2020 учебник по теории фонетике

ABAI KAZAKH NATIONAL PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY
BADANBEKKYZY ZAURE
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE: THEORETICAL PHONETICS
CD videos
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE

REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN
REPUBLICAN SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL CENTER “TEXTBOOK”
ABAI KAZAKH NATIONAL PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY
ZAURE BADANBEKKYZY
Dedicated to the 90thAnniversary

of the Abai Kazakh National
Pedagogical University
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE: THEORETICAL

PHONETICS
ALMATY, 2020
UDC 811.111.(075.8)
LBC 81.2 Eng-923
B 13
Recommended by the Republican State Treasury Enterprise
«Republican Scientific and Practical Center “Textbook”» of the
Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan as
a textbook for higher education (Protocol # 4450 03. 10. 2019)
REVIEWERS:
Zh.Abuov - doctor in Philologycal Sciences, Professor, head of the chair

«Foreign languages» KazNPU
Tulebike A. Kulgeldinova – doctor in pedagogical sciences, professor, Abylai
Khan University of International Relations and World Languages
G.S. Asanova- PhD, associated professor, Abylai Khan University of International
Relations and World Languages.
B. E.Bukabaeva - candidate in Philologycal Sciences, «Foreign languages chair»
Kaz NPU
Z. Kemelbekova - candidate in Philologycal Sciences, «Foreign languages chair»
Kaz NPU
Badanbekkhyzy Zaure
B 13 “The English language: modern theoretical phonetics“ for the 3rd year
students. Specialіty: Foreign language: two foreign languages. With Videos. / Z.
Badanbekkyzy , 2020.- 210 p.
ISBN 978-601-298-807-9
The goal of the textbook is the formation of content based professional

knowledge and skills of students.
The textbook is characterized by using presentation form of the modules, CD video
materials on the topics and, using E-learning approaches, and the phonetic
vocabulary in three languages.
It has been written primarily for the students and, teachers and, who is interested in
theoretical phonetics.
ISBN 978-601-298-807-9
UDC 811.111.(075.8)
LBC 81.2 Eng-923
©Badanbekkhyzy Z.,2019
CONTENTS
PREFACE.................................................................................................................. 5
MODULE I THE SUBJECT OF THEORETICAL PHONETICS…............. 6
1.1. Phonetics as a science.
1.2. Connection of phonetics with linguistic and non- linguistic sciences.
1.3. Branches of phonetics.
1.4. Methods of investigation used in different branches of phonetics.
1.5. Practical and theoretical importance of phonetics.
Seminar 1.................................................................................................................... 16
Students` individual work.......................................................................................... 20
Summary..................................................................................................................... 23
MODULE II SOUNDS OF SPEECH AS ACOUSTIC AND
ARTICULATORY UNITS...................................................................................... 25
2.3 The articulatory classification of English sounds.
2.4. Modification of English sounds.
2.5. The articulation basis of the English language.
Seminar 2................................................................................................................... 40
Summary..................................................................................................................... 45
MODULE III SPEECH MECHANISMS............................................................. 47
3.1. Speech mechanisms.
3.2.Types of speech mechanisms.
3.3.The functions of speech mechanisms in producing speech sounds.
Seminar 3.................................................................................................................... 53
Summary..................................................................................................................... 55
MODULE IV THE PHONOLOGICAL ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUNDS
PHONOLOGICAL SCHOOLS.............................................................................. 57
4.1. Definition of phonology.
4.2. Phonology as a science.
4.3. The phoneme theory. Variants of the phoneme (аllophones).
4.4. Phonological schools.
Seminar 4.......................................................................................................... ……. 65
Students` individual work........................................................................................... 66
Summary..................................................................................................................... 67
MODULE V THE UNSTRESSED VOCALISM OF ENGLISH………............. 68
5.1. A vowel of full formation in an unstressed syllable.
5.2. A semi-weak vowel in an unstressed syllable.
5.3. An unstressed vowel in different types of reduction.
Seminar 5.................................................................................................................... 70
Summary..................................................................................................................... 72
MODULE VI THE SYLLABIC STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS......... 27
6.1. Definition of syllable.
6.2. The structure of syllable. Types of syllable.
6.3. The functions of syllable.
Seminar 6.................................................................................................................... 76
Summary..................................................................................................................... 78
MODULE VII THE ACCENTUAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS.. 79
7.1. General characteristics of word stress. Types of stress.

7.2. The principles of word-stress classification.
7.3. The accentuation tendencies of English.
Seminar 7............................................................................................................... 82
Students` individual work..................................................................................... 85
Summary..................................................................................................................... 85
MODULE VIII THE INTONATIONAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH
SENTENCES............................................................................................................. 86
8.1. General characteristics of intonation.
8.2. Types of intonation.
8.3. The role of intonation in the process of human intercommunication.
8.4. Components of intonation.
8.5.Methods of indicating intonation graphically.
Seminar 8.................................................................................................................... 93
Summary..................................................................................................................... 97
MODULE IX THE ENGLISH LITERARY PRONUNCIATION IN
BRITISH ISLES AND IN THE USA.................................................... 98
9.1. Spread of English in the world and reasons for that.
9.2.The concepts `pronunciation, dialect and accent`.
9.3.Main pronunciation types of British Isles and the USA.
9.4.Differences between the British and American pronunciation.
Seminar 9................................................................................................................... 106
Students` individual work............................................................. …………………. 110
Summary..................................................................................................................... 110
MODULE X TEACHING NORMS OF ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION…… 111
10.1. Criteria for choosing a particular type of pronunciation as the teaching norm.
10.2.The main facts that influence to choose teaching norms of English
pronunciation.
10.3.The teaching norms in the articulation of vowel and consonant sounds in R.P.
10.4.Styles of pronunciation.
Seminar 10................................................................................................................... 115
Summary..................................................................................................................... 116
FINAL TESTS............................................................................. ………………… 118
GLOSSARY OF PHONETIC TERMINOLOGY................................................ 140
ENGLISH-KAZAKH-RUSSIAN PHONETIC VOCABULARY…................. 158
BIBLIOGRAPY........................................................................................................ 167
PREFACE
The textbook is the first of its kind in theoretical phonetics written by the
Kazakhstani authors. The textbook is written using new technology such as e-
learning.
The purpose of the textbook is to develop students ability to critically assess
existing in phonetics concepts on the basis of e-learning systems and facilitate
the ability of four types of speech activity: speaking, listening, reading, writing,
to form students professionally- oriented knowledge and skills in the field of
theoretical phonetics.
The textbook consists 10 modules of theoretical phonetics in the short form.
The modules are compiled from different works of scientists and from Internet
sources. Each module contains aims and objectives of the module, learning
outcomes, problems to be discussed , key words , lecture topics, seminar
questions and assignments , student`s individual work and glossary of the
module. The content of the modules is presented as a logical way which leads
the students to their independent conclusions. In this way, knowledge is
acquired through the critical thinking process itself.
Each module is accompanied by illustrations, tables, diagrams and E-learning
systems for the purposes of systematization and reference so developing
students` cognitive functions.
Tasks and exercises included at the seminar lessons are based on the concrete
tasks and questions within the context of the theory of phonetics.
The exercises serve to develop students professional ability to solve theoretical
and practical problems and self-development.
Final tests for the modules give an opportunity to the students to check their
knowledge in theoretical phonetics.
English-Kazakh-Russian phonetic vocabulary helps the students better
understanding of phonetic terms.
The peculiarity of the textbook is the using video materials, using E-learning
systems such as Kahoot, “Quizizz.com”, iSpring QuizMaker, Praat, Socrative,
Padlet, Prezi programs. The textbook can also be used by learners (level B2) to
improve their language.
Especially thanks to professor T. Kulgeldinova and to associated professor
G.S. Asanova, Abylai Khan University of International Relations and World
Languages in reviewing the textbook.
Thanks to professor Zh. Abuov, head of the chair «Foreign languages»
KazNPU in reviewing and giving advice of compiling the textbook.
Thanks to associated professors of «Foreign languages» chair, Kaz NPU: B.E.
Bukabaeva and Z. Kemelbekova supporting and giving advice while compiling
the textbook!
Author
MODULE I THE SUBJECT OF THEORETICAL PHONETICS
The content of the module The aim of the module is the formation of
Module contains: student’s linguistic, intercultural, communicative
- the aim of the module and professionally adaptive competencies on the
-objectives of the module topic.
Learning outcomes:
By the end of the module a student:
- defines the concept `phonetics` as a science;
- describes the phonetic system of the English language;
- analyzes the connection of phonetics with linguistic and non-linguistic sciences;
- characterizes four aspects of speech sounds.
KEY WORDS phonetics, connection, linguistic and non- linguistic

sciences, speech sounds, branches, aspects, components,
methods of investigation, aspects.
Problems to
be discussed:
What does phonetics

study?
What science is
phonetics? Connection of Components
phonetics with of the
linguistic and English
non-linguistic phonetic Branches and
sciences. structure. aspects of
phonetics.
The term phonetics is derived from

