Modern Biotechnology

Genetic modification
- Genetic modification is a technique to change the characteristics of a plant, animal or micro-
organism by transferring a piece of DNA from one organism to a different organism. This is done
through targeted removal of the desired genes from the DNA of one organism and adding them to
the other organism. This technique has for example been used to develop fungi and bacteria that
produce medicines. GMOs are usually used as a reference for food products, but it is an abbreviation
that stands for “genetically modified organism.” A GMO is created when the genes from one species
are artificially forced, in laboratory conditions, into the gene structures of unrelated plants or
animals. These genes can originate from any living being, plant, or creature, including humans, and
be forced into the genetic structure of any other living organism.
Use in plants: Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which
has been modified using genetic engineering methods. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait
to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species.
Use in animals: Genetically modified animals are animals that have been genetically modified for a
variety of purposes including producing drugs, enhancing yields, increase resistance to disease, etc. The
vast majority of genetically modified animals are at the research stage with the number close to entering
the market remains small. It offers tremendous benefits to the animals by enhancing the health, well-
being and welfare of the animal itself.
Advantages:
1. GMO crops can be tailored to provide better health benefits.
- Multiple vitamins and minerals can be built into the crops as they grown by adjusting the genetic
profile of the plant, making it possible for people to get what they need with fewer foods and lower
costs. That makes it possible to provide more people who are living in poverty with the food
resources they need to maintain their health.
2. There is the possibility of an increased shelf life.
- GMO crops can be engineered to last longer once harvested, which makes it possible to extend the
distribution life of the food product. That makes it possible to use the existing infrastructure for food
distribution to send healthy foods further around the world.
3. It takes less land to grow more food.
- GMO crops can be engineered to produce higher yields from the same croplands. In some instances,
the crop yields can potentially double when the transition from traditional crops to GMO crops is
completed by local farmers. That makes it possible to meet the food demands that future generations
are going to face.
4. Genetically modified crops can conserve energy, soil, and water resources.
- That allows our food distribution networks to make less of an impact on the environment. Food can
be grown in areas that receive very little rainfall and have zero irrigation with proper genetic
modifications. Crops can be grown on fields with little soil. Because the crops have an increased
resistance to disease, weeds, and pests, there is greater consistency in the yields that can be
produced.
5. Fewer harmful agents need to be applied to crops.
- GMO crops are more resistant to pests, weeds, and other threats. That means farmers have less of a
need to apply pesticides or herbicides to their crops, which saves them money and potentially
increases the health benefits of the food being grown.
6. It can save core crops from extinction.
Many of the foods we eat today are products of a single initial resource. That lack of genetic
variation puts the crop at-risk should a virus or bacteria be able to attack the basic genome of the
crop.
7. GMO crops use less water.
8. There may be a positive environmental impact with GMO crops.
In general terms, GMO crops require fewer in-field operations and applications to maintain the
quality of the yield. Because of this, fewer passes over the field are required. That reduces the
amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that are created through fossil fuel combustion
with tractors, combines, and other farming equipment.
9. GMOs can even safe beneficial insects.
When Bt proteins are used in genetic engineering, it targets a specific group of insect pests that are
dangerous to that specific crop. Other beneficial insects that would be killed when spraying a general
pesticide are saved. Those included proteins have a minimal effect on them. Although there are
 stories of shepherds letting loose sheep into Bt fields and losing thousands of head of livestock
because of it, there are often more positives than negatives to find here.
Disadvantages:
1. There may be an increased risk of allergies or food intolerance.
Animal testing may be highly controversial, but it should be noted that GMO foods studied in animals
have found organ impacts in virtually every circumstance. In humans, there may be an increased trend of
food allergies and digestive intolerance because of genetic modification. When plants produce pesticides
inside of the plant to kill insects, by basic definition, that plant is toxic.
2. GMO crops can contaminate other fields.
The crops may be genetically modified, but they still grow the same way as any other crop. That means
pollination is required for the crop to produce the “fruit” that is being grown. Bees do much of the
pollination work, which means they are exposed to the genetic changes of the plant. Seeds are produced
by these GMO crops as well in many instances, which can be spread to other fields and contaminate
them. If cross-pollination occurs, there is no predictable outcome for both fields, though soybeans are an
exception since they don’t cross-pollinate.
3. Animal proteins could be affected by GMO crops.
The vast majority of the core crops in the US that are grown are GMO crops. These crops are then fed to
livestock, aquaculture, and apiculture, which impacts groceries that are based on animal proteins. GMO
ingredients can be found in milk, seafood, eggs, and animal muscle tissues. Even honey can have GMO
ingredients when bees are pollinating genetically modified crops to produce it.
4. GMOs create super bugs.
As pesticides are applied to insects that provide a threat to crops, a few of them tend to survive the
application. Each subsequent generation becomes more resilient to the pesticide. That means either more
needs to be applied or a stronger agent needs to be applied. When something stronger is placed on the
crops, the cycle of resilience begins again.
5. GMOs create super weeds.
If nature knows how to do one thing well, it is to adapt. As crops have grown more resistant to weeds,
the weeds have grown stronger and more resilient to the chemicals applied to them that try to kill them.

