MODULE 11

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM

INTENDED LEARNING OUCOMES

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the nature of biotechnology

2. Explain the meaning of genetically modified organism (GMOs) and its

usages in various aspect like agriculture amd food industry, medicine, research
and aquaculture

3. Identify the issues of genetically modified organisms

4. Discuss different ethics, implications and potential impact of GMOs

INTRODUCTION

Growth in human population and increasing urbanization increase the

demand for food. Agriculture and aquaculture constitutes a significant
sector of the world economy, and its ability to respond to

Federation of Biotechnology (EFB), biotechnology is the integration of

natural Sciences and organism increasing demand for animal and plant
products can be aided by biotechnology.
According to European, cells, parts, thereof, and molecular analogues
for products and services. This definition is applicable to both
traditional and new biotechnology. Traditional biotechnology refers to
conventional techniques that have been used to produce beer, wine,
cheese and many other foods. New biotechnology embraces all
methods of genetic modification by recombinant deoxynucleic acid
(DNA) and cell fusion techniques together with the modern
development of traditional ‘biotechnological processes.

Biotechnology has revolutionized the way agriculture approaches

improvement of valuable traits, through selective breeding or through
the production of genetically modified organism. The application of this
genetic modification is to speed up genetic gain, such as precise
methods in stocking genes and shortening the process in developing
desirable product

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are organisms that have had

their characteristics changed through the modification of their DNA. By
changing an organism’s genome-the genetic endowment of an
organism which resides with the nucleic acids of the chromosomes, we
can change its characteristics. Genome editing is a way of making
specific changes to the DNA of a cell or organism. An enzyme cuts the
DNA at a specific sequence, and when this is repaired by the cell a
change or ‘edit’ is made to the sequence. The process of creating GMOs
is called genetic engineering or genetic modification. Because this
process involves the transfer of genes, GMOs are also known as
transgenic organisms.

There are several techniques that can be used to modify a genome:

1. Agrobacterium-mediated' genetic modification is a technique

used to introduce new DNA into a plant genome using a modified
microbe?

2. Gene targeting' is a technique used to introduce new DNA into

selected regions of a genome through a process called homologous
recombination?

3. Genome editing' is a technique used to change selected regions of

a genome using enzymes designed to cut specific DNA sequences?
Timeline of selected traits modified by genome editing in plants,
animals and for medical applications

Crispr-Cas 9
Crispr-Cas 9 is the acronym for clustered regularly interspaced short
palindromic Repeats (CRSPR) ASSOCIATED PROTEIN 9. As a gene editing
technology, it gives scientist the ability to change an organisms DNA.

It can be used to add, remove or alter genetic material at specific

locations in the genome. This innovative technology is based on a
naturally occurring adaptive immune system that provides acquired
immunity against foreign viruses and plasmids in bacteria and archaea.

GENE EDITING

CRISPR/
Cas9

technology has three important components namely, Cas9

endonuclease, single guide RNA and protospacer adjacent motif. It
takes advantage of the ability of the cell to repair double strand breaks
either through non-homologous directed repair pathway.
The genome found in every cell of our body contains over 20 thousand
genes and over 3 billion letters of DNA that sustains life, shapes who we
are and determines our risks of having a disease. CRISPR-Cas9 system
has wide applications in plant and animal breeding as well as in drug
development and human gene therapy
CAS 9 ENDONUCLEASE

It is a natural immune defense system found in lower forms of

organisms like bacteria and has been weaked to work in higher plants
and animals, relatively quick and affordable method of genome editing.
It also allow introduction of precise, predictable modifications in an
elite genetic background, avoiding the mess and cost associated with
sorting tens and thousands of genes mixed up in conventional plant
breeding
GENE EDITING
Timeline of selected traits modified by genome editing in plants,
animals and for medical applications
Benefits of GMOs

Agricultural plants are one of the most frequently cited examples

GMOs. Some benefits of genetic engineering in agriculture are
increased crop yields, reduced costs for food or drug production,
reduced the need for pesticides, enhanced nutrient composition and
food quality, resistance to pests and disease, greater food security, and
medical benefits to the world's growing population.

