MODULE 11

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the nature of biotechnology

2. Explain the meaning of genetically modified organism (GMOs) and its application.
3. Identify the issues of genetically modified organisms
4. Discuss different ethics, implications and potential impact of GMOs

INTRODUCTION

Growth in human population and increasing urbanization increase the demand for food.
Agriculture and aquaculture constitutes a significant sector of the world economy, and its ability
to respond to increasing demand for animal and plant products can be aided by biotechnology.

According to European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB), biotechnology is the

integration of natural Sciences and organism, cells, parts, thereof, and molecular analogues for
products and services. This definition is applicable to both traditional and new biotechnology.
Traditional biotechnology refers to conventional techniques that have been used to produce
beer, wine, cheese and many other foods. New biotechnology embraces all methods of genetic
modification by recombinant deoxynucleic acid (DNA) and cell fusion techniques together with
the modern development of traditional ‘biotechnological processes.

Biotechnology has revolutionized the way agriculture approaches improvement of

valuable traits, through selective breeding or through the production of genetically modified
organism. The application of this genetic modification is to speed up genetic gain, such as
precise methods in stocking genes and shortening the process in developing desirable
products.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are organisms that have had their characteristics
changed through the modification of their DNA. By changing an organism’s genome-the genetic
endowment of an organism which resides with the nucleic acids of the chromosomes, we can
change its characteristics. Genome editing is a way of making specific changes to the DNA of a
cell or organism. An enzyme cuts the DNA at a specific sequence, and when this is repaired by
the cell a change or ‘edit’ is made to the sequence. The process of creating GMOs is called
genetic engineering or genetic modification. Because this process involves the transfer of
genes, GMOs are also known as transgenic organisms.

There are several techniques that can be used to modify a genome:

1. Agrobacterium-mediated' genetic modification is a technique used to introduce new DNA

into a plant genome using a modified microbe?
2. Gene targeting' is a technique used to introduce new DNA into selected regions of a
genome through a process called homologous recombination?
3. Genome editing' is a technique used to change selected regions of a genome
using enzymes designed to cut specific DNA sequences?

Timeline of selected traits modified by genome editing in plants, animals and for
medical applications

Crispr-Cas 9

Crispr-Cas 9 is the acronym for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic Repeats
(CRSPR) ASSOCIATED PROTEIN 9. As a gene editing technology, it gives scientist the ability
to change an organisms DNA. It can be used to add, remove or alter genetic material at specific
locations in the genome. This innovative technology is based on a naturally occurring adaptive
immune system that provides acquired immunity against foreign viruses and plasmids in
bacteria and archaea. The CRISPR/Cas9 technology has three important components namely,
Cas9 endonuclease, single guide RNA and protospacer adjacent motif. It takes advantage of
the ability of the cell to repair double strand breaks either through non-homologous directed
repair pathway.
 Guide RNA binds to target sequence

Cas9 enzymes binds to guide RNA Cas9 enzymes cuts both strands of DNA The
cut is repaired introducing mutation

Diagram showing how the CRISPR-Cas9 editing tool works.

Image credit: Genome Research Limited.

The genome found in every cell of our body contains over 20 thousand genes and over 3
billion letters of DNA that sustains life, shapes who we are and determines our risks of having a
disease. CRISPR-Cas9 system has wide applications in plant and animal breeding as well as in
drug development and human gene therapy. It is a natural immune defense system found in
lower forms of organisms like bacteria and has been tweaked to work in higher plants and
animals, relatively quick and affordable method of genome editing. It also allow introduction of
precise, predictable modifications in an elite genetic background, avoiding the mess and cost
associated with sorting tens and thousands of genes mixed up in conventional plant breeding.

Benefits of GMOs

Agricultural plants are one of the most frequently cited examples GMOs. Some benefits
of genetic engineering in agriculture are increased crop yields, reduced costs for food
or drug production, reduced the need for pesticides, enhanced nutrient composition and food
quality, resistance to pests and disease, greater food security, and medical benefits to the
world's growing population.