Nanotechnology
- Understanding, shaping and combining matter at the atomic and molecular scale is called
nanotechnology. Nanotechnology encompasses science, medicine, engineering, computing and
robotics at this scale, called the nanoscale. Nanotechnology offers the potential for new and faster
kinds of computers, more efficient power sources and life-saving medical treatments. Potential
disadvantages include economic disruption and possible threats to security, privacy, health and the
environment.

Use: Medicine

Researchers are developing customized nanoparticles the size of molecules that can deliver drugs directly to
diseased cells in your body. When it's perfected, this method should greatly reduce the damage treatment such
as chemotherapy does to a patient's healthy cells. Check out our Nanotechnology Applications in Medicine page
to see how nanotechnology is being used in medicine.

Electronics

Nanotechnology holds some answers for how we might increase the capabilities of electronics devices while we
reduce their weight and power consumption. Check out ourNanotechnology Applications in Electronics page to
see how nanotechnology is being used in electronics.

Food
Nanotechnology is having an impact on several aspects of food science, from how food is grown to how it is
packaged. Companies are developing nanomaterials that will make a difference not only in the taste of food, but
also in food safety, and the health benefits that food delivers. Check out our Nanotechnology Applications in
Food page for the details.

Fuel Cells
Nanotechnology is being used to reduce the cost of catalysts used in fuel cells to produce hydrogen ions from
fuel such as methanol and to improve the efficiency of membranes used in fuel cells to separate hydrogen ions
from other gases such as oxygen. Check out our Nanotechnology Applications in Fuel Cells page for the details.

Solar Cells
Companies have developed nanotech solar cells that can be manufactured at significantly lower cost than
conventional solar cells. Check out our Nanotechnology Applications in Solar Cells page for the details.

Batteries
Companies are currently developing batteries using nanomaterials. One such battery will be a good as new after
sitting on the shelf for decades. Another battery can be recharged significantly faster than conventional
batteries. Check our our Nanotechnology Applications in Batteries page for details.

Space
Nanotechnology may hold the key to making space-flight more practical. Advancements in nanomaterials make
lightweight spacecraft and a cable for the space elevator possible. By significantly reducing the amount of
rocket fuel required, these advances could lower the cost of reaching orbit and traveling in space. Check
our Nanotechnology Applications in Spacepage for details.

Fuels
Nanotechnology can address the shortage of fossil fuels such as diesel and gasoline by making the production of
fuels from low grade raw materials economical, increasing the mileage of engines, and making the production
of fuels from normal raw materials more efficient. Check our Nanotechnology Applications in Fuels page for
details.

Better Air Quality

Nanotechnology can improve the performance of catalysts used to transform vapors escaping from cars or
industrial plants into harmless gasses. That's because catalysts made from nanoparticles have a greater surface
area to interact with the reacting chemicals than catalysts made from larger particles. The larger surface area
allows more chemicals to interact with the catalyst simultaneously, which makes the catalyst more
effective. Check our Nanotechnology and Air Quality page for details.