List of example of Currently Use Genetically Modified Organisms

1. Herbicide tolerance

An example is soybean. Glyphosate herbicide (Roundup) tolerance

conferred by expression of a glyphosate-tolerant form of the plant
enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) isolated
from the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens
2. Insect resistance

An exampleis Bt corn. Resistance to insect pests, specifically the

European corn borer, through expression of the insecticidal protein
Cry1Ab from Bacillus thuringiensis
3. Altered fatty acid composition

High laurate levels achieved by inserting the gene for ACP thioesterase
from the California bay tree Umbellularia californica

4. Virus resistance

Resistance to plum pox virus conferred by insertion of a coat protein

(CP) gene from the virus
5. Fortification

Beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, is introduced through

biosynthesis in the endosperm of the golden rice. This is a practical way
to provide poor farmers subsistence crop capable of adding much
needed Vitamin A to avoid high risk of infection, diseases and
blindness.

6. Vaccines

Hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg) produced in transgenic

tobacco induces immune response when injected into mice

7. Faster maturation

A type 1 growth hormone gene injected into fertilized fish eggs results
in 6.2% retention of the vector at one year of age, as well as
significantly increased growth rates

8. Flower production
Several traits of ornamental plants have already been modified
including flower color, fragrance, flower shape, plant architecture,
flowering time, postharvest life and resistance for both biotic and
abiotic stresses. Transgenic ornamentals the most common techniques
being Agrobacterium-mediated transformation and particle
bombardment.

9. Paper production

Scientists identified an enzyme in other plants that contain more

digestible lignin monomers. The resulting trees showed no difference in
growth and strength, but their lignin showed improved digestibility.
10. Bioremediation

Biomolecular engineering approaches develops GMOs for the

degradation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) like polyaromatic
hydrocarbons PAHs, polychlorinated biphenyls PCBs, and pesticides.
Recently, several developments in the field of recombinant DNA
technologies have been carried out to achieve safe and efficient
bioremediation of contaminated sites.
Risks and Controversies Surrounding the Use of GMOs

1. Unintended Impacts on Other Species

One example of public debate over the use of a genetically modified

plant involves the case of Bt corn. Bt corn expresses a protein from the
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. Prior to construction of the
recombinant corn, the protein had long been known to be toxic to a
number of pestiferous insects, including the monarch caterpillar, and it
had been successfully used as an environmentally friendly insecticide
for several years. The benefit of the expression of this protein by corn
plants is a reduction in the amount of insecticide that farmers must
apply to their crops. Unfortunately, seeds containing genes for
recombinant proteins can cause unintentional spread of recombinant
genes or exposure of non-target organisms to new toxic compounds in
the environment.

2. Unintended Economic Consequences

Biotech companies seek for protection for their products and

technologies by acquiring patent for inventions, plant breeder’s right
and trade secret. GMO seeds may be expensive, reflecting the high cost
of developing and testing plants. The farmers who stand to gain the
most from transgenic plants are often unable to afford them.
3. Ecological imbalance

Introduction of the GMOs in the natural environment may cause

disruption of the natural communities through competition or
interference.

4. Mutation in organism

Genetic modification promotes mutation in organism which the long

term effect is still unknown. It may mutate to become more resistant or
virulent that may cause more dreadful diseases for human beings.

5. Produce new pathogen

This variation is caused by mutations, genetic recombination, and other

factors. Under certain biological or environmental situations, a
particular, specific group can become prominent, reproduce at a
greater rate, and emerge as a new pathogen variant that can cause
disease on its hosts.

6. The possibility of GMO to become pest and post threat if it

escapes in the environment Potential human risk

Others worry that unfamiliar protein combinations in transgenic crops

could trigger food allergies since it is not naturally occurring or
organically produced. Production of toxins and allergens may have
adverse effects on human body. It may also alter the balance of existing
microorganism in the human digestive system.
7. Bioterrorism

Many countries and regions have establishes high tech facilities for
vaccine or single-cell protein production that could be hub for the
reproduction of biological weapons One example is the USSR's 'invisible
anthrax', resulting from the introduction of an alien gene into Bacillus
anthracis that altered its immunological properties.

