Question : Asses the basic characteristics of Modern Europe.

Introduction: The period between the end an age and the beginning of another age is called the transition
period. Some researchers believe that the modern era began at the middle of the 15 th century.

Features of Transition Period are-

1. Fall of Eastern Roman empire.

2. Division in social structure.
3. Renaissance or epistemological awakening.
4. Geographical Exploration.
5. Secularism.
6. Decline of feudalism.
7. Emergence of middle class.
8. Circulation of currency.
9. Development of capitalism.

10. Emergence of nation states.

11. Reform movement.
12. Decline of feudalism.
13. Emergence of new social structures and institutions
14.Change of Craft guilds and Merchant guilds
15. Invention of Cash/Money system
16 . Scientific Invention
17. Invention of Bank syste
1.Fall of Eastern Roman Empire:
Some historians believe that civilization entered the modern era in the mid-15th century. This
period is specifically defined since the fall of the Byzantine Empire at the hands of the Ottoman
Turks in 1453 AD. The period immediately preceding this was known in European history as the
Middle Ages. In medieval Europe, Constantinople belonged to the Eastern Roman Empire.
Constantinople is known as one of the centers of Greco-Roman civilization. Later, after the fall
of Constantinople to the Muslim powers, many talented people from this place spread to
different parts of Europe. Most of them took refuge in Italy. These wise men took it with them
when they migrated. All precious books arrived. They get the opportunity to practice the
knowledge while sitting in Italy. As a result, there was a renaissance. This renaissance was one
of the driving forces behind the transition from the Middle Ages into the modern era.
2.Division in Social Structure: There were several classes of people in European society. The
status of kings was set above everything else in society. Farmers, artisans and laborers had
separate ethnological identities. But in the modern era, this kind of social stratification
changed.

3. Renaissance or Epistemological Awakening: In a word, the modern age has developed out
of all the direct or indirect results of the Renaissance. The word renaissance literally means
revival. The Renaissance began with Greek and Roman literary practices. The scholars believed
ancient knowledge is important for the advancement people.
Because of Renaissance, there are people at this time became more scientific minded. Instead
of analyzing everything in the light of religious philosophy, people then get a chance to
experience subjective reality through non-religious thinking. Free thinking develops in people.
The development of free thought opened the door to many new inventions.
4. Geographical discoveries: After the fall of Constantinople, Europeans needed to establish a
new trading center to survive in the world market. The epistemological awakening during the
Renaissance increased people’s interest in the geographical environment. The invention of the
compass and various directional instruments helped for geographical discovery. People are
interested to know about the outside world. In this way, one after another new lands were
discovered.
Especially the discovery of America by the sailor Christopher Columbus. Portuguese sailor Henry
the Navigator can be identified as the pioneer of this discovery. Inspired by the navigator,
Portuguese sailors became interested in sending naval expeditions to different parts of the
world, including Africa one after another.

5. Rise of the Middle Class: In the modern era, the special class engaged in business as a
profession came to be known as middle class or bourgeois class in the society. After the
development of the city, people’s lifestyle changes. The middle class that formed these
settlements were mainly merchants by profession. Many laborers came from Manor to join
them. They are known in the name of craftsman. They are able to acquire various skills from
traders. In the modern era, this middle class or bourgeois class gradually climbed to the peak of
improvement in various fields. Later they played vital role in politics.

6.Circulation of Currency: By the 12th century AD, coins were in circulation among the elite.
Then gradually it became common among common people. The use of currency gave a new
impetus to the field of trade and commerce. People get the facility to buy and sell easily.

7. Rise of Capitalism: Expansion of papal supremacy and monasticism in the medieval

economy, popes began to invest church surplus money as capital. A change in the economic
system can be observed in this case. Especially in the medieval economy, the main investors of
capital were various bankers. Shipping is known as the oldest institution in terms of capital
investment. Especially around the 14th century, this type of business is known to have been
established.
9.The Rise of the Nation-State: Civilization from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age This papal
monopoly crumbled. The so-called Holy State of Rome was replaced by nation-states in various
places. In particular, certain linguistic communities in a certain geographical area have tried to
form their own national states.
Rome has no dominion over these states in the Holy States controlled by the Pope. The power
of the Pope was reduced in Protestant states. Henry VII and VIII in England, Louis XI, Charles
VIII and Henry IV in France and Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain were credited with establishing
the nation state. In many cases nation-states developed under monarchies.
10. Religious Reform Movement and Secularism: The Reformation movement was a turning
point in modern European history. The churches and clergy of medieval Europe were rife with
corruption, lawlessness, injustice sensuality, etc. Priests sold indulgences or certificates of
heaven. Influenced by the Renaissance, people began to raise questions and protest against the
actions of the clergy. One of these protestors are Martin Luther, Calvin, Zooey Link, etc.
In 1517,a priest named Tetzel began selling indulgence in northern Germany. People were led
to believe that by purchasing an indulgence, a person could go to heaven without repenting of
his or her dead relatives. Tetzel’s campaign could not be tolerated by Luther. On October 31,
1517, he nailed a 95point protest against the sale of indulgences to the door of the University
of Wittenberg in Germany. He wrote a book called “Babylian Captivity” and attacked it in strong
language. Thus Luther started the protestant Christianity of Protestantism.
11. Decline of chivalry and feudalism : An important feature of this transition period is the
declining the medieval institutions like feudalism, Chivalry, manorial system etc. In this period
Feudal culture declined as new military technology reduced the importance of castles and
Feudal lords.