Better Water Quality

Nanotechnology is being used to develop solutions to three very different problems in water quality. One
challenge is the removal of industrial wastes, such as a cleaning solvent called TCE, from groundwater.
Nanoparticles can be used to convert the contaminating chemical through a chemical reaction to make it
harmless. Studies have shown that this method can be used successfully to reach contaminates dispersed in
underground ponds and at much lower cost than methods which require pumping the water out of the ground for
treatment.Check out our Nanotechnology and Water Quality page for details.

Chemical Sensors
Nanotechnology can enable sensors to detect very small amounts of chemical vapors. Various types of detecting
elements, such as carbon nanotubes, zinc oxide nanowires or palladium nanoparticles can be used in
nanotechnology-based sensors. Because of the small size of nanotubes, nanowires, or nanoparticles, a few gas
molecules are sufficient to change the electrical properties of the sensing elements. This allows the detection of
a very low concentration of chemical vapors. Check out our Nanotechnology Applications in Chemical
Sensors page for details.

Sporting Goods
If you're a tennis or golf fan, you'll be glad to hear that even sporting goods has wandered into the nano realm.
Current nanotechnology applications in the sports arena include increasing the strength of tennis racquets,
filling any imperfections in club shaft materials and reducing the rate at which air leaks from tennis balls. Check
out our Nanotechnology Applications in Sporting Goods page for details.