Biosafety on GMOs

On September 11, 2003, “the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB)”

has been adopted by 167 parties to recognize the need of biosafety in
GE research and development activities. The Protocol entered into
force, and its main objectives are:

a) to set up the procedures for safe trans-boundary movement of

living modified organisms,

b) harmonize principles and methodology for risk assessment and

establish a mechanism for information sharing through the Biosafety
Clearing House (BCH).

Research work in the area of GE and GMOs requires prior approval

from the appropriate regulatory authorities of the country. Following
guidelines provided for minimizing biosafety issues is mandatory. The
primary regulatory body at research institute level is the Institutional
Biosafety Committee (IBSC) or its equivalent body consisting of experts
from different relevant disciplines. The IBSC ensures existence of the
basic biosafety equipment required as per the safety level of the
experiments to be conducted. While dealing with GM animals it also
becomes mandatory to get prior approval of the local Animal Ethics
Committee or Animal Welfare Committee for conducting GE
experiments on the animal species and the attempted trait
modification. What so ever importance of the research work may be,
ethical considerations and animal welfare cannot overlooked.

GMOS in Aquaculture

Green revolution was one of the great technological success of the 20th
century, because of scientifically breed and high yielding varieties of
crops kept pace with population growth. Yet today, millions of Filipinos
are still poor and undernourished so there is a need for another
revolution, but this time in another front- a “ blue revolution”.
Philippines is surrounded by water, so there is a need to develop blue
economy. Blue economy is the sustainable use of ocean resources for
economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs while preserving the
health of ocean ecosystem (World Bank)."

The success of aquaculture lies on the complete control; of

reproduction and life cycle, the genetic background of the parent fish
stocks, efficient detection and effective prevention of diseases, a
thorough understanding of the optimal physiological, environmental
and nutritional conditions for growth and development, sufficient
supply of good quality water and innovative management techniques.
The first recorded instances of production of transgenic in aquatic
species are those of Maclean and Talwar (1984) in rainbow trout and
Zhu et al. (1985) in goldfish. The most popular gene in aquatic species is
growth hormone (GH) to boost the production of food. Genetic
manipulation also addresses other non-growth characteristics that are
considered desirable. Traits include disease resistance, sterilization for
biological containment, nutritional improvement and cold or freeze
tolerance. This is currently being addressed by the use of DNA vaccines
(encoding part of the pathogen genome) and antimicrobial agents such
as lysozyme (Demers and Bayne 1997

Transgenic fish lines geared for aquaculture productio

SPECIES MODIFICATIO BENEFIT REFERENCE

GENETIC N
Atlantic Growth To enhance growth Melamed et
salmon hormones and al.,2002
Anti-Freeze increase cold Hew &
Protein tolerance Fletcher,2001
Mud loach Growth Accelerated Nam, Cho &
hormones growth, gigantism Cho,2001
Anti-Freeze and likely sterility
Protein
Carp Triploidy Higher growth Hinits and
rates than the Moav,1999
non-transgenic
controls
Tilapia Growth Stable germ line Martinez et al.,
hormones transmission 1999
in a fast growing Rahman et al.,
 transgenic 1998
fertility reduced
Seabass Growth To manage viral Sulaiman, 1998
hormones diseases
in farmed fish
Foreign gene
transferred by
injection into the
muscles
Zebrafish DNA Vaccine To induce sterilityMarichamy,
1997
Rainbow trout Triploidy Chen et al.,
induction To enhance growth 1996
Catfish Growth Rate of co Erdelyi et al.,
hormones integration higher 1994
than expected for
independent
events
Catfish Neomycin To assess use of Yoon et al.,
gene as a 1990
marker for
expression
Successful in one
fish