List of Currently Use Genetically Modified Organisms

1. Herbicide tolerance
An example is soybean. Glyphosate herbicide (Roundup)
tolerance conferred by expression of a glyphosate-tolerant
form of the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate
synthase (EPSPS) isolated from the soil
bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens
2. Insect resistance

An exampleis Bt corn. Resistance to insect pests, specifically

the European corn borer, through expression of the
insecticidal protein Cry1Ab from Bacillus thuringiensis

3. Altered fatty acid composition

High laurate levels achieved by inserting the gene for ACP

thioesterase from the California bay tree Umbellularia
californica

4. Virus resistance

Resistance to plum pox virus conferred by insertion of a coat

protein (CP) gene from the virus

5. Fortification

Beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, is introduced through

biosynthesis in the endosperm of the golden rice. This is a
practical way to provide poor farmers subsistence crop
capable of adding much needed Vitamin A to avoid high risk of
infection, diseases and blindness.

6. Vaccines

Hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg) produced in

transgenic tobacco induces immune response when injected
into mice
7. Faster maturation
A type 1 growth hormone gene injected into fertilized fish eggs
results in 6.2% retention of the vector at one year of age, as
well as significantly increased growth rates

8. Flower production
Several traits of ornamental plants have already been modified
including flower color, fragrance, flower shape, plant
architecture, flowering time, postharvest life and resistance for
both biotic and abiotic stresses. Transgenic ornamentals the
most common techniques being Agrobacterium-mediated
transformation and particle bombardment.
 9. Paper production
10.
Scientists identified an enzyme in other plants that contain
more digestible lignin monomers. The resulting trees showed
no difference in growth and strength, but their lignin showed
improved digestibility.

11. Bioremediation
Biomolecular engineering approaches develops GMOs for
the degradation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) like
polyaromatic hydrocarbons PAHs, polychlorinated biphenyls
PCBs, and pesticides. Recently, several developments in the
field of recombinant DNA technologies have been carried out
to achieve safe and efficient bioremediation of contaminated
sites. 

Risks and Controversies Surrounding the Use of GMOs

1. Unintended Impacts on Other Species

One example of public debate over the use of a genetically modified plant involves the
case of Bt corn. Bt corn expresses a protein from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. Prior
to construction of the recombinant corn, the protein had long been known to be toxic to a
number of pestiferous insects, including the monarch caterpillar, and it had been
successfully used as an environmentally friendly insecticide for several years. The benefit of
the expression of this protein by corn plants is a reduction in the amount of insecticide that
farmers must apply to their crops. Unfortunately, seeds containing genes for recombinant
proteins can cause unintentional spread of recombinant genes or exposure of non-target
organisms to new toxic compounds in the environment.

2. Unintended Economic Consequences

Biotech companies seek for protection for their products and technologies by acquiring
patent for inventions, plant breeder’s right and trade secret. GMO seeds may be expensive,
reflecting the high cost of developing and testing plants. The farmers who stand to gain the
most from transgenic plants are often unable to afford them.

3. Ecological imbalance

Introduction of the GMOs in the natural environment may cause disruption of the natural
communities through competition or interference.
4. Mutation in organism

Genetic modification promotes mutation in organism which the long term effect is still
unknown. It may mutate to become more resistant or virulent that may cause more dreadful
diseases for human beings.

5. Produce new pathogen

The possibility of GMO to become pest and post threat if it escapes in the environment.

6. Potential human risk

Others worry that unfamiliar protein combinations in transgenic crops could trigger food
allergies since it is not naturally occurring or organically produced. Production of toxins and
allergens may have adverse effects on human body. It may also alter the balance of existing
microorganism in the human digestive system.

7. Bioterrorism

Many countries and regions have establishes high tech facilities for vaccine or single-cell
protein production that could be hub for the reproduction of biological weapons One
example is the USSR's 'invisible anthrax', resulting from the introduction of an alien gene
into Bacillus anthracis that altered its immunological properties.