Fabric
Making composite fabric with nano-sized particles or fibers allows improvement of fabric properties without a
significant increase in weight, thickness, or stiffness as might have been the case with previously-
used techniques
Advantages:
Electronics and Computing: the field of electronics is set to be revolutionized by nanotechnology. Quantum
dots, for example, are tiny light-producing cells that could be used for illumination or for purposes such as
display screens. Silicon chips can already contain millions of components, but the technology is reaching its
limit; at a certain point, circuits become so small that if a molecule is out of place the circuit won't work
properly. Nanotechnology will allow circuits to be constructed very accurately on an atomic
level. Nanotechnology can actually revolutionize a lot of electronic products, procedures, and applications.
The areas that benefit from the continued development of nanotechnology when it comes to electronic
products include nano transistors, nano diodes, OLED, plasma displays, quantum computers, and many
more.
Energy sector: nanotechnology can also benefit the energy sector. Nanotechnology may transform the ways
in which we obtain and use energy. In particular, it's likely that nanotechnology will make solar power more
economical by reducing the cost of constructing solar panels and related equipment. Energy storage devices
will become more efficient as a result. Nanotechnology will also open up new methods of generating and
storing energy. The development of more effective energy-producing, energy-absorbing, and energy storage
products in smaller and more efficient devices is possible with this technology. Such items like batteries,
fuel cells, and solar cells can be built smaller but can be made to be more effective with this technology.
Manufacturing sector: nanotechnology lets us make almost every manufactured product faster, lighter,
stronger, smarter, safer and cleaner, and even more precise. We can already see many of the possibilities as
these few examples illustrate. Nanotechnology is already making new materials available that could
revolutionize many areas of manufacturing. For example, nanotubes and nano particles, which are tubes and
particles only a few atoms across, and aerogels, materials composed of very light and strong materials with
remarkable insulating properties, could pave the way for new techniques and superior products. In addition,
robots that are only a few nanometers in length, called nanobots, and nanofactories could help construct
novel materials and objects.
Medical field: nanotechnology is also seen as a boon in medical world since these can help with creating
what is called smart drugs. These help cure people faster and without the side effects that other traditional
drugs have. The research of nanotechnology in medicine is now focusing on areas like tissue regeneration,
bone repair, immunity and even cures for such ailments like cancer, diabetes, and other life threatening
diseases. Nanotechnology has the potential to bring major advances in medicine. Nanobots could be sent
into a patient's arteries to clear away blockages. Surgeries could become much faster and more accurate.
Injuries could be repaired cell-by-cell. It may even become possible to heal genetic conditions by fixing the
damaged genes. Nanotechnology could also be used to refine drug production, tailoring drugs at a molecular
level to make them more effective and reduce side effects.
Nanomedicine is defined globally as "nanotechnology applied to medicine." It has huge potential to enhance
traditional health care procedures. Nanomedicine could make obsolete the often-inefficient diagnostic and
treatment plans in medicine. When asked about the future of nanomedicine, physicist, Dr. Frank Underdown
Jr. stated, "...The potential is limitless, already advancements in research are being made in surgery, wound
care and the development of self-healing bandages. The future will be bright if scientists figure out a rapid
method of nanomanufacturing." As this potentially affects every person on Earth, the future of nanomedicine
is bright indeed.
Through the process of molecular recognition--where molecules are created to recognize specific cells--
nanoparticles can be designed to be attractive to a specific disease or condition; for example, cancer. In this
drug-delivery system, these engineered particles would seek out cancer cells and deliver a drug payload, like
chemotherapy, directly to those cancer cells. The advantage over traditional chemotherapy would be in the
delivery. The chemo drug would only attack cancer cells, leaving the rest of the body untouched. The result is
less sickness from chemotherapy and a reduction in actual medicine cost because less is used.
Nanoengineered drugs can be designed to specifically attach to known biological targets. These engineered
medications would only act on the specific diseased tissue targeted, not on healthy tissue. Additionally, these
medicines would be subjective, designed for a specific individual and their disease. Not only would this
alleviate the trial and error of prescription medication, it would result in less actual medicine being dispensed,
fewer side effects and a quicker physiological response.
Nanotechnology can be advantageous when dealing with many diseases, including cancer. Cancer cells
remain viable within a narrow temperature range. Using molecular recognition, mentioned earlier,
nanoparticles could be created with cancer antibodies. These particles could then recognize and attach to
targeted cancer cells. Designed to also absorb light, these nanomolecules could be heated by an external light
source, thus killing the cancer cells thermally. The advantages are reduced damage to healthy tissue and
thorough and specific elimination of diseased cells.
Coating composed of nanoparticles can extend the life of traditional prosthetics. This coating would typically
be carbon-based so as to be neutral to the body. Coating a prosthetic in this way would prevent the body
from rejecting and destroying it. The prosthetic would last longer resulting in reduced cost to amputee
patients in the long run.
 Nano medicine is constantly advancing, allowing for application in a range of medical disciplines. Two
major disciplines in the research phase are diagnostic and regenerative medicine. In diagnostic medicine,
applications of nanotechnology would identify diseased cells very early, possibly at the point of a single sick
cell, allowing diseased cells to be cured before they spread and affect other areas of the body. In regenerative
medicine, patients suffering from substantial injuries or failing systems could be helped. In fact, as of now,
significant advancement has been made in the development of regenerative applications of artificial bone,
skin and cartilage.
Disadvantages