An English phonetician, professor Alfred Charles
Gimson (1917 - 1985) said: “To speak any
language a person must know nearly 100% of its
phonetics, while only 50-90 % of its grammar and
1% of the vocabulary may be sufficient”.
the Greek language (fo;ne; - sound,
voice and ta fonetika- the science of
voice).
Phonetics is one of the oldest, the most
fundamental, independent, and a basic
branch of linguistics. Neither linguistic
theory nor linguistic practice can do
without phonetics and no language
the description is complete without phonetics.
The object of phonetics is to study the
oral aspect of language. Its field of
study is speech. Phonetics has an equal
importance with grammar or lexicology. As a linguistic science phonetics has its
subject matter and phonetics has its phonetics system.
Phonetics studies
segmental and
supersegmental phonetic
units:
Supersegmental units:
Segmental units:
- accentual structure of the words, its nature ,
consonant and
place and degree;
vowel phonemes,
their distribution -syllabic structure of the words, i.e. syllable
and classification. formation and syllable division;
- intonational structure of the sentences.
The phonetic system of language

The phonetic system of English consists of the four components:
- speech sounds;
- the syllabic structure of words;
- accentual structure of the words (word stress);
- intonation (prosody). These four components constitute what is called the
pronunciation of English.
The first and the basic component of the phonetic structure of language is the
system of its segmental phonemes existing in the material form of their
allophones. The phonemic component has 3 aspects, or manifestations:
1. the system of its phonemes as discrete isolated units;
2. the distribution of the allophones of the phonemes;
3. the methods of joining speech sounds together in words and at their junction, or
the methods of effecting VC, CV, CC, and VV transitions.
The second component is the syllabic structure of words. The syllabic structure
has two aspects, which are inseparable from each other: syllable formation and
syllable division. Syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech
sounds.There are four phonetic types of syllables in the English language: V-
uncovered open which consists of one vowel sound I [aɪ], or [ɔː]. VC- uncovered
open which consists of a vowel followed by one or more consonants, e.g.:odd /ɒd/.
CV- covered open which consists of a vowel preceded by one or more consonants,
e.g.:no/nәʊ/. CV- covered closed which consists of a vowel preceded and
followed by one or more consonants, e.g.:cat/kæt/.
The third component is the accentual structure of words as items of vocabulary
(i.e. as pronounced in isolation). The accentual structure of words has three
aspects: the physical (acoustic) nature of word accent; the position of the accent in
disyllabic and polysyllabic words; the degrees of word accent. The accentual
structure of the word, or its stress-pattern is the correlation of varying prominence
of syllables in a word. According to the phonologically relevant feature there
are: -dynamic (force) stress intensity of articulation; qualitative stress colouring of
a vowel; musical (tonic) stress change of pitch;quantitative stress length of a
vowel.
Intonational structure of sentences is the fourth component of the phonetic
system. It is based on several components: pitch, rhythm, sentence stress.
Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. There are 2 main
patterns of intonation in English: falling intonation and rising intonation.
Other main types of intonation includes: high fall, low fall, fall-rise, high rise,
midlevel rise, low rise. The four components of the phonetic system of language
(phonemic, syllabic, accentual and intonational) all constitute its pronunciation (in
the broad sense of the term).
The role of phonetics in foreign language teaching
D. Abercrombie said: “I would reply that all language

teachers willy-nilly are phoneticians. It is not possible for
practical purposes to teach foreign languages to any types
of teachers, for any purpose, by any methods without giving
some attention to pronunciation“.
https://mybiblioteka.su/tom3/7-41970.html
Theoretical phonetics is aimed at discussing those problems of modern phonetic

science which are strongly concerned with English language teaching. The teacher
must be sure that what he teaches is linguistically correct. The study of phonetics
has educational and social values for almost everyone, realizing the importance of
language in human communication. Phonetics is primarily concerned with
expression level. It is important in the study of language. Is it important for a
language teacher to be a skillful phonetician? Some teachers meet this question
with understanding, others may protest and say that it is not important to be a good
phonetician; the 3rd may deny that it is really important. The role of phonetics is
also very important in the investigations of historical aspects of languages, in the
field of dialectology, designing or improving systems of writing or spelling, in
questions involving the spelling or pronunciation of personal or place names or of
words borrowed from other languages.
A brief historical outline

We may consider that Mr. Panini is the first phonetician who made phonetic
investigation in the 4th B.C. He described very old even for him texts which are
called Vedas (Veda , "knowledge") and Rig-Vedas ( an ancient Indian collection
of Vedic Sanskrit hymns). They were written in a kind of a language prior to
Sanskrit. Sanskrit is a classic old Indian language. It was used in the 10 th century
B.C. and was known to the ancient Greeks and to the ancient Hindus. A science of
phonetics appeared in India more than 2000 years ago.Only speech sounds were
researched by the scientists of that time. The major Indic alphabets today order
their consonants according to Pāṇini's
classification.https://mybiblioteka.su/tom3/7-41970.html
Some data connected with the history of phonetic development:
- 1829 laryngoscope,
- 1840 kymograph (It records qualitative variations in the

form of kymographic tracings.With the help of kymograph the duration of the
speech signal were calculated),
- 1877 gramophone (it analogueis also called phonograph

record, a disc shaped analogue sound recording medium),
- 1899 cylinder phonograph (A phonograph, the first

device for recording and replaying sound. They are used to show the process of
articulation. Further point should be made in connection with the relation ship
between phonetics and other linguistic and non-linguistic sciences) were invented.
In 1852 the first observations of the vocal cords were made.
In 1886 International Phonetic Association (IPA) was founded.

IPA started publication of a special phonetic magazine `LeMattre Phonetique`. It
started phonetic symbols for sounds of many existing languages.
Connection of phonetics with linguistic and non-linguistic sciences
As phonetics is one of the branches of linguistics it is closely connected with its

