrae provide spinal macroscopic level is either
stability, whereas the longer erector fusiform (strap) or pennate
spinae muscles that attach across (L. penna, feather).
several spinal segments provide spinal
motion. • Fusiform
- The fascicles are parallel and
In terms of cross section: long throughout the muscle
- Larger muscles in normal - These muscles are designed to
subjects are stronger than produce greater shortening
smaller ones. distance but less force.
- Muscle size may increase Ex. sartorius
(hypertrophy) or decrease
(atrophy) with exercise or • Pennate
inactivity, respectively. - Attach at oblique angles to a
central tendon.
FIBER ARCHITECTURE - Pennate fascicles are shorter
- Entire muscle may be divided than fusiform fascicles
into sections called fascicles, or - They produce greater forces to
bundles. Within these bundles the sacrifice of speed since their
are numerous muscle fibers. total cross section is larger.
- The number of muscle fibers is - Since muscle strength is
one of the factors that proportional to the total cross-
determine a muscle’s ability to sectional area of the muscle,
produce force. The more muscle strength of pennate muscles is
fibers a muscle has, the more related to the combined cross-
force that muscle has the sectional size of the pennate
potential to exert. muscle. Therefore, total
strength of pennate muscles is
Each muscle cell contains substances: the sum of the cross-sectional
 Some are necessary for cell areas of each pennate.
metabolism and others are
There are different pennate designs of - The fascial layer surrounding

muscles, depending upon the number the entire muscle
of fiber arrangements within a muscle: These fascial layers form a muscle’s
> Unipennate passive elastic component
⁃ Have one parallel fiber - The fascia is passive since it is
arrangement unable to change its length
actively but complies with the
> Bipennate muscle’s change in length.
⁃ Have two groups of parallel
fibers running to one central PARALLEL ELASTIC COMPONENT
tendon - Because the fascial fibers
surrounding a muscle are
> Multipennate parallel to the muscle fibers,
⁃ Most muscles in the body are muscle fascia is also known as
multipennate muscles with the muscle’s parallel elastic
more than two pennate groups component.
attaching to more than one - When a muscle elongates
centralizing tendon beyond the point at which its
slack is removed, the fascia
becomes passively stretched as
the muscle continues to
lengthen.
- This parallel elastic component
design is in contrast to the
tendon and its fascia that are
positioned at either end of the
muscle; the tendon and its
fascia provide the muscle’s
PASSIVE COMPONENTS series elastic component.
- In all body structures, muscle is
surrounded by connective tissue SERIES ELASTIC COMPONENT
called fascia - This name is given to the
- Predominant cell type of fascia: tendon and its fascia because of
collagen their series arrangement with
- Collagen is the protein that the muscle: tendon–muscle–
forms the majority of the white tendon.
fibers of fascia. - This configuration allows the
contracting muscle fibers to
Layers of fascia: transfer their forces along the
Endomysium tendon to the bone to produce
- Each muscle cell or fiber is motion.
surrounded by this fascial layer - As mentioned, the parallel
elastic component stretches
Perimysium when a muscle lengthens and
- Surrounds groups of muscle so, too, does the series elastic
fibers or fascicles component.
Epimysium
*As the series and parallel elastic - When a sarcomere is stretched

components become taut, they to 200% of normal resting
provide stiffness to the muscle. length, failure occurs.
PASSIVE TENSION
- Since this increase in the Resting length
muscle’s stiffness occurs - A position of the muscle in
because of the muscle’s fascia which there is no tension within
and tendon, it is considered the muscle.
passive tension. - A muscle’s resting length is
- Like stretching a rubber band— defined as the length at which
as the stretch increases, more the maximum number of actin-
tension is produced. myosin crossbridges is
- When the passive tension is available.
released, a greater rebound - As a muscle either shortens or
response or contraction is lengthens beyond that resting
produced by the greater position, its ability to produce
tension. This is the length- force decreases because the
tension relationship number of crossbridges declines
when the muscle fiber moves
7.Explain the length-tension out of its resting length.
relationship.
Active tension
LENGTH-TENSION - Declines as the muscle shortens
because there are fewer
RELATIONSHIPS AND
crossbridges available between
PHYSIOLOGICAL LENGTH OF
the actin and myosin fibers
MUSCLE - When a sarcomere is at its
shortest position, there are no
remaining crossbridges
available. Likewise, as the
muscle lengthens, the actin and
myosin fibers move farther
apart until crossbridges do not
connect between the actin and
myosin sufficiently to produce
tension.
- Responsible for muscle tension
during shortening whereas
passive tension adds to muscle
tension during lengthening.
How far a muscle’s passive tissue can

