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Article in International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences · July 2018
DOI: 10.20546/ijcmas.2018.707.312
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Ramu S V
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1
Department of Entomology, 2Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural
Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru-560065, Karnataka, India
*Corresponding author
ABSTRACT
Keywords Plant transformation is now a core research tool in plant biology and a practical tool for
transgenic plant development. There are many verified methods for stable introduction of
Transformation, novel genes into the nuclear genomes of diverse plant species. As a result, gene transfer
Transgenic, Gene, and regeneration of transgenic plants are no longer the factors limiting the development
Agrobacterium, and application of practical transformation systems for many plant species. However, the
Particle
desire for higher transformation efficiency has stimulated work on not only improving
bombardment
Article Info various existing methods but also in inventing novel methods. The most published
techniques for gene transfer into plant cells were dismissed as either disproven or
Accepted: impractical for use in routine production of transgenic plants. In many laboratories,
20 June 2018 virtually all the transformation work relies on particle bombardment with DNA coated
Available Online:
microprojectiles or Agrobacterium mediated transformation for gene transfer to produce
10 July 2018
transgenic plants from a range of plant species.
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Advances in biotechnology have provided 2002. Success achieved in cotton has served
several unique opportunities that include as an excellent model to emulate in many
access to various plant transformation other crops such as rice, wheat, pulses and
techniques, novel and effective molecules, oilseeds that have the potential to make
ability to change the levels of gene expression, agriculture a viable profession for the peasants
capability to change the expression pattern of of India.
genes, and develop transgenics with different
insecticidal genes. With the advent of genetic Transformation studies
transformation techniques based on
recombinant DNA technology, it is now Plant transformation is now a core research
possible to insert foreign genes that confer tool in plant biology and a practical tool for
resistance to insects into the plant genome transgenic plant development. There are
(Bennett, 1994). To sustain the crop yield many verified methods for stable introduction
potential and to meet the growing demand for of novel genes into the nuclear genomes of
food, crop productivity needs to be increased. diverse plant species. The capacity to
However, in most crops it is believed that the introduce and express diverse foreign genes in
genetic potential has been fully exploited for plants, first described for tobacco in 1984
yield increase. As a result, any improvement (DeBlock et al., 1984; Horsch et al., 1984;
in productivity has to revolve around the Paszkowski, 1984) has been extended to many
reduction of losses due to pests and diseases plant species in at least 35 families.
under optimal nutrition and abiotic factors.
Recombinant DNA technology coupled with Gene transfer successes include most major
plant tissue culture has helped develop novel economic crops, vegetables and medicinal
options for the economical management of plants. As a result, gene transfer and
various kinds of biotic stresses including regeneration of transgenic plants are no longer
insect pests. These technologies would be of the factors limiting the development and
immense value in reducing the losses caused application of practical transformation systems
by biotic stresses, including insect pests. for many plant species. The techniques have
continued to evolve to over come a great
Transgenic plants display considerable variety of barriers experienced in the early
potential to benefit both developed and phases of the development in the field of plant
developing countries. Transgenic plants transformation.
expressing insecticidal Bt proteins alone or in
conjunction with proteins providing tolerance Transformation methods
to herbicide are revolutionizing agriculture
(Shelton et al., 2002). The use of such crops Gene delivery systems involve the use of
with input traits for pest management, several techniques for transfer of isolated
primarily insects and herbicide resistance, has genetic materials into a viable host cell. At
risen dramatically since their first introduction present, there are two classes of delivery
in the mid 1990s. systems (Table 1): (a) Non-biological systems
(which include chemical and physical
India, the largest cotton growing country in methods) and (b) Biological systems. The
the world has increased productivity by up to desire for higher transformation efficiency has
50% while reducing the insecticide sprays by stimulated work on not only improving
half, with environmental and health various existing methods but also in inventing
implications, besides increased income to novel methods.
cultivators after introduction of Bt cotton in
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Biological requirements for transformation (6) Simple integration patterns and low copy
number of introduced genes, to minimize the
The essential requirements in a gene transfer probability of undesired gene disruption at
system for production of transgenic plants are: insertion sites, or multicopy associated
transgene silencing.