other branches. Phonetics is connected with linguistic sciences such as grammar,
lexicology, stylistics.They study the language from different viewpoints. For
example: grammar studies the structure of a language and the rules governing the
combination of words into sentences; lexicology treats of the vocabulary of a
language, of its origin, meaning and word-building; stylistics means the study of
style. Phonetics is connected with them because lexical, grammatical and other
phenomena are expressed phonetically.
Links of Phonetics with Grammar
Phonetics formulates the rules of pronunciation for separate sounds and sound
combinations. Rules of reading, sound interchange and intonation connect
phonetics with grammar.
1) The rules of reading are based on the relation of sounds to orthography and
present certain difficulties in learning the English language especially or the initial
stage of studying. Phonetics helps to pronounce correctly:
-the singular and plural forms of nouns: pen – pens /z/- is pronounced after
voiced consonants; desk-desks /s/ -is pronounced after voiceless consonants.
- the past tense forms of regular verbs:
/d/ after voiced consonant /t/ after voiceless consonants
describe– described ask – asked
/ɪd/ after /t/ and /d/: want – wanted, intend – intended.
2) Sound interchange displays the connection of phonetics with grammar. It
helps to distinguish between: - the singular and plural forms of nouns: woman-
women, man-men, tooth – teeth, basis – bases;
-the tense forms of irregular verbs: write – wrote – written;
- nouns and verbs: bath – bathe[bɑ:θ] – [beɪð] ;
- adjectives and nouns: hot – heat [hɒt] – [hi:t] ;
-verbs and adjectives: to moderate – moderate [ˈmɒdǝreɪt] – [ˈmɒdǝrɪt] ;
-nouns and nouns: shade – shadow [ʃeɪd] – [ˈʃædǝʊ];
- nouns and adjective: type – typical [taɪp] – [ˈtɪpɪkl].
3) Intonation component helps to single out the logical center of the sentence: I’d
like a cup of indian tea. (sounds like a simple request)
I’d like a cup of indian tea. (not any other sort of tea)
I’d like a cup of indian tea. (not a mug).
Links of Phonetics with lexicology
Connection of phonetics with lexicology helps us to distinguish words one from
another with the help of different sounds and stress position.
1)The presence of stress in the right place helps to distinguish nouns and adjectives
from verbs:
suspect (n)– to sus'pect (v)
abstract(n)– to abs'tract (v)
object (n)– to ob'ject (v)
transfer (n)– to trans'fer (v)
'separate – to sepa'rate
'predicate – to predi'cate
2) Due to the position of word stress we can distinguish between homonymous
words and word groups: ˈblackboard – ˈblack ˌbird, ˈblue-nose – ˈblue ˌnose.
3) Homographs can be differentiated only due to pronunciation because they are
identical in spelling: row [raʊ] – row [rǝʊ], tear [teǝ]– tear [tɪǝ],sewer [sɜʊǝ] -
sewer [`sjʊǝ] .
Links of Phonetics with stylistics
Phonetics is also connected with stylistics through intonation , graphical expressive
means , repetition of words, phrases and sounds , alliteration , onomatopoeia. Let`s
consider them separately.
1)Through intonation and its components: speech melody, utterance stress,
rhythm, pausation, voice tamber. They serve to express emotions, to distinguish
between different attitudes on the part of the author and the speaker. Very often the
writer helps the reader to interpret his ideas through special words and remarks:
There was a short pause.
She said bitterly.
Ann touched him gently.
Her tone was hostile.
Also intonation which possesses definite phonetic features helps to distinguish
various types of utterances.
She 'went to the \theatre – a statement of fact.
She 'went to the / theatre – a question.
↓She went to the \/ theatre – an implication.
2) The connection of phonetics with stylistics is evident in onomatopoeia.
Onomatopoeia is sound imitation or a combination of sounds which imitate
sound produced in nature. It helps to show the connection phonetics and stylistics,
e.g. tinckle, gingle, clinck, clatter, chater; crash, bang; clink, ting, chink. Vowel
interchange can also be observed in onomatopoetic compounds:
Jiggle – joggle
Flip – flop
Chip – chop
Flap – flop
Hip – hop
3) Alliteration is a repetition of identical or similar sounds that helps to impart a
melodic effect to the utterance and to express certain emotions. Thus, the repetition
of the sound /m/ in the lines of the ballad helps to produce the effect of merriment:
There are twelve months in all the year,
As I hear many men say,
But the merriest month in all the year
Is the merry month of May.
Connection of phonetics with non-linguistic sciences
As mentioned above phonetics is connected with a number of non-linguistic

sciences which study the process of speech production and speech perception.
Acoustic phonetics is connected with physics and mathematics. It comes close
to studying physics and the tools used in this field enable the investigator to
measure and analyze the movement of the air in terms of acoustics.
Articulatory phonetics is connected with physiology, anatomy, and
anthropology. It is necessary for some specialists to know the anatomy and
functions of the articulators in speech production to teach sounds and also in
handling of applied problems. For those who work in speech therapy, which
handles pathological conditions of speech, phonetics forms an essential part of
the professional training syllabus. Phonetics also enters into the training of
teachers of the deaf and dumb people and can be of relevance to a number of
medical and dental problems.
http://present5.com/photetics-what-is-it-phonetics-is/
https://en.ppt-online.org/157933
https://doclecture.net/1-9969.html
Aspects of speech sounds
Let`s differentiate aspects of speech sounds. As a physical phenomenon the sound
substance has its own independent properties. It is a product of human activity.
Being created by the speaker, the sound substance can indicate the speaker’s
personality such as sex, age, individual features and reveal his physiological and
emotional state, geographical origin, education, social status. Sound phenomena
have different aspects, they are closely connected.
Branches of phonetics
We may consider the branches of phonetics according to these aspects and there
are 3 main branches of English phonetics:
1) ARTICULATORY PHONETICS
It is the most productive, developed and the oldest branch of phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics studies the organs of speech and their use in producing
segmental speech sounds. It concerns the manipulation of the shape of the oral
tract to change the shape of resulting sound waves, creating human speech. Human
beings have developed a very accurate oral mechanism that allows the production
of a remakable number of sounds that are then combined into meaningful words
and phrases. Techniques which are used in the investigations of articulatory
phonetics are: palatograhy, photography , X-ray photography ,cinematography , X-
ray cinematography ,computer programmes. We`ll speak about these techniques
later on.
2) ACOUSTIC PHONETICS
Acoustic phonetics is the study of the acoustic characteristics of speech,
including an analysis and description of speech in terms of its physical
properties, such as frequency, intensity, and duration.
And studies the way in which the air vibrates between the speaker’s mouth and
the listener’s ear. Descriptions of speech sounds were investigated in 1830
(Willis), but the invention of the sound spectrograph (1945) was the major
technological breakthrough that made the analysis and visualization of the
speech signal possible. Any sound of nature exists in the form of sound waves
and has the same physical properties – frequency, intensity, duration and
spectrum.The frequency (pitch) and amplitude (‘loudness’ or intensity) of a
sound can be analysed on a waveform. The number of vibrations per second is
called frequency and is usually measured in Hertz (Hz). The higher the number
of cycles per second, the higher the frequency and perceived pitch. Intensity of
speech sounds depends on the amplitude of vibrations. Changes in intensity are
associated with stress in those languages which have dynamic stress. Intensity is
measured in decibels (dB). Acoustic phonetics has its basic method –
instrumental. Various kinds of apparatus are applied for analyzing the acoustic
structure of segmental sounds and prosodic phenomena: spectrograph,
oscillograph and intonograph to analyze frequency, intensity and duration. Any
sound has a certain duration it is measured in milliseconds (ms). Speech sounds
are investigated by means of operator called spectrograph. Intonation is
investigated by intonograph. The use of technical devices as mentioned above
spectrograph, intonograph and other sound analyzing and sound synthesizing
machines is generally combined with the method of direct observation.
3) AUDITORY PHONETICS
Auditory phonetics studies how people perceive segmental speech sounds,
pitch variations, loudness, tempo, rhythm, pauses, tambre. Its interests lie more
in the sensation of hearing, which is brain activity, than in the physiological
working of the ear or the nervous activity between the ear and the brain. This
branch of phonetics is of great interest to anyone who teaches or studies
pronunciation. The methods applied in auditory phonetics are those of
experimental psychology: experimenting, usually based on different types of
auditory tests.
All the above branches of phonetics are closely connected.There are other
divisions of phonetics such as:
a) general phonetics, which deals with sound-producing possibilities of the
human speaking apparatus , how they can be used in language.
b) special phonetics which studies the phonetic system of a particular
language, it is itself is divided into two subtypes- historical and special. The
historical phonetics studies the development of the phonetic system within the
historical development of the language. (the approach is diachronic). The
special one studies the development of the phonetic system of the language in
its static form, as it functions in its present stage (the approach is synchronic).
c) experimental phonetics- different apparators and instruments are used. The
originator of this method is Rousellot, the French phonetician.
d) descriptive phonetics deals with a sound structure, phonetic means of
expression of meaning and articulation in a particular language.
e) comparative phonetics deals with the to study of the correlation between the
phonetic systems of two or more languages.
All the branches of phonetics are interconnected not only with one another but
also with other branches of linguistics.
Methods of investigations in phonetics
Methods of
investigations in
phonetics:
Subjective (special laboratory Objective (various

equipment such as spectrograph instrumental techniques:
and intonograph is used) palatography, photography,
laryngoscopy,
cinematography are used)
The objective and the subjective methods are complementary and not
opposite to one another. Nowadays we may use the up-to-date complex set to
fix the articulatory parameters of speech - so called articulograph. The
investigations used in phonetics is vary, but we single out three of them.
The methods of investigation used
in phonetics fall into three main
groups:
- the methods of - the linguistic

direct observation; methods;
- the experimental
(instrumental)
methods.
Let`s consider them separately. 1) The methods of direct observation