be stretched before tissue failure
occurs:
MOMENT ARM
- Lever arm that produces
rotation around a joint
- The length of a perpendicular
line from the joint’s axis of
motion to the muscle’s force
vector or line of pull
- All of the muscle’s force rotates
the joint (produces torque)
when the muscle is aligned
perpendicularly to the long axis
of the body segment
Ex.
Together, the active and passive

tension elements of a muscle produce
the muscle’s length-tension
relationship.
- The line of pull of the biceps is

perpendicular to the forearm
where it inserts when the elbow
is at 90deg; this means that the
biceps exerts its greatest torque
at that position. In other words,
all of its force is devoted to
rotating the elbow into flexion.
- As the elbow changes position,
- If we stretch the fascia slightly, the line of pull of the biceps also
it has little impact on our changes so it is no longer
muscle’s force output, but if we perpendicular to the forearm;
stretch more vigorously and therefore, some of its force is
release that stretch quickly, it devoted to compressing the
contributes significantly to the joint in positions greater than
muscle’s force. This concept 90deg and to distracting the
provides rationale for one of the joint when the elbow is less
basic theories involving the use than 90deg.
of plyometrics in conditioning - The distraction and compression
and reconditioning exercises. forces are the tangential force
of the biceps. You can also

observe that the more the
elbow moves away from 90deg,
the less the force of the biceps
is devoted to rotation and the
greater amount of its force
produces either distraction or
compression.
• Using this elbow example, we see

that as the joint moves through its
range of motion, muscles producing
the movement experience a change in
their moment arms, both in length and
in the position at which it is relative to - As the speed of a concentric
the segment. contraction becomes slower, the
muscle’s force development
• This means that at some points in increases.
the range of motion, a muscle - When there is no motion, this is
generates a large torque (rotational a maximum isometric
force) and sometimes it produces less contraction, or zero-velocity,
torque, depending upon when that contraction.
muscle’s moment arm is perpendicular
to its body segment.
• The muscle’s physiological length

(length-tension) also influences its
strength, or ability to produce force.
Although it is likely that the
mechanical influence is greater, the
physiological and mechanical factors
both influence a muscle’s ability to
produce force in vivo. Therefore, they
must both be considered when
determining the optimal position for a
rehabilitative exercise.
- A muscle’s decreased ability to
produce a contraction force with
• These mechanical and physiological
increasing speed of shortening
influences, the speed of a muscle’s
is based of the number of links
contraction also impacts the muscle’s
between the actin and myosin
ability to produce a force.
filaments that can be formed
per unit of time
- The maximum number of
SPEED OF CONTRACTION
crossbridges that can be formed
The rate of muscle shortening or
occurs at slow speeds.
lengthening substantially affects the
- The more rapidly the actin and
force a muscle can develop during
myosin filaments slide past
activation.
each other, the smaller is the
number of links that are formed also contained the larger-sized

between the filaments in a unit muscle fibers.
of time so less force is - The smaller muscle fibers, since
developed. they are innervated by smaller
- Muscle strength actually nerve fibers, are activated
increases as speed increases before larger muscle fibers
during eccentric contraction
until the speed reaches a point The type of muscle fiber recruited
at which the muscle is unable to within a muscle influences the amount
control the load. of tension produced by a muscle:
Type II
*There is a loose inverse relationship - Facilitated when a rapid or
between the muscle’s speed of forceful response is required
contraction and the amount of force a
muscle is able to produce Type I
concentrically. - Are active for postural
corrections during prolonged
*The faster a muscle moves through a positioning
range of motion, the less weight it is - They frequently fire as needed
able to work against, or lift. to make small corrections so a
position is maintained in spite of
*As the muscle lengthens during either external factors, such as
activity, there is a difference in the wind or standing on a boat, or
relationship between speed of internal factors, such as heart
contraction and force production than or lung activity, which cause
that which occurs with muscle minute changes in the body’s
shortening. position.
ACTIVE TENSION *Once a motor unit receives a