 One of the biggest disadvantage that world is facing because of nanotechnology is the lack of employment
in the fields of traditional farming and manufacturing and industrial sector because of the vast
development in the nanotechnology. Nanotech devices and machines have taken place of human to
work faster and accurately which has lessen the importance of men power in the field of practical work
 Nanotechnology raises the possibility of microscopic recording devices, which would be virtually
undetectable. More seriously, it is possible that nanotechnology could be weaponized. Atomic weapons
would be easier to create and novel weapons might also be developed. One possibility is the so-called
"smart bullet," a computerized bullet that could be controlled and aimed very accurately. These
developments may prove a boon for the military; but if they fell into the wrong hands, the consequences
would be dire. Atomic weapons now has become more accessible with nanotechnology, and made to be
more powerful and more destructive. On industrial-scale manufacturing and use of nonmaterial would
have on human health and the environment. Nanoparticles could potentially have a toxic effect.
 Mass production of nanotechnology material may or may not be possible. Should nanotechnology actually
be able to procure an honest and true molecular manufacturing machine for every household.
 The potential for mass poisoning over a period of time. They may very well cause eventual health
problems in the consumers that use them i.e. health effects could be at large scale. Inhaled nanoparticles
may settle in the brain and lungs, which may led to significant increases in biomarkers for inflammation
and stress response. Some of the more extravagant negative future scenarios have been debunked by
experts in nanotechnology. For example: the so-called "gray goo" scenario, where self-replicating
nanobots consume everything around them to make copies of themselves, was once widely discussed but
is no longer considered to be a credible threat. It is possible; however, that there will be some negative
effects on the environment as potential new toxins and pollutants may be created by nanotechnology.
 Lack of our own knowledge about nanotechnology makes it pretty difficult to manufacture. We know that
we can create materials with nanotechnology but we still have to stop and understand the impact of the
creation of these products will have on the nanoscale.
 Nanotechnology is very expensive and developing it can cost a lot of money as to generate and assemble
its particles in different forms needs many technologies.
 It is likely that nanotechnology, like other technologies before it, will cause major changes in many
economic areas. Although products made possible by nanotechnology will initially be expensive luxury
or specialist items, once availability increases, more and more markets will feel the impact. Some
technologies and materials may become obsolete, leading to companies specializing in those areas going
out of business. Changes in manufacturing processes brought about by nanotechnology may result in job
losses.

 Nanotechnology raises the possibility of microscopic recording devices, which would be virtually
undetectable. More seriously, it is possible that nanotechnology could be weaponized. Atomic weapons
would be easier to create and novel weapons might also be developed. One possibility is the so-called
"smart bullet," a computerized bullet that could be controlled and aimed very accurately. These
developments may prove a boon for the military; but if they fell into the wrong hands, the consequences
would be dire.
 Increasing development and instant performance has also increased the fall of certain markets like
diamond and oil because of the low value of diamond and oil. Presence of alternative has decreased the
demand because alternates are more efficient and do not require the use of fossil fuels. Diamonds have
lost its value because it is now produced massively with the help of nanotechnology. People and
manufacturer can now produce bulk of the products at molecular scale and decomposition is done to
create new components.
 Working with nanotechnology is quite risky also; manufacturers have to invest huge money for starting
nanotech plants and if products produced fail to satisfy the customer then manufacturer bear a lot of loss.
The original product cannot be recovered because it will cost double to the manufacturers. Maintenance
cost of the product is also very high.
 Nanotechnology also raised some practical problems. Practical problems can include everything which is
to be produced from masses like coal, petroleum. Nanotechnology does not leave single nano particle
 unused which crashed the small industries of sub products of the massive materials this is the main reason
for low quantity of sub products of coal and petroleum in the markets.

Transgenesis

- Transgenesis is the process of introducing a gene (referred to as a transgene) from one organism into
the genome of another organism. The aim is that the resulting transgenic organism will express the
gene and exhibit some new property or characteristic.

Use: Transgenic techniques have been used for a number of goals: to determine an unknown gene's function; to
analyze the malfunction of a mutated gene; to model human disease; and to provide better agricultural and
pharmaceutical products by making transgenic plants and animals.
Advantages of Transgenic Animals:
(a) Gene requires certain cellular mechanism to help for the production of protein. The animals used for
transgenic purpose naturally carry the mechanism needed to produce complex protein. Theses mechanism is
absent in cell culture.
(b) Expression through cell culture or bacterial culture requires constant monitoring and sampling.
(c) The isolation and purification of expressed protein in conventional method is more difficult than purifying
proteins from an animal’s milk or body fluid.
(d) It is more cost effective as the product is efficiently passed through milk with an average yield of 53% and
with 99% purity.
(e) It has been estimated that transgenic animal can produce in its lifetime $100 to $200 million worth of
pharmaceuticals.
Disadvantages of Transgenic Animals:
(a) Transgenic animal project is extremely expensive.
(b) Generation of transgenic animals are also expensive, because of long gestation period, litter size and higher
maintenance cost of the recipient animals.
(c) There may be high mortality rate and other deleterious effects on animals used by researchers to create
transgenic breeds. It has been observed that transgenic pigs having enhanced growth rate and efficient feed
conversion exhibit reduced reproductive performance and may suffer from arthritis and dermatitis etc.
Similarly, transgenic sheep expressing growth horm6ne may show diabetic like conditions. Mayer argues that
we do not understand the long term effects of genetic engineering on animals.
(d) Large number of recipients is required for embryo transfer because of low transgenesis rate.
(e) Transgenic foods have been produced and offer better productivity in terms of both yield and quantity.
However, there are some apprehension about the safety of transgenic foods.