comprise three modes of phonetic analyses: by ear (auditory), by sight (visual)
and by muscular sensation. So, the capability to distinguish the exact quality of
sounds pronounced in various sound sequences or in isolation is known for the
“phonetic ear”. “ By sight” - means the use of the hand -mirror in order to
observe the movements and positions of one’s own or other people’s speech
organs. This method helps to distinguish the slightest variation in sound
quality. This process can be combined, analyzing one’s own muscular
sensation during articulation: lip movement, some tongue movement;
combined with X-ray photography or X-ray cinematography etc. This method
is mainly used in articulatory phonetics. It is oldest, simplest and most
available method of investigation. Methods of direct observation are
subjective.
2) Linguistic methods. The aim of the linguistic methods of investigation is to
determine in what way the phonetic phenomena, such as sound, syllable, stress,
intonation are used in a language to convey a certain meaning. Distributional
analysis is the method of linguistic investigation which aim is to establish the
distribution of speech sounds i.e. all the positions and combinations in which
each speech sound of a given language occurs (or does not occur) in the words
of that language. One of the steps of this analysis is substitution – the replacing
of one speech sound by another in the same position to see whether a certain
combination of sounds is possible or not.
The statistical method of linguistic investigation in phonetics is connected with
the method of distributional analysis. Its aim is to establish the frequency,
probably and predictability of occurrence of speech sounds in different
positions in words.
The semantic method is used in phonetics to determine the phonological status
of sounds. It consists in replacement of one sound for another in order to find
out in which cases where the phonetic context remains the same such
substitution leads to a change of meaning. The linguistic method is mainly used
in Phonology and in General Phonetics.
3)The third, the experimental methods are based upon the use of special
instruments and devices which include artificial palate, X-ray photograph,
cinematograph, laryngoscope, oscillograph, spectrograph, kymograph,
intonograph, , palatograph. Due to these devices, the articulatory and acoustic
properties of speech sounds are investigated. The instrumental methods of
investigation are:
•spectography helps to obtain the general characteristics of a speech sound, it is
very useful in investigation of complex sounds;
•palatography helps to determine the interaction of tongue and palate in
production of speech sounds, here an articulation palate is used;
•laryngoscopy helps to observe the work of vocal cords;
•X-ray photography and cinematography help to trace the position and
movement of speech organs;
•kymography helps to record qualitative variations of sounds;
•intonography helps to measure the fundamental tone of the vocal cords, the
average sound pressure, the duration of speech (pausation). Special laboratory
equipment helps to obtain the necessary data about acoustic properties of
speech sounds. The use of such technical devices as spectopraph, intonograph
and other sound analyzing and sound synthesizing machines is generally
combined with the method of direct observation and is applied in acoustic
phonetics.
This method was founded by Rousselot (1846–1924) regarded (as the “father
of experimental phonetics) perfected by M. Grammont S.Carcevsky,V.A.
Bogoroditsky, L.V.Scherba, E. Petrovici , K.L. Pike who investigated the
process of study not only of their language but also of the foreign languages.
Any research can hardly avoid working with computers now. Instrumental
methods are objective.
The theoretical and practical importance of phonetics
At the Foreign Languages universities in our country, two courses are
introduced.
Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic
units in language. Theoretical significance of Phonetics is connected with the
further development of the problem of the synchronic study and description of
the phonetic system, the problem of comparative analysis and description of
different languages and diachronic description of successive changes in the
phonetic systems of different languages. The growing interest in phonetics is
partly due to increasing recognition of the central position of language in every
line of social activity. Phonetics has considerable social value.
Practical phonetics studies the substance, the material form of phonetic
phenomena in relation to meaning. The sphere of practical application of
phonetics is rather wide. Its practical use is not only connected with teaching
foreign languages or mother tongue, but it is also used in methods of correcting
speech defects, in teaching deaf mutes, in training actors, teachers singers,
broadcasting and film-dubbing, in transliteration. Ear training and articulatory
training are both important in modern language teaching. Phonetics has
become important in a number of technological fields connected with
communication. On the research side much work in phonetics entails the use of
apparatus and is concerned with the basic characteristics of human speech. For
those who work in speech therapy, which handles pathological conditions of
speech, phonetics forms an essential part of the professional training syllabus.
The role of phonetics is extremely useful in the following spheres:
investigations in the historical aspects of languages, in the field of dialectology,
designing or improving systems of writing or spelling, in questions involving
the spelling or pronunciation of personal or place names or of words borrowed
from other languages.
References
1. Бурая, Е.А. Фонетика современного английского языка. Теоретический
курс [текст]: учебн. для студ. лингв. вузов и фак. / Е.А. Бурая, И.Е.
Галочкина, Т.И. Шевченко. – М.: Изд. центр “Академия”, 2006.
2.Васильев, В.А. Фонетика английского языка. Теоретический курс (на
английском языке) [текст]: учеб для студ. ин-тов и ф-тов иностр. языков /
В.А. Васильев. – М.: Высшая школа, 1970.
3.Леонтьева, С.Ф. Теоретическая фонетика современного английского
языка (на английском языке) [текст]: учеб для студ. пед. вузов и ун-тов /
С.Ф. Леонтьева. – 3-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Изд-во “Менеджер”, 2004.
4.Соколова, М.А. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка (на
английском языке) [текст]: учеб. для студ. высш. учеб. заведений / М.А.
Соколова, К.П. Гинтовт, И.С. Тихонова, Р.М. Тихонова. – 3-е изд.,
стереотип. – М.: Гуманитар, изд. центр ВЛАДОС, 2004.
5. Хромов С. С. Теоретическая фонетика. Учебно-практическое пособие. -
М.: Евразийский открытый институт, 2009. - 55 с.
6.Шевченко, Т.И. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка (на
английском языке) [текст]: Учебник / Т.И. Шевченко. – М: Высшая
школа, 2006.
7.Vrabel “Lectures in theoretical phonetics of the English language and
method-guides for seminars.”-PoliPrintUngv.r, 2009
Internet sources
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics/Articulatory_Phonetics
https://mybiblioteka.su/tom3/7-41970.html
https://studopedia.com.ua/1_330956_Methods-and-instruments-of-phonetic-
investigation.html
http://5fan.ru/wievjob.php?id=84830
//mybiblioteka.su/tom3/7-41970.html
http:// biblioclub.ru/index. php?page=book&id=93234T.T.
https://otherreferats.allbest.ru/languages/00178234_0.html
SEMINAR 1 Phonetics as a science
Problems to be discussed at the seminar:

1.1. Phonetics as a science.
1.2. Definition of phonetics.
1.3. Connection of phonetics with linguistic and non- linguistic sciences.
1.4. Methods of investigation used in different branches of phonetics.
1.5. Practical and theoretical importance of phonetics.
Questions for discussion:

1.What is phonetics? How do you prove that phonetics is an independent branch of
linguistics?
2. What is phonology? How is it related to phonetics?
3. How is phonetics connected with grammar, lexicology, stylistics?
4. How is phonetics connected with non-linguistic sciences?
8.Can you name some data of historical development of phonetics?
9.What methods are used in phonetic investigations?
10.What are the aspects of speech sounds?
11.What branch of phonetics studies the articulatory and auditory aspects of
speech
sounds?
12.What methods of investigation are applied in physiological phonetics?
13.What branch of phonetics deals with the acoustic aspect of speech sound?
14. What branch of phonetics studies the functional aspect of speech sounds?
15. Name the segmental and suprasegmental units of phonetics.
16.What is the practical application of phonetics?
17.What is the theoretical significance of phonetics?
18.What components are included in the phonetic structure of English?
19.What elements does the phonemic component consist of?
20. What elements does the syllabic component consist of?
21. What elements does the accentual component consist of?
22. What elements does the intonational component consist of?
Practical tasks:
1. Make a diagram of the relationship of phonetics with others sciences. Briefly
comment on her.
2. Create a card: ”methods of investigation used in different branches of
phonetics”.
Briefly comment on each method of investigation.
3. Give a brief outline of the development of theoretical phonetics as a science.
4. Give a brief outline of the components in the phonetic structure of English.
5. Make use of the following phonetic terms in sentences of your own: aspects
and branches of phonetics, divisions of phonetics, subjective, objective methods,
practical and theoretical importance of phonetics.
6.Identify the object and the subject of phonetics.
7. Analyze the branches of phonetics.
8. Name the segmental and suprasegmental elements.
9. Explain the role of phonetics in foreign language teaching.
Check yourself with a «Kahoot» programme test.
1.The term “phonetics” is derived from:

A) English B) Latin C) Hindus D) Greek E) French
2.The origin of the word ‘…’ is a Greek ‘phona’
A) a sonorant; B) a sound, a voice; C) acoustics; D) articulation; E) vowel.
3. which is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the
language.
A) segmental phonetics; B) practical phonetics; C) normative phonetics;
D) suprasegmental phonetics; E) theoretical phonetics.
4. Sound alterations are also widely spread on the synchronical level in the
present-day English and are known as …
A) contextual phonetics; B) practical phonetics; C) experimental phonetics;
D) acoustic phonetics; E)normative phonetics.
5. The branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and
vowel sounds, syllable structure, word accent and prosodic features, such as
pitch, stress and tempo is called …
A) phonology; B) instrumental phonetics; C) practical phonetics; D)
theoretical phonetics; e) experimental phonetics.
6.. studies the larger units of connected speech syllables, words, phrases, texts.
A) segmental phonetics; B) normative phonetics; C) theoretical phonetics;
D) practical phonetics; E) suprasegmental phonetics.
7. . studies the system of sound units and their function.
A) phonology; B) instrumental phonetics; C) practical phonetics; D)
theoretical phonetics; E) experimental phonetics.
8. What sciences are connected with phonetics?
A) medicine; physics, psychology, statistics, engineering; B) mathematics,
statistics, computer technologies; C) physics, mathematics, engineering,
computer technologies; D) medicine, physics, psychology, linguistics, maths,
statistics, computer technologies; E) psychology, biology, physics.
9. The branch of phonetics that studies the way in which the air is set into
motion is called...
A) articulator phonetics; B) practical phonetics; C) normative phonetics;
D) acoustic phonetics; D) theoretical phonetics.
10.. … studies the linguistic function of individual sounds or segments of
speech.
A) segmental phonetics; B) practical phonetics; C) normative phonetics;
D) suprasegmental phonetics; E) theoretical phonetics.
11. Some sound alterations are traced to the phonetic changes in earlier periods
of the language development and are known as …
A) Historical; B) Functional; C) Phonological; D) Principal; E) Abstract.
12. What Phonetics can you define?
A) A branch of linguistics dealing with the phonetic structure of a language.
B) Studying the structure of a sentence. C) A branch of linguistics dealing with
the meaning and word-building.
D) A branch of linguistics studying the structure of a language. E) A branch
of linguistics governing the combination of word.
13.Phonetics is an independent branch of:
A) linguistics B) lexicology C) stylistics D) grammar E) logics
14. Phonetics is connected with: A) grammar and physics, B) lexicology and
anatomy, C) physiology, D) stylistics E) all of them.
15. There are:
A) 3 branches of phonetics. B) 5 branches of phonetics. C) 4 branches of
phonetics. D) 6 branches of phonetics. E) 2 branches of phonetics
16. What is the unit of phonetics?
A) A phoneme. B) A minimal pairs. C) An allophone. D) A speech sound.
E) A sound.
17. What does physiological phonetics study?
A) It studies the acoustic properties of speech sounds. B) It studies the
functional aspect of speech sounds. C) It studies the fundamental frequency of
a sound.
D) It studies the articulatory and auditory aspects of speech sounds. E) It
studies speech sounds.
18. Phonetics is connected with such non- linguistic sciences as….
A) anatomy, biology. B) biology, physics. C) anatomy, physiology, physics
and others. D) grammar, maths. E) anatomy, lexicology.
19. What is the oldest and the most developed branch of phonetics?
A) Physiological phonetics. B) Phonology. C) Acoustic phonetics. D) General
phonetics. E) Comparative phonetics.
20. Phonetics, which is concerned with the study of the phonetic structure of
the language at different periods of its historical development is called…
A) a historical phonetics. B) general phonetics. C) descriptive phonetics.
D) comparative phonetics. E) functional phonetics.
21.What branch of phonetics studies the articulatory and auditory aspect of
speech sounds?
A) General phonetics. B) Phonology. C) Acoustic phonetics. D)
Physiological phonetics.E) Comparative phonetics.
22. A branch of phonetics which treats of the correlations between the
phonetics of two or more languages called….
A) contemporary phonetics. B) general phonetics. C) comparative phonetics.
D) special phonetics. E) historical phonetics.
23. Phonetics which studies the contemporary phonetic system of a particular
language is called..
A) historical phonetics. B) general phonetics. C) comparative phonetics.
D) descriptive phonetics. E) special phonetics.
24.What branch of phonetics is a statistical method widely used in?
A) General phonetics. B) Historical phonetics. C) Phonology. D) Acoustic
phonetics. E) Physiological phonetics.
25.What is the principle method used in acoustic phonetics?
A) The method of direct observation. B) The experimental method. C) The
method of discovering minimal pairs. D ) The stastical method. E) The method
of commutation.
26.The experimental method is based on….
A) the ear. B) the muscular tension. C) the direct observation. D) use of
special apparatus. E) the equipments.
27. Articulatory phonetics studies…..
A) how speech sounds are produced. B) how the sounds are perceived.
C) the system of sounds only. D) the patterns of sounds. E) the physical
characteristics of speech sounds.
28. Auditory phonetics deals with…
A) the system of speech sounds. B) the functions of speech sounds. C) the
study of how the speech sounds are perceived. D) the patterns of speech
sounds. E) the syllabic system.
29. What are the principal methods used in physiological phonetics?.
A) the method of direct observation. B) the experimental method. C) the
method of discovering minimal pairs. D) the statistical method. E) the method
of commutation.
30. Investigation by means of ear, sight, muscular sensation is called……
A) direct observation. B) linguistic. C) experimental D) biological E)
analytical
31.The aim of linguistic method of investigation is…
A) to interpret the linguistic function of a phonetic phenomenon.
B) to differentiate one word from another. C) to discover minimal pair.
D) to study functional aspects of speech sounds
E) to differentiate the loudness of speech sounds
32. Acoustic aspect of speech sounds is studied by…
A) auditory phonetics. B) acoustic phonetics. C) historical phonetics.
D) descriptive phonetics. E) practical phonetics.
33.There are ….major components/systems of phonetics.
A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5
34.Segmental phonetics is concerned with:
A) individual sounds B) syllables C) phrases D) texts
35. Suprasegmental phonetics deals with:
A) the larger units of connected speech. B) individual sounds words.
C) only with phrases. D) only with intonation.
36. The phonetic system of English consists of ….
A) four components. B) three components. C) two components. D) five
components.
37. The components of the phonetic system of English are:
A) speech sounds.
B) the syllabic structure of words. C) word stress and intonation (prosody).
D) all above them.
38.The first and the basic component of the phonetic structure of language is:
A) the system of its segmental phonemes existing in the material form of their
allophones. B) the syllabic structure of words. C) word stress. D) intonation
(prosody) .
39.The phonemic component has …. aspects, or manifestations: A) 3 B) 2
C) 4 D) 5
40. Aspects, or manifestations of the phonemic component are:
A) the system of its phonemes as discrete isolated units.
B) the distribution of the allophones of the phonemes.
C) the methods of joining speech sounds together in words and at their
junction, or the methods of effecting VC, CV, CC, and VV transitions. D) all
above them.
41. Syllabic structure of words is the … component of the English phonetic
system. A) second B) third C) fourth D) fifth
42.The syllabic structure has …aspects, which are inseparable from each
other.A) two B) three C) four D) five
43.There are….phonetic types of syllables in the English language. A) four
B) three C) four D) five
44.The third component is:
A) the accentual structure of words. B) speech sounds. C) the syllabic
structure of words. D) word stress and intonation (prosody).
45. The fourth component of the phonetic system is….
A) the intonational structure of utterances/ sentences.
B) speech sounds. C) the syllabic structure of words. D) word stress and
intonation (prosody).
46.There are ….. main patterns of intonation in English.
A) two B) ten C) twenty D) seven
Recommended literature
1. Борискина Ольга Олеговна,Костенко Нелли Васильевна Theoretical
phonetics Study Guide for second year students Учебно-методическое
пособие для вузов
2. Бурая, Е. А. Фонетика современного английского языка:
теоретическийкурс: учебник в электронном формате / Е. А. Бурая, И. Е.
Галочкина, Т. И. Шевченко. - 2014.
3.В.Н. Василина Электронный учебно-методический комплекс по
учебной дисциплине «Теоретическая фонетика (Английский язык)»
для специальности «Современные иностранные языки (перевод)» 1–
2106 01-02
4.И. И. Громовая Theoretical phonetics Методические указания и
учебные задания СанктПетербургский государственный университет
эрокосмического приборостроения (ГУАП), 2013
5.М. П. Козьма, Л. Г. Романова Теоретическая фонетика английского
языка Учебное пособие для студентов очного отделения факультета
иностранных языков Оренбург.Издательство ОГПУ-2014
Internet sources
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-FHQJEo38Vk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7mahmMmnSx4
http://www.dictionary.cambridge.org/
http://www.visualthsaurus.com/
http://thesaurus,reference,com/
http://www.las.ac.uk/materialsbank/mb063/eap/07/zs10208.htm
STUDENTS` INDIVIDUAL WORK
Project task:
1. Make a mini video project. Watch the video ‘Introduction to
Phonetics’https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7mahmMmnSx4 study,
analyze them then create your own text and video about the topic. You
should write your aim, plan (what you are going to show about, complete
a small test about the topic using . At the 1st seminar lesson
present your mini video project. Discuss the topic with your teacher and
group, and evaluate your work.
2.Written exercises:
1.Finish the following sentences:
Phonetics is connected with linguistic sciences because…..
Phonetics is connected with nonlinguistic sciences such as……because…..
Phonetics is connected with lexicology because…..
Phonetics is connected with physics …….
Phonetics is connected with anatomy…..
Descriptive phonetics deals with …
Theoretical phonetics has the following branches …..
Phonetics is a fundamental branch of linguistics and no …
The subjective, objective methods are …..
The phonetic system of language is a set of …..
Phonetics is divided into two major components (or systems):
Segmental units are sounds of speech which ……
Suprasegmental, or prosodic, units are ……
The phonetic system of English consists of the following four components:
The first and the basic component of the phonetic structure of language is the
…..
The second component is the ….
The third component is the …..
The fourth component of the phonetic system is …
2.Write the 3rd person singular forms of the verbs and transcribe
them. State the connection of phonetics and grammar.
love poil place tick like see touch read
put type rule deny punish teach dig rely
3.Write the plural forms of these words and transcribe them. Use these
examples to prove that phonetics is connected with grammar.
sheaf, tigress, glass, echo, bath, crash, inch, thief, girl, class, potato,
phenomenon, thesis, month, sheaf, actress, leaf, judge, wife, analysis, knife
self, basis, mouse, dish, book, box, tooth, woman, witch, hal,f loaf, fox, calf
postman life, house, army ,leaf, gas ,elf ,life thief, wolf, hostess, cat , goose,
toy, dog, crisis, man, foot, house.
4.Write the three forms of the verbs and transcribe them. Underline the
interchanging vowel and consonant sounds. Prove that phonetics is
connected with grammar.
Feel sink catch forgive lie spill choose grind mean swear throw hide
beg compel stop work nod invent creep hang ride become lean shoot build
find leap live recognize wrap pass permit rest drive kneel shake bite.
Oral exercises:
1. Read the following sentences. Prove that phonetics is connected