- Force produced by a muscle stimulus sufficient to cause activation,
- Assuming a normally interacting the muscle fibers within that motor
neuromotor system, active unit contract and immediately relax.
tension is the most important
factor in the production of *If there is a series of stimuli provided
muscle forces used for to the motor unit, it will produce
functional activities. repeated contractions of the muscle
- The greater the number of fibers within the motor unit.
muscle fibers activated, the
greater the active tension that *Fast, repetitive firing will produce
is produced. repeated contractions at a rate
- There is an inverse relationship sufficient to cause a sustained
between the size of the motor contraction of the muscle fibers. The
neuron and its excitability; the more motor units that are recruited
larger the axon, the less and contract in this manner, the more
excitable it is. forceful is the muscle’s contraction.
- The larger motor units Motor units are recruited in a
contained the larger neuron and systematic order:
- Smaller motor units are The grip strength of the dominant

recruited before larger ones. hand of males and females between
Smaller motor units usually ages 3 and 90:
produce less tension, last a - The muscle strength of young
longer time, and require less boys is approximately the same
energy than the larger motor as that of young girls up to the
units. age of puberty. Thereafter,
- Recruitment first of smaller males exhibit a significantly
motor units and then later of greater grip strength than
larger motor units, if and when females, with the greatest
they are needed, assures differences occurring during
conservation of energy and middle age (between ages 30
efficiency of movement. and 50).
- If greater forces or a higher
intensity of activity is required, As individuals age, the number of
the larger motor units are motor units decline.
recruited to improve the - The greater strength of males
muscle’s response to increased appears to be related primarily
or short-term activity demands. to the greater muscle mass they
develop after puberty. Up to
Summary: about age 16, the ratio of lean
- Motor units are recruited in an body mass to whole body mass
order according to the size of is similar in males and females,
the motor unit (smaller ones as indicated by studies of
are recruited first), the size of creatinine excretion and
the muscle cells (smaller ones potassium counts.
are recruited before larger - After puberty, however, the
ones), and the type and speed muscle mass of males becomes
of conduction of the muscle as much as 50% greater than
fibers (slower type I are that of females, and the ratio of
recruited before faster type II). lean body mass to whole body
- The smaller motor units are mass also becomes greater. On
slower to respond but last the other hand, muscle strength
longer than the larger ones per cross-sectional area of
which respond quickly with muscle is similar in males and
strong bursts. Therefore, type I females
motor units are recruited for
posture. Although muscle strength is related to
age and gender in the population as a
AGE AND GENDER whole, many exceptions to the general
- In both genders, however, rule can be found because of two
muscle strength increases from factors:
birth through adolescence, 1) the large variation in the rate at
peaking between the ages of 20 which biologic maturation occurs
and 30 years, and gradually 2) the large variation in individual
declining after 30 years of age. genetics and specific conditioning
Ex. levels which are acquired and
maintained through proper diet and 8.What is passive insufficiency?