Advantages of transgenic plants:

1. Improvement in Yield
2. Improvement in Insect and Disease Resistance
3. Improvement in Quality
4. Herbicide Resistance
5. Resistance to Abiotic Stresses
6. Industrial Products
7. Rapid and Accurate Technique
8. No Barrier for Gene Transfer

Disadvantages of transgenic plants:

1. Genes go into different plant species.

2. Farmers growing genetically modified foods have a greater legal liability.
- Crops that are genetically modified will create seeds that are genetically modified.
 Dna profiling

- DNA profiling is a forensic technique in criminal investigations, comparing criminal suspects' profiles
to DNAevidence so as to assess the likelihood of their involvement in the crime. It is also used in
parentage testing, to establish immigration eligibility, and in genealogical and medical research.
- Uses:
 paternity - to find out if the alleged father is actually the biological father of the child
 twins - identical twins share the same genetic material, while fraternal (non identical) twins develop from two
eggs fertilised by two sperm and are no more alike than individual siblings born at different times. It can be
difficult to tell at birth whether twins are identical or fraternal
 siblings - for example, adopted people may want to have DNA tests to make sure that alleged biological siblings
are actually their blood brothers or sisters
 immigration - some visa applications may depend on proof of relatedness
 criminal justice - DNA testing can help solve crimes by comparing the DNA profiles of suspects to offender
samples. Victorian law allows the collection of blood and saliva samples from convicted criminals and suspects.
DNA profiles are then kept on a database.

Advantages and disadvantages:

 DNA tests can be applied to any human sample that contains cells with nuclei, such as saliva, semen, urine and
hair.
 DNA tests are extremely sensitive, and can be conducted using samples that would be too small for other
serological tests.
 DNA is hardy, and resists degeneration even after contamination with chemicals or bacteria.
 The ability of DNA profiling to exclude a suspect means the police are able to confidently drop that line of
enquiry and continue their investigation down other avenues.