Availability of a target tissue including cells
competent for plant regeneration. (7) Stable expression of introduced genes in
the pattern expected from the chosen gene
A method to introduce DNA into those control sequences (DeBlock, 1993).
regenerable cells and
When tested against the above criteria, most
A procedure to select and regenerate published techniques for gene transfer into
transformed plants at a satisfactory frequency. plant cells must be dismissed as either
disproven or impractical for use in routine
Practical requirements for transformation production of transgenic plants. As a result, in
many laboratories, virtually all the
Beyond the biological requirements to achieve transformation work relies on Particle
transformation and the technical requirements bombardment with DNA coated
for verification of reproducible microprojectiles or Agrobacterium mediated
transformation, desired characteristics to be transformation for gene transfer to produce
considered in evaluating alternative techniques transgenic plants in a range of plant species
or developing new ones for cultivar (Birch, 1997).
improvement include:
Non-biological based transformation
(1) High efficiency, economy, and
reproducibility, to readily produce many Particle bombardment/Biolistics
independent transformants for testing.
Particle bombardment was first described as a
(2) Safety to operators, avoiding procedures, method for the production of transgenic plants
or substances requiring cumbersome in 1987 (Sanford et al., 1987) as an alternative
precautions to avoid a high hazard to operators to protoplast transformation and especially for
(e.g. potential carcinogenicity of Silicone transformation of more recalcitrant cereals.
carbide whiskers). Unique advantages of this methodology
compared to alternative propulsion
(3) Technical simplicity, involving a minimum technologies are discussed elsewhere in terms
of demanding or inherently variable of range of species and genotypes that have
manipulations, such as protoplast production been engineered and the high transformation
and regeneration. frequencies for major agronomic crops
(McCabe and Christou, 1993).
(4) Minimum time in tissue culture, to reduce
associated costs and avoid undesirable In plant research, the major applications of
somaclonal variation. biolistics include transient gene expression
studies, production of transgenic plants and
(5) Stable, uniform (nonchimeric) inoculation of plants with viral pathogens
transformants for vegetatively propagated (Southgate et al., 1995; Sanford, 2000; Taylor
species, or fertile germline transformants for and Fauquet, 2002).
sexually propagated species.
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Methods relative to transformation targets can So why have all these other methods emerged
be classified into two categories: (a) those in the past 20-30 years, if we already have
requiring tissue culture and (b) in planta efficient transformation techniques in
methods. Agrobacterium and biolistics? There are two
reasons. First of all, there is hope that a more
In tissue culture systems for plant efficient and less expensive method would be
transformation, the most important developed. The second and most important
requirement is a large number of regenerable reason is the biolistics and Agrobacterium are
cells that are accessible to the gene transfer patented.
treatment and that will retain the capacity for
regeneration for the duration of the necessary In planta transformation
target preparation, cell proliferation and
selection treatments. A high multiplication Although successful plant regeneration
ratio from a micropropagation system does not methods have been developed, the technology
necessarily indicate a large number of has not provided regeneration in several other
regenerable cells accessible to gene transfer crops for use in transformation protocols
(Livingstone and Birch, 1995). Some time which is a serious limitation to the
gene transfer into potentially regenerable cells exploitation of gene transfer technology to its
may not allow recovery of transgenic plants if full potential. In the light of this major
the capacity for efficient regeneration is short constraint, it becomes necessary to evolve
lived (Ross et al., 1995). Further, tissue transformation strategies that do not depend
culture based methods can lead to unwanted on tissue culture regeneration or those that
somaclonal variations such as alterations in substantially eliminate the intervening tissue
cytosine methylation, induction of point culture steps. In planta transformation
mutations and various chromosomal methods provide such an opportunity.
aberrations (Phillips et al., 1994; Singh, 2003; Methods that involve delivery of transgenes in
Clough, 2004). On the other hand, realization the form of naked DNA directly into the intact
of whole plant transformants has been a plants are called as in planta transformation
problem in a large number of crop species as methods. These methods exclude tissue
these plants have proven to be highly culture steps, rely on simple protocols and
recalcitrant in vitro. As a result, other required short time in order to obtain entire
strategies are being evolved wherein the tissue transformed individuals.