with grammar through intonation.
1) Ann went to the university at 7 a.m. - Ann went to the university?
oh, she went to the university so early!
2) As a matter of fact, I find this project quite interesting.
3) Morning came at last; the rain fell again, and the wind howled.
4) What’s your point of view on this project?
5) I’m a teacher. - you are a teacher? - I’m really a professional!
2.Read the words and word-combinations. Place the accent marks.
State the connection of phonetics and lexicology.
ability-to-pay -ability to pay early-warning- early warning
blueprint - blue print face-down - face down
bull’s-eye - bull’s eye heavy-weight - heavy weight
blackmail - black mail hot-house - hot house
cash-drive - cash drive mad-doctor - mad doctor
3.Transcribe the following words. Find examples of conversion,
suffixation, and homonymy. Underline the interchanging vowels and
consonants in the corresponding parts of speech. Prove that phonetics
is connected with lexicology.
Subject- to subject an abstract - to abstract
to exhibit -exhibition an object - to object
to expect-expectation a transfer - to transfer
to converse -conversation a present - to present
to transform-transformation an advice - to advise
lead - lead a breath - to breathe
tear - tear a song – to sing
row - row a house – to house
bow - bow an excuse - to excuse
use - to use a device - to devise
loose - to lose close - to close
4.Read these words and word combinations, put the stresses. Translate
them into your language. Prove that phonetics is connected with lexicology
through word stress.
bluebell – blue bell, break-promise—break promise
heavy-weight — heavy weight red-book— red book
blue-stocking— blue stocking blue-nose— blue nose
blue-coat — blue coat blue-bonnet— blue bonnet
black-hole— black hole black mass—black mass
redbreast — red breast bluestone—blue stone
blue-lines — blue lines bluebottle—blue bottle
blackshirt — black shirt black-face—black face
bird's-eye— bird's eye bread-and-butter —bread and butter
5. Read these rhymes. State what sounds are used to produce the effect of
alliteration and for what purpose.
(a) She sells sea-shells on the sea-shore;
The shells she sells are sea-shells, I'm sure.
So if she sells sea-shells on the sea-shore,
Then I'm sure she sells sea-shore shells.
(b) Swan swam over the sea —
Swim, swan, swim;
Swan swam back again —
Well swum swan.
6. Read the tongue-twisters. What sounds are used to create the effect
of alliteration? State the connection of phonetics and stylistics.
1) Sudden swallows swiftly skimming,
Sunset’s slowly spreading shade,
Silvery songsters sweetly singing
Summer’s soothing serenade.
2) rain, rain, rain, April rain,
you are feeding seed and grain,
you are raising plants and crops
with your gaily sparkling drops.
1) Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers
If Peter picked a peck of pickled peppers
Where is the peck of pick led peppers Peter Piper picked?
4)If one doctor doctors another doctor, does the doctor who doctors the
doctor doctor the doctor the way the doctor he is doctor-ing doctors? or does
he doctor the doctor the way the doctor who doctors doctors?
7. Read the rhymes. What effect is achieved by the phenomena of
rhythm, rhyme, and alliteration? Prove that phonetics is connected with
stylistics.
1) on the grass,in the park, he is playing, he is playing.
on the grass,in the park,he is playing la-la-la.
on the grass,in the park, she is skipping, she is skipping.
on the grass, in the park, she is skipping la-la-la.
2) hickety, pickety, my black hen,
She lays eggs for gentlemen;
Sometimes nine, and sometimes ten.
hickety,pickety,myblack hen!
cock-a-doodle-do!
3) Shoo, fly, don’t bother me, shoo, fly, don’t bother me,
Shoo, fly, don’t bother me, for I belong to
somebody.
I feel, I feel, I feel, I feel like a morning star,
I feel, I feel, I feel, I feel like a morning star.
1. Бурая, Е. А. Фонетика современного английского языка:

теоретическийкурс: учебник в электронном формате / Е. А. Бурая, И. Е.
2.И. И. Громовая Theoretical phonetics Методические указания и учебные
задания СанктПетербургский государственный университет
эрокосмического приборостроения (ГУАП), 2013
3. М. П. Козьма, Л. Г. Романова Теоретическая фонетика английского
языка Учебное пособие для студентов очного отделения факультета
иностранных языков Оренбург.Издательство ОГПУ-2014
Internet sources
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-FHQJEo38Vk
http://www.visualthsaurus.com/
Summary
Summing up we can say that phonetics is very important in learning and

teaching process because without phonetics no language description is
complete. Thus phonetics is divided into two major components: segmental
phonetics, which is concerned with segments of speech, their behavior; and
suprasegmental phonetics whose domain is the larger units of connected
speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts. So it is primarily concerned with
the expression level of the language. Phonetics also deals with the content level
because only meaningful sound sequences are regarded as speech. There are
three main branches of English phonetics as seen in the diagram. But there are
other branches of phonetics too.
https://yandex.ru/images/search?p=1&source=wiz&text=the%20articulatory
%20classification%20of%20speech%20sounds&pos=31&rp
Articulatory phonetics studies the speech mechanisms, organs of speech,

articulatory description of phonemes. Acoustic phonetics studies the physical
manifestitation of speech sounds. Sound quality, frequency, pitch,duration.
Stress, prominence etc. Auditory phonetics studies perception of speech
sounds. Auditory description of speech sounds. Auditory impression by the
hearer. There are three main methods of investigation. They are direct
observation, linguistic, experimental.
GLOSSARY
Acoustic phonetics – a branch of phonetics which deals with physical
properties of speech sounds.
Articulatory phonetics is concerned with the description and
classification of speech sounds articulated by the speech apparatus.
Auditory Phonetics – the branch of phonetics investigating the perception
process. The means by which we discriminate sounds – quality, sensation of
pitch, loudness, length, are relevant here. Also Perceptual Phonetics.
Comparative phonetics – a branch of phonetics which studies the
correlation between the phonetic systems of two or more languages.
Descriptive phonetics studies the contemporary phonetic system of a
language, i.e. the system of its pronunciation, and gives a description of all
the phonetic units of this language.
General phonetics is concerned with the analysis, description, and
comparison of phonetic phenomena in different languages.
Historical phonetics – a branch of phonetics, which studies phonetic
components on the diachronic level; it is a part of the history of language,
which studies the history of the development of the phonetic laws.
Phonetics – the science that studies the sound matter of the
language, its semantic functions and the lines of development.
Phonology – the science that deals with phonemes and their
sequences. It is functional phonetics since it investigates the functional side
of phonemes, accent, syllable, and intonation.
Phonosemantics investigates the connection between the sound
form and the meaning.
Phonostylistics studies the phonetic phenomena from the stylistic point of
view.
Practical phonetics studies the substance, the material form of
phonetic phenomena in relation to meaning.
Segmental phonetics deals with individual sounds, i.e. segments of speech.
Supra-segmental phonetics is concerned with the larger units of
connected speech, i.e. syllables, words, phrases, texts.
Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the functioning of
phonetic units in the language.
MODULE II SOUNDS OF SPEECH AS ACOUSTIC AND