exercise.
PASSIVE INSUFFICIENCY
PASSIVE EXCURSION OF MUSCLES - When muscles become
- The paired agonist-antagonist elongated over two or more
relationship of muscles joints simultaneously, they may
throughout the body requires reach the state of passive
that each muscle have the insufficiency.
ability to accommodate and - This full elongation of a muscle
change length both passively prevents further shortening by
and actively to permit joint its opposite muscle.
motion.
Can be demonstrated with hip flexion
Functional excursion in a healthy individual:
- The distance to which the - When the hip is flexed with
muscle is capable of shortening simultaneous knee extension,
after it has been elongated as the hamstrings is stretched over
far as the joint(s) over which it both of these joints, elongating
passes allows. the hamstrings to its
- These muscles were able to maximum length
shorten from 34% to 89% of - The passive stretch of the
their longest length, with an hamstring to its full length
overall average shortening limits the hip flexors’ ability to
value of 50%. move the hip through its entire
- Muscles that cross more than range of hip flexion, although
one joint had the greatest the hip flexors have the
excursion measures. strength to otherwise perform
the full motion.
Specific measurements of the
excursion distances for each muscle of Other Example:
the hand and wrist - If the ankle dorsiflexes to 15o
- The flexor digitorum profundus when the knee is flexed, it does
muscle had an excursion of 3 so freely, but when the knee is
inches (8 cm) when the middle extended, the amount of
finger and wrist joints were dorsiflexion is reduced because
moved from full wrist and finger of passive insufficiency of the
flexion to full extension. gastrocnemius muscle which is
now stretched over the knee
Precise measure of shortening and ankle.
- Clinicians use an average
estimate of 70% of a muscle’s Sample Application: What position will
resting length in discussing an result to passive insufficiency
average muscle’s ability to secondary to biceps brachii?
shorten.
Answer: Combination of
hyperextension of the shoulder,
extension of the elbow and forearm
pronation. If the biceps brachii is tight,
measuring shoulder extension ROM - However, if the basketball

with the elbow kept extended and player has tight hamstrings, his
forearm pronated may limit full ROM. straight- leg raise may be
The same is true for elbow extension limited even more than normal
ROM. Placing the shoulder in —perhaps to 60deg—since his
hyperextension and forearm in hamstring length reaches
pronation before doing elbow passive insufficiency before that
extension ROM may limit achievement of a normal hamstring.
of full motion especially if there is
tightness.
*Passive insufficiency may occur

normally, as demonstrated in these
examples.
Passive insufficiency may also occur in

pathological conditions:
- Certain pathologic conditions Food for thought: In the range of
may cause muscles and tendons motion testing, we are trying to
to lose their normal range of avoid passive insufficiency to allow full
excursions. range of motion.
Ex.
Muscle tightness, spasticity, scar Example scenario: When testing for
tissue shortening from trauma or the range of motion of the hip flexion,
surgery, and adhesion of tendons to why do you think we need to keep the
their sheaths. knee flexed during the examination?
Answer: Knee flexion will prevent
*Even though an agonist may contract passive insufficiency of the hamstrings
strongly, motion may be significantly to allow the full range of hip joint
limited by passive insufficiency of its flexion motion.
antagonist.
Explain functional excursion
Passive insufficiency may occur and tenodesis.
because of either orthopedic
restrictions or neurological TENDON ACTION OF MUSCLE/
restrictions: TENODESIS
- Passive tension of muscles that
Example of an orthopedically-based cross two or more joints may
restriction produce passive movements of
A basketball player who has tight those joints. This effect is called
hamstrings. tenodesis
- The hip can normally be flexed - In able-bodied subjects, the
to 115deg-125deg when the effect is seen when the
knee is also flexed; because of individual flexes and extends
normal passive insufficiency of the wrist while keeping the
the hamstrings, hip flexion hand relaxed. When the wrist
range of motion is limited to flexes, the relaxed fingers
90deg with the knee extended. extend because of the passive
tension of the extensor

digitorum, which elongates over
the wrist and fingers.
- When the wrist extends, the
fingers passively flex because of
the tension of the flexor
digitorum profundus and
superficialis muscles.
On the other hand, when the wrist

flexes, the finger flexors shorten at
the wrist as well as at the finger
digits, causing a weak grip through
active insufficiency of the finger
flexors (Fig. 4.16A).
ACTIVE EXCURSION OF MUSCLES