Dna cloning

-DNA cloning is a molecular biology technique that makes many identical copies of a piece of DNA, such as
a gene. In a typical cloning experiment, a target gene is inserted into a circular piece of DNA called a plasmid.
List of Advantages of Cloning
1. It helps infertile couples to bear children.
One big advantage of cloning is that it allows infertile couples to reproduce, and the child would be genetically
modified to fit what the parents want to appeal to other people. During the process, somatic cells are acquired
from the male’s sperm and are injected into the female’s egg for fertilization. By the time the embryo has
developed, it is then implanted to a surrogate mother, who will carry it for 9 months until birth. This means
cloning can potentially ease fertility problems. What’s more, the children produced will have the DNAs and
qualities of both parents, instead of just one of them.
2. It has great contribution to organ replacement.
Genetic cloning allows scientists to take small amounts of cells from a certain organ and use them to generate
and harvest new organs that are entirely functioning. Considering the huge number of people on organ donation
waiting lists, this is extremely beneficial.
3. It allows for growing eminent individuals.
Historical and very influential people can be possibly re-created. Theoretically, someone like Martin Luther
King Jr. or Albert Einstein can be brought back to life by cloning. This means we will be able to have such
knowledgeable individuals to educate and help people in today’s world.
4. Cure for Diseases.
Starting with the same procedure as adult DNA cloning, therapeutic cloning allows a resultant embryo to grow
for days, where the stem cells would then be extracted and encouraged to grow into human tissue or complete
human organs that will be used for transplants or treatments of certain diseases. The end result would not be a
human being, but rather a piece of nerve tissue, replacement organ or quantity of skin.
List of Disadvantages of Cloning
1. It comes with a degree of uncertainty as of yet.
There is still a lot of repercussions and effects of cloning that remain unknown to date. After all, it is a new
world of science that is still continually being discovered, and there is no convincing way to tell what the
mental, social and medical consequences may be endured due to it. Also, the research and testing that are
needed before embarking on something as insane as cloning humans still does not exist. Considering the
problems that already exist with animal cloning, we can safely presume that the procedure will be a very large
obstacle to begin with.
2. It is expected to bring about new diseases.
One of the real possibilities of cloning is cell mutation, which is known to result in new and more aggressive
genetic diseases to begin within humans, creating a lot of problems. In fact, many people believe that such an
event will be the demise of civilization.
3. It might lead to problems in organ rejection.
As stated above, cloning can cause cell mutation, which is still highly possible even if the technique uses the
cells of the recipient’s organ. This can result to a substantial difference in the cell make-up between the original
and replicated organ.
4. It decreases gene diversity.
The ability of humans to live greatly relies on the diversity of genes, which comes from parents who have
different sets of genes. One big disadvantage of identical genes is that they will weaken our adaptations and
power, which can make us subjected to certain diseases easily. Moreover, we should remember that the beauty
of humanity lies in the differences among individuals, and cloning ruins this. Not to mention that it would
eliminate surprise and predict expectancy.
5. In-Breeding.
One of the most unfavorable consequences of cloning is in-breeding, where everyone will be having the same
genotypes, which can keep reproducing among themselves. This means this procedure would lead us to
extinction. As what Richard Nicholson of the British Bulletin of Medical Ethics said, research on cloning may
well be “sowing the seeds of our own destruction.”
6. It can lead to disruption of parenting and family life.
The basic concept of family is couples falling in love and determining to care for each other. Then, they may
decide to have children whom they will love dearly. But with cloning, parents involved will tend to only value
their children according to how much they look like themselves.
7. It can cause a further divide.
These days, there is already a bit of divide among people, whether it is due to race, language or social status—
discrimination and prejudice certainly exist. Now, for cloned humans, they would feel as if they are not as
“human” as other people who are not born out of cloning.
8. Unbalance to the Society
Many people think that it is ridiculous to separate reproduction from love and other human relationships, thus
cloning would may arise social side effects.
9. It poses the risk of being abused.
There is always a risk of cloning technology being abused, so scientists should do their best to keep the
technology closely monitored. For instance, you can just imagine what a corrupt dictator could do with cloning.
Truth be told, there will always be someone looking to use such technology for his own advantage, and many
feel that the best way to prevent this scenario is not pursuing cloning at all.

Xenotransplantation
- Xenotransplantation is any procedure that involves the transplantation, implantation or infusion into
a human recipient of either (a) live cells, tissues, or organs from a nonhuman animal source, or (b)
human body fluids, cells, tissues or organs that have had ex vivocontact with live nonhuman animal
cells, tissues or organs

Advantages:

Xenotransplantation could potentially provide an unlimited supply of cells, tissues, and organs for humans. Any
disease that is treated by human-to-human transplantation could potentially be treated by xenotransplantation.
Organ xenotransplants could include whole hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys or pancreases. Tissue xenotransplants
could include skin grafts for burn patients, corneal transplants for the visually impaired, or bone transplants for
limb reconstruction. Cellular xenotransplants may provide treatment for people with diabetes, Alzheimer's or
Parkinson's diseases.

Disadvantages:

Medical science already uses animal parts for various therapeutic reasons, such as replacement heart valves from
pigs. However, these therapeutic products have been chemically treated and are not functional, living tissue. This
distinguishes them from the viable organs used in xenotransplantation. The most serious risk of
xenotransplantation appears to be cross-species transmission of undetected or unidentified animal infectious
agents to patients that could, in turn, be transmitted to the general public. The worst-case scenario would be a
major new epidemic. The potential risk of cross-species infection is largely compounded by the practices of
patient immunosuppression for transplantation. Some of the other scientific concerns surrounding
xenotransplantation include immune rejection, uncertain efficacy/viability (whether it will work), and whether
high levels of immunosuppression will leave the patient vulnerable to more frequent infectious diseases or cancer.
Scientists are attempting to overcome immune rejection by inserting human genes into animal cells to make them
more acceptable to a patient's immune system. Some experts believe that moving to clinical trials is the only way
the uncertainties surrounding xenotransplantation can be answered. Others say experimental results show that a
clinical trial at present would be premature and that these trials should be undertaken only if and when the risks
have been shown to be minimal.