ARTICULATORY UNITS
The content of the module

Module contains: The aim of the module is the formation
- the aim of the module of student’s linguistic, intercultural,
- objectives of the module communicative and professionally
- learning outcomes adaptive competencies on the topic.
- lecture topics The objectives of the module:
- key words to characterize acoustic aspect of
- problems to be discussed English speech sounds; consonants
- seminar questions and according to the articulatory principles;
assignments - to differentiate modification of English
- tasks of student`s individual sounds in connected speech; -to define
work differences in the articulation bases in
- glossary of English and Kazakh, and Russian
phonetic terms languages.
Learning outcomes:
- characterizes acoustic aspect of English speech sounds;
- classifies the English vowels and consonants according to the
articulatory principles;
- differentiates modification of English sounds/phonemes in connected
speech;
- defines differences in the articulation bases in English and Kazakh, and
Russian languages.
KEY WORDS: Acoustic aspect, physical properties , sound waves, frequency,
intensity, duration, classification, English sounds, articulatory
principle, modification, connected speech, articulation basis.
.
Problems to be discussed:
The study of acoustic aspect of speech sounds.
1
2
General overview of classification of English phonemes/sounds.
Articulation basis of the English language

3
4
Modifications of speech sounds in connected speech.
The classification of English speech sounds according to articulatory

5 principle.
The study of the acoustic aspect of speech sounds
The acoustic aspect studies sound waves. Any sound in nature is an acoustic
phenomenon. It is a form of moving matter and energy. A sound is generated
by a physical body which is set into vibration by some external force. When
an external force is applied to a physical body (such as a string, a drum, any
kind of plate, etc.) the physical body begins to oscillate - to move forward and
back. These alternate movements of the physical body produce сondensations
and rarefactions of air which are known аs sound waves. The basic vibrations
of the vocal cords over their whole length produce the fundamental tone of
voice. A speech sound is also a physical phenomenon. As it has been said
before it is a product of the complex work of the speech mechanisms which
regulate the air stress, thus producing condensations and rare factions of air.
https://studopedia.com.ua/1_252193_lecture-the-acoustic-aspect-of-speech-
sounds.html
Physical properties of a sound
A sound has a number of physical properties: frequency, intensity,
duration. All the physical properties of a sound exist simultaneously. They
may be singled out and separated from one another only for purposes of
acoustic analysis.
Frequency is the number of vibrations (or cycles) per second. A man's ear
may perceive the vibrations of the air when they occur at a rate of 16 to
20000 cycles per second. Sound waves may be rhythmical or non-rhythmical.
When the vibrations are repsated at regular intervals of timewe get rhythmical
waves. They are perceived аs vowels. When the vibrations are repeated at
irregular intervals of time we get non-rhythmical waves. They are perceived
as consonants.
Frequency of sounds depends upon the mass, length and tension of the
vibrator. For example, the vocal cords which are greater in mass produce slow
vibrations; they are perceived as low-pitched. If the vocal cords are longer
they produce slow vibrations too, which are also perceived as low-pitched. If
the vocal cords are less tense they produce slow vibrations which are
perceived as low-pitched too, and vice versa.That is why a man’s voice is
usually lower than that of a woman. A child’s voice is usually the highest.
https://vikidalka.ru/2-94530.html
The second physical property of a sound is its intensity.
Intensity of a sound depends upon the force which is applied to a physical
body. The greater the force, the larger the amplitude and vice versa. These
sound waves have the same frequency, but the amplitude of vibration is
different. The first has twice the amplitude of the second. It means that the
sound of larger amplitude is louder, and the sound of a smaller amplitude is
less loud. Changes in intensity are perceived as variations in the loudness of a
sound. This is measured in decibels(usually abbreviated to DBS.).
The third physical property of a sound is its duration. Sounds can only exist
in time. The duration of a sound is measured in milliseconds - thousandths of
a second. In speech there are no definite boundaries between different speech
sounds: one speech sound gradually fades into another. The duration of a
sound is perceived by man as its length. https://vikidalka.ru/2-94530.html
General overview of the classification of English sounds.
Speech sounds are characterized and

L.V. Shcherba wrote "However,
classified according to physical, or acoustic, the most important drawback in
and physiological, or articulatory signs. When our vowel systems (i.e. in their
they are classified and characterized between descriptions - VN) - is the
acoustic and articulatory features of speech ignorance of the connection
sounds should be distinguished. between acoustic and
Consonants differ: 1) by the method of noise physiological qualities."
generation; 2) in the place where noise is https://mybiblioteka.su/tom3/7-
41970.html
generated; 3) on the participation of noise and
voice; 4) on the absence or presence of palatalization. According to the
international phonetic alphabet, there are 44 phonemes/ sounds in the
English language (20 vowels and 24 consonants)
https://testmyprep.com/subject/literature/classification-of-speech-sounds-phonemes
If speech sounds are studied from the point of view of their production by
man's organs of speech, it is the differences and similarities of their articulation
that are in the focus of attention. A speech sound is produced as a result of
definite coordinated movements and positions of organs of speech, so the
articulation of a sound consists of a set of articulatory characteristics.
Grouping speech sounds according to their main articulatory characteristics is
called an articulatory classification. According to the specific character of the
work of the speech organs, sounds in practically all the languages are
subdivided into main subtypes: vowels and consonants.
There are 1) articulatory, 2) acoustic and 3) functional differences between
vowels and consonants.
1. From the articulatory point of view the difference between vowels and
consonants: when pronouncing vowels the air passes freely. There is no
obstruction through the mouth cavity, while making consonants an obstruction
is formed at some point in the mouth cavity and the airflow exhaled from the
lungs meets a narrowing or a complete obstruction formed by the speech
organs.
2. From the acoustic point of view, vowels are called the sounds of voice, they
have high acoustic energy, consonants are the sounds of noise that have low
acoustic energy.
3. Functional differences between vowels and consonants are defined by their
role in syllable formation: vowels are syllable forming elements, consonants
are units that function at the margins of syllables, either singly or in clusters.
these differences make it logical to consider each class of sounds
independently.
The classification of English Speech Sounds.
In all languages Speech, sounds are traditionally divided into two main types
by articulatory characteristics – vowels and consonants.
The vowels and consonants differ in all the languages of the world.
Articulatory differences between vowels and consonants: First difference:
While pronouncing vowel sounds, the path for the passage of a jet of exhaled
air in the speech channel is free, open, the airstream passes freely; when
forming consonants in the speech channel, various obstacles are formed for the
air jet.
Second difference:
When forming vowels, the air stream is relatively weak, when forming
consonants, a stronger one, is capable of overcoming the barrier formed in the
speech channel. This can be verified by pronouncing individual vowels and
consonants before the flame of a burning candle: when pronouncing vowels, it
oscillates much weaker than when pronouncing consonant third difference:
When we pronounce the vowels, the intensity of the speech apparatus and the
strength of the jet of the exhaled air are uniform throughout their entire sound;
when pronouncing consonants, the intensity of the speech apparatus and the
strength of the air stream are greater in the areas where the barrier is formed
and at the time of its overcoming. This is due to the need to overcome obstacles
in the formation of consonants, which is absent in the formation of vowels.
https://testmyprep.com/subject/literature/classification-of-speech-sounds-
phonemes
The articulatory classification of English vowels
Vowels are speech sounds based on voice which is modified in the

supralaringeal cavities. There is no obstruction in their articulation. The
muscular tension is spread evenly throughout the speech organs. The force of
the stream of air is rather weak. Most vowel sounds are modified
by the shape of the lips. The vowels