- Favorable length- tension
relationships are usually
maintained by movement
combinations that cause a
muscle to elongate at one joint
it crosses while it contracts to
produce motion or force at • Optimal Insufficiency
another joint. - During normal function,
Ex. Maximum isometric grip strength however, an antagonistic
is greatest with the wrist in slight muscle group (in this example,
extension (Fig. 4.16B), but when the the wrist extensors FIG A&B
wrist is flexed the grip strength is ABOVE) works cooperatively
markedly weakened; finger flexors are with the agonist multijoint
lengthened with the wrist in extension muscle or muscle group (flexor
so they can provide greater grip digitorum superficialis and
strength. profundus) to create an optimal
position and permit functional
activity of that multijoint muscle
or muscle group at another gastrocnemius decreasing its ability to

joint. generate force.
Optimal Sufficiency - stabilization by

antagonists that allows the multijoint
agonist to perform the desired
function. KNOWLEDGE CHECK
At what position of the hip will the
- If optimal sufficiency is not hamstring muscle better flex the
present—antagonists do not knee?
stabilize either the proximal or
- FLEXED
distal joint(s) of the multijoint
muscle which is contracting—
the multijoint muscle moves all What type of contraction produces
of the joints it crosses, the highest force?
becoming ineffective at any of - ECCENTRIC
them.
Ex. At what length will a muscle
The ineffectual grip produced with the produce maximum contraction?
wrist in flexion lacks stabilization of - 110% OF RESTING LENGTH
the wrist joint so the long finger
flexors shorten at each joint they Longer muscles are dedicated to
cross; since the wrist extensors do not
producing a larger range of motion
provide optimal sufficiency, the long
finger flexors become actively
- TRUE
insufficient and are unable to provide
adequate grasp force. This phenomenon results in a
movement by passive tension of
*Optimal sufficiency of the wrist the muscle
stabilizers, positioning the wrist in - TENODESIS
extension, allows the finger flexors to
produce the desired function of firmly At what position of the knee will
grasping an object. the rectus femoris better flex the
hip?
Food for thought: In manual muscle
- FLEXED
testing (which is a test to examine
the strength of a muscle), we usually
use the concepts of active insufficiency Biceps brachii can produce large
to isolate a muscle. range of motion primarily because
of its muscle size
Example scenario: When testing the - FALSE
plantarflexors, and you want to
isolate the soleus, how will you What type of muscle fiber will the
position the knee for this to happen? body use to maintain the position
of the head
Answer: Knee flexion. Because by
- SLOW TWITCH
flexing the knee, it is creating
active insufficiency on the
Based on what you know so far in

terms of muscle characteristics
that affect recruitment, triceps
brachii will be recruited first before
the anconeus during functional
movement
- FALSE
Which type of muscle is dedicated

for force production?
- PENNATE

Interaction of Mechanical and Physiological Factors in Relation To Muscle Function

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Interaction of Mechanical and Physiological Factors in Relation To Muscle Function

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MOVEMENT SCIENCE | MODULE 2

Muscle Activity & Strength

Muscle Activation - A muscle is able

• Eccentric mm was constant throughout

Muscle Anatomic Activity • In a closed chain activity: if the

Activity production occurs with the

2. Contractions can be concentric, lengthening to allow the movement

stabilize the upper extremity to

• An interesting switch in the

• The biceps acts as an agonist in MUSCLE CHARACTERISTICS

- Human tissue also has viscosity.

stress-strain curve for human

muscle to generate active

the contractile elements of

There are different pennate designs of - The fascial layer surrounding

*As the series and parallel elastic - When a sarcomere is stretched

How far a muscle’s passive tissue can

Together, the active and passive

- The line of pull of the biceps is

of the biceps. You can also

• Using this elbow example, we see

• The muscle’s physiological length

number of links that are formed also contained the larger-sized

ACTIVE TENSION *Once a motor unit receives a

- Smaller motor units are The grip strength of the dominant

maintained through proper diet and 8.What is passive insufficiency?

measuring shoulder extension ROM - However, if the basketball

*Passive insufficiency may occur

Passive insufficiency may also occur in

tension of the extensor

On the other hand, when the wrist

ACTIVE EXCURSION OF MUSCLES

or muscle group at another gastrocnemius decreasing its ability to

Optimal Sufficiency - stabilization by

Based on what you know so far in

Which type of muscle is dedicated

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