Biosafety on GMOs

On September 11, 2003, “the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB)” has been adopted
by 167 parties to recognize the need of biosafety in GE research and development activities.
The Protocol entered into force, and its main objectives are:

a) to set up the procedures for safe trans-boundary movement of living modified organisms,
b) harmonize principles and methodology for risk assessment and establish a mechanism
for information sharing through the Biosafety Clearing House (BCH).

Research work in the area of GE and GMOs requires prior approval from the appropriate
regulatory authorities of the country. Following guidelines provided for minimizing biosafety
issues is mandatory. The primary regulatory body at research institute level is the Institutional
Biosafety Committee (IBSC) or its equivalent body consisting of experts from different relevant
disciplines. The IBSC ensures existence of the basic biosafety equipment required as per the
safety level of the experiments to be conducted. While dealing with GM animals it also
becomes mandatory to get prior approval of the local Animal Ethics Committee or Animal
Welfare Committee for conducting GE experiments on the animal species and the attempted
trait modification. What so ever importance of the research work may be, ethical considerations
and animal welfare cannot overlooked.

GMOS in Aquaculture

Green revolution was one of the great technological success of the 20 th century,
because of scientifically breed and high yielding varieties of crops kept pace with population
growth. Yet today, millions of Filipinos are still poor and undernourished so there is a need for
another revolution, but this time in another front- a “ blue revolution”. Philippines is surrounded
by water, so there is a need to develop blue economy. Blue economy is the sustainable use
of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs while preserving the
health of ocean ecosystem (World Bank)." 

The success of aquaculture lies on the complete control; of reproduction and life cycle,
the genetic background of the parent fish stocks, efficient detection and effective prevention of
diseases, a thorough understanding of the optimal physiological, environmental and nutritional
conditions for growth and development, sufficient supply of good quality water and innovative
management techniques.

The first recorded instances of production of transgenic in aquatic species are those of
Maclean and Talwar (1984) in rainbow trout and Zhu et al. (1985) in goldfish. The most popular
gene in aquatic species is growth hormone (GH) to boost the production of food. Genetic
manipulation also addresses other non-growth characteristics that are considered desirable.
Traits include disease resistance, sterilization for biological containment, nutritional
improvement and cold or freeze tolerance. This is currently being addressed by the use of DNA
vaccines (encoding part of the pathogen genome) and antimicrobial agents such as lysozyme
(Demers and Bayne 1997).

Transgenic fish lines geared for aquaculture production

SPECIES MODIFICATION BENEFIT REFERENCE

GENETIC
Atlantic Growth To enhance growth and Melamed et al.,2002
salmon hormones increase cold tolerance Hew & Fletcher,2001
Anti-Freeze
Protein
Mud loach Triploidy Accelerated growth, gigantism and Nam, Cho & Cho,2001
likely sterility
Carp Growth Higher growth rates than the Hinits and Moav,1999
hormones non-transgenic controls

Tilapia Growth Stable germ line transmission Martinez et al., 1999

hormones in a fast growing transgenic Rahman et al., 1998
fertility reduced
Seabass DNA Vaccine To manage viral diseases Sulaiman, 1998
in farmed fish
Foreign gene transferred by
injection into the muscles
Zebrafish Triploidy To induce sterility Marichamy, 1997
induction
Rainbow Growth To enhance growth Chen et al., 1996
trout hormones

Catfish Growth Rate of cointegration higher Erdelyi et al., 1994

hormones than expected for
independent events
Goldfish Neomycin To assess use of gene as a Yoon et al., 1990
 marker for expression Successful in
one fish
Learning Activity 11 Content Check-Up

Forum on GM foods . The class will be divided into 6 groups, with each group performing
one of the following roles: (a) consumers; (b) GM foods manufacturers; (c) environmentalists;
(d) farmers; (e) scientists; (f) religious leaders. Students may research in the internet about their
role in the progress of GMO.

Guide question:

1. In which of the following aspects do you think it is worthwhile to develop genetic

engineering?
2. What is your stand about the issue that GMO is just harming little farmers because they
cannot produce their own seeds?
3. Do you agree to label GMO foods?
4. Is the safety of GM foods assessed differently from conventional foods?
5. What are the issues of concern for the environment?