Gene therapy

-Gene therapy is an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease. In the future, this technique
may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a geneinto a patient's cells instead of using drugs or surgery.

Advantages:

1. It offers the possibility of a positive medical outcome.

2. We can treat disease or illness in meaningful ways.
3. It could improve a person’s life in other ways.
4. We already know that it can be a successful treatment option.
5. Gene therapy could be useful in the treatment of multiple diseases.

Disadvantages:

1. There could be unwanted immune system reactions.

2. The delivery viruses might recover their ability to create disease.
3. There is no guarantee that the gene therapy will work.
4. The cost of gene therapy is prohibitive to a number of families.

Food processing

- Food processing is the process of changing raw food materials into more readily usable form.

Disadvantages of food processing:

1. Processed food-stuffs often lose nutrients.

2. Milled and polished rice results in loss of iron and vitamin B.

3. In white-flour (Maida), there is loss in weight and nutrients.

4. The original taste changes to some extent.

Microorganism are used in making various products.

One of the risks is that it might transfer bacteria and viruses since some examples of microorganisms are

bacteria, fungi and viruses which can cause various diseases.

Tissue and cell culture

Tissue culture is the growth of tissues or cells in an artificial medium separate from the organism. This is

typically facilitated via use of a liquid, semi-solid, or solid growth medium, such as broth or agar.
Advantages Of Tissue Culture Are :

selection and culturing of desirable characteristic traits. reproduction without the need for seeds. no restrictions

on growing plants due to seasons. short production time with long generation time.
In this process the growth medium or culture solution is very important as, it is used for growing

plant tissue because it contains various plant nutrients in the form of 'jelly' known as agar and plant hormones

which are necessary for the growth of plant.

Traditional vs Modern
- Since traditional biotechnology had plants and animals as their focus, modern biotechnology focuses

on genes, cells, and tissue

- People all over the world have been preparing products, such as beverages, curd, cheese, vinegar,

wine, bread, etc., since the beginning of recorded history of mankind without knowing that

microorganisms were involved in these processes.

- In its modern sense, biotechnology means the application of recently developed skills in microbial

and biochemical technology to applied biology, i.e., to the exploitation of biological systems and

processes for our own use.

- Biotechnology has indeed done a lot of good for the world, but it also has disadvantages, and
there are some concerns about its potential negative impacts. In agriculture, there are concerns
that genetically modified crops may transfer genetic material into natural, unmodified plants. For
instance, a crop that is herbicide resistant may transfer some of its traits to a weed, which would
result in an herbicide resistant weed. Another concern about agricultural biotechnology centers
around the uncertainty of genetically modified crops’ long-term biological viability.
- The long-term consequences of the genetic alteration of various organisms - from bacteria in the
pharmaceutical industry to the animals in biological research to the plants in agriculture - are still
unknown. Genetically modified organisms may also escape into the wild, especially transgenic
microorganisms, and these events may upset the balance of the ecosystem in nature. This may
cause a decrease in the biodiversity, also known as the variety, of organisms.
- Because of the fast growth, pest resistance and hardiness of transgenic crops, the yield of such
crops is typically higher than those of conventional crops. Yet some economists are concerned
that overproduction due to transgenic crops may result in effects such as market instability,
reduced export income, fewer product varieties and even unemployment. Depressed economies
may also be unable to take advantage of the potential benefits of agricultural biotechnology due
to global overproduction. The asymmetrical availability of these crops also raises questions about
the potential for discriminatory exploitation.