culture component is obviated in the
procedure and these are known as in planta In many cases in planta methods have targeted
methods. meristems or other tissues with the assumption
that at fertilization, the egg cell accepts the
Plant genetic transformation is of particular donation of an entire genome from the sperm
benefit to molecular genetic studies, crop cell that will ultimately give rise to zygotes
improvement and production of (Chee and Slighton, 1995; Birch, 1997) and
pharmaceutical materials. Agrobacterium- therefore is the right stage to integrate
based methods are usually superior for many transgenes. For non-tissue culture based
species including dicots and monocots. The approaches of in planta transformation,
others are typically not done on a routine basis Agrobacterium co-cultivation or
(Table 2). Biolistics is by far the most widely microprojectile bombardment have been
used direct transformation procedure both directed to transform cells in or around the
experimentally in research and commercially. apical meristems (Chee and Slighton, 1995;
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Birch, 1997). Injection of naked DNA into Bent, 1998), transformation of germinating
ovaries has also been reported to produce seeds (Feldmann and Marks, 1987) and floral
transformed progeny (Zhou et al., 1983). dipping (Clough and Bent, 1998). Other plants
that were successfully subjected by vacuum
Arabidopsis thaliana was the first plant that infiltration include rapeseed, Brassica
saw successful in planta transformation. campestris and radish, Raphanus sativus (Ian
Early stages of success in Arabidopsis and Hong, 2001; Desfeux et al., 2000). The
transformation came from the work of labor intensive vacuum infiltration process
Feldmann and Marks (1987). Transformation was eliminated in favor of simple dipping of
rates greatly improved when Bechtold et al. developing floral tissues (Clough and Bent,
(1993) inoculated plants that were at the 1998). Also, the results indicate that the floral
flowering stage. At present, there are very spray method of Agrobacterium can achieve
few species that can be routinely transformed high rates of in planta transformation
in the absence of a tissue culture based comparable to the vacuum infiltration and
regeneration system. Arabidopsis can be floral dip methods (Chung et al., 2000).
transformed by several in planta methods
including vacuum infiltration (Clough and
Plant transformation
Non-biological based transformation Biological gene transfer
(Direct method) (Indirect method)
A) DNA transfer in protoplasts
1) Chemically stimulated DNA uptake 1) Agrobacterium mediated
by protoplast transformation
2) Electroporation
3) Lipofection Primarily two methods
4) Microinjection
5) Sonication a) Co-cultivation with the explants tissue
B) DNA transfer in plant tissues
1) Particle bombardment / Biolistics b) In planta transformation
2) Silicon carbide fiber mediated gene
transfer 2) Transformation mediated by viral
3) 3) Laser microbeam (UV) induced vector
genetransfer
(Birch et al., 1997)
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Lipofection Low Recoverable species With tissue Protoplast High efficiency with combination of
from protoplast culture phase PEG based method, simple and non-
toxic
Microinjection High Recoverable species With tissue Protoplast Very slow, precise, single cell
from protoplast culture phase targeting possibility, requires high
skill, the chimeric nature of transgenic
plants and ability of whole
chromosome transformation
Sonication Low Unrestricted With and Protoplast cells, Effective to transfect by virus particles
without tissue tissues and and able to increase the
culture seedlings Agrobacterium based transformation
efficiency
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Laser beam Low Unrestricted With tissue Variety of cell Rapid and simple
mediated culture phase types
transformation
Agrobacterium High and stable Many species, With and Different intact Possibility of Agroinfection,
mediated specially without tissue cells, tissues or combination with sonication and
method dicotyledonous culture whole plant biolistic methods and transgene size
plants method up to 150 kb
Virus based High and Virus host specific With tissue In planta Rapid, inducible expression and with
method transient limitation culture inoculation mosaic status
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Utilizing naked DNA, cotton transformants a practical possibility for experimenting and
were recovered following injection of DNA producing viable transformants. However,
into the axil placenta about a day after self- the optimization of Agrobacterium-plant
pollination (Zhou et al., 1983). Similarly, a interaction is crucial for efficient
mixture of DNA and pollen was either applied transformation. Many factors including type
to receptive stigmatic surfaces or DNA was of explant are important and they must be
injected directly into rice floral tillers, or suitable to allow the recovery of whole
soybean seeds were imbibed with DNA transgenic plants (De la Ravi et al., 1998;
(Trick and Finer, 1997; Langridge, 1992). Opabode 2006; Cheng, et al., 1997; Jones et
These procedures, intriguing as they are, are al., 2005; Darbani et al., 2008).
impractical at present because of their low
reproducibility. Although, biotechnological advances, have
provided many technologies for gene transfer
Recent studies with Agrobacterium into plant cells, virtually all the
inoculation of germinating seeds of rice has transformation work rely only on particle
provided transformation efficiencies higher bombardment with DNA coated
than 40% (Supartana et al., 2005), while microprojectiles or Agrobacterium mediated
providing 4.7 to 76% efficiency for the flower transformation for gene transfer to produce
infiltration method and from 2.9 to 27.6% transgenic plants. The review thus
efficiency for the seedling infiltration method overwhelmingly emphasizes the importance
(Trieu et al., 2000). of this method.
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Keshavareddy, G., A.R.V. Kumar and Vemanna S. Ramu. 2018. Methods of Plant
Transformation- A Review Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 7(07): 2656-2668.
doi: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.707.312
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