can be single sounds-monophthongs or pure vowels. Double sounds-
diphthongs. Triple sounds-triphthongs. Pure vowels usually come in pairs
consisting of long and short vowels.
Let`s consider the articulatory classification of every English vowel sounds
or phonemes. Firstly let`s see how D. Jones described and classified vowels
for all languages. He was the first linguist who distinguished the system of 8
Cardinal Vowels. The basis of the system is physiological. Cardinal vowel
No. 1 corresponds to the position of the front part of the tongue raised as
closed as possible to the palate. The gradual lowering of the tongue to the
back lowest position gives another point for cardinal vowel No.5. The lowest
front position of the tongue gives the point for cardinal vowel No.4. The
upper back limit for the tongue position gives the point for cardinal No.8.
These positions for Cardinal vowels were copied from X-ray photographs.
The tongue positions between these points were X-rayed and the equidistant
points for No.2, 3, 6, 7 were found. The IPA symbols (International Phonetic
Alphabet) for the 8 Cardinal Vowels are: 1 -i, 2 - e, 3 - ε, 4 - a, 5 - a:, 6 - , 7 -
o, 8 - u. The system of Cardinal Vowels is an international standard. In spite
of the theoretical significance of the Cardinal Vowel system, its practical
application is limited. In language teaching, this system can be learned only
by oral instructions from a teacher who knows how to pronounce the Cardinal
Vowels. In another words its practical application is limited nowadays only to
purely linguistic work.
https://testmyprep.com/subject/literature/classification-of-speech-sounds-phonemes
As we have stated before there are 20 vowel phonemes in the English vowel
system. Let`s study how these English vowels can be classified according to
the articulatory principles. 20 English vowels can be classified according to
the following articulatory principles:
-the stability of articulations;
-the length of a vowel/the degree of muscular tension of the articulatory organs;
-the lip position ;.
-the tongue position;
the character of the vowel end, the force of articulation at the

-
end of a vowel
Let`s describe them separately
According to the stability of

articulation English vowels are
divided into two groups:
Monophthongs - a vowel
in the articulation of which
the organs of speech are
more or less stable. English
monophthongs are: /iː/
/ɪ/ /e/ /æ/ /ɑː/ /ɒ/ /ɔː/ /ʊ/
/uː/ /ʌ/ /ɜː/ ә/. Diphthongs- a vowel in the articulation of which the
organs of speech glide from one position to another
within one syllable. Thus, the diphthong consists of
two elements: the nucleus and the glide.
According to the articulatory character of the glide
English diphthongs are subdivided into closing: /eɪ/
/aɪ/ /ↄɪ/ /аʊ/ /әʊ/ and centering: /ɪə/ /εə/ /ʊə/. Besides,
they are classified as ɪ-glide diphthongs: /eɪ/ /aɪ/ /ↄɪ/
ʊ-glide diphthongs: /аʊ, әʊ/ and ə-glide diphthongs
/ɪə/ /eə/ /ʊə/.
But according to the stability of articulation principle English vowels are

classified differently by scholars. For example This principle is not singled out
by British and American phoneticians. P. Roach writes: "British English (BBC
accent) is generally described as having short vowels, long vowels and
diphthongs". By stability of articulation of vowels Russian scholars subdivided
them into:
a) monophthongs; b) diphthongs c) diphthongoids.
Diphthongs are defined differently by linguists. A.C. Gimson, for example,
distinguishes 20 vocalic phonemes which are made of vowels and vowel
glides.
D. Jones defines diphthongs as unisyllabic gliding sounds in the articulation of
which the organs of speech start from one position and then elide to another
position. There are two vowels in English /iː/, /uː/ that may have a diphthongal
glide where they have a full length (be, do), and the tendency for
diphthongization is becoming stronger.
2) In accordance with the tongue position.
a) According to the horizontal movement of the tongue position English
vowels are divided into:
1) fully front: /iː/, /e/, /æ/, /eɪ/, /eə/. The tongue is in the front part of the mouth
and its front part is raised to the hard palate.
2) front retracted: /ɪ/, /ɪə/, /aɪ/,/ аʊ/. The tongue is in the front part of the mouth
but slightly retracted and its central part is raised to the hard palate.
3) central: /ʌ/, /зː/, /ə/, /əʊ/. The tongue is almost flat and its central part is
raised to the juncture between the hard and the soft palate.
4) back advanced: /ʊ/, /ɑː/, / ʊə/. The tongue is in the back part of the mouth
but is slightly advanced and its central part is raised to the soft palate.
5) fully back: /uː/, / ɔ ː /, /ɒ/, /ɔɪ/. The tongue is in the back part of the mouth
and its back part is raised to the soft palate.
According to this position Russian phoneticians distinguish five classes: 1)
front; 2) front-retracted; 3) central; 4) back; 5) back-advanced.
British phoneticians classified the vowels /iː/ and /ɪ/ as front, and /uː/ and /ʊ/
as back.
b) According to the vertical movement of the tongue English vowels are
divided into:
1) high/close - the tongue is raised high towards the palate. /iː/, / ɪ/, /uː/, /ʊ/.
2) mid/half-open - the tongue occupies the position intermediate between the
close and the open one. /e/, /ǝ/, /зː/.
3) low/open - the tongue is as low as possible in the mouth./æ/, /aː/,/ʌ/, /ↄː/,/ↄ/, /
ɒ /.
According to the vertical movement of the tongue British scholars distinguish
three types of vowels: high (or close), mid (or half-open) and low (or open)
vowels. Russian phoneticians distinguished six groups of vowels.
phonemes
3) According to the lip position vowels are classified into:
1) rounded/labialized - the lips are drawn together so that the opening
between them is more or less round. Any back vowel in English is produced
with rounded lips, the degree of rounding is different and depends on the height
of the raised part of the tongue; the higher it is raised the more rounded the lips
are. /uː/, /ʊ/, /ɒ/, /ɔː/.
2) unrounded/non-labialized- the lips are neutral or spread /iː/, /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/,
/ʌ/, /ə/, /зː/, /ɑː/.
4) According to the length/duration or to the degree of muscular tension
the English vowels are divided into:
- long/ tense: /iː/, /uː/, /ɑː/, /ɔː/, /зː/.
- short / lax: /ɪ/,/ e/, /æ/, /ɒ/, /ʊ/, /ʌ/, /ə/.
Special instrumental analysis shows that all the long vowels are tense while
short ones are lax.
5) According to the character of the vowel end or to the force of
articulation at the end of a vowel:
a) checked- there is no weakening of the force of articulation. This quality
depends on the kind of the articulatory transition from a vowel to a consonant.
This transition (VC) is very closed in English. As a result all English short
vowels are checked when stressed.
b) unchecked/ free vowels are pronounced in an open syllable with a
weakening in the force of articulation towards their end. These are long
monophtongs and diphthongs and unstressed short vowels. The degree of
checkness may vary and depends on the following consonants (+ voiceless -
voiced - sonorant -).
We should point out that a number of linguistic factors influence to the vowel
length:
a) position of the vowel in a word: in the terminal position a vowel is the
longest, it is shorter before a voiced consonant, and it is the shortest before a
voiceless consonant, we /wiː/ — weed /wiˑd/ — wheat /wit/;
b) word stress: in a stressed syllable a vowel is longer than in an unstressed
one, forecast (n) /'fɔ:kɑ:st/ — to forecast (v) /fɔ:'kɑ:st/;
c) the number of syllables in a word: in a monosyllabic word vowels are
longer than in a polysyllabic word, for example: verse /з:/ — university /зˑ/
d) the character of the syllabic structure: in words with the open type of
syllable (V, CV) the vowel is longer than in words with the closed type of
syllable (VC, CVC). Besides, vowel length depends on the tempo of speech:
the higher the rate of speech, the shorter the vowels. We can say that vowel
length or quantity has for a long time been the point of disagreement among
phoneticians.
THE CHART OF THE ARTICULATORY CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENGLISH

VOWEL SOUNDS / PHONEMES /
Main principals of
classification of vowel sounds/ Sounds/Phonemes
phonemes
/iː/ /e / /æ /
/ ɪ/
According to the tongue position 1 Front
and place of articulation Front retracted
2 Central /ә / /ʌ/ /ɜː/
3 Back /aː/ /ɒ/ /ɔː/ /uː/ /u/
/ ʊ/
Back advanced
According to lip position Rounded / ɒ / /ɔː / /ʊ/ /uː /
Unrounded /iː/ /e/ /æ/ /aː/ /ʌ//ɜː/ /ә /
According to the length or to the Long/ tense /iː/ /aː/ / uː/ /ɔː/ /ɜː/
degree of muscular tension Short/ lax / ɪ / /ʊ / /ʌ / /a / /ә / /ɒ //e/
According to the jaw position Close (high) /iː/ /uː/ /ʊ/ /ɪ/
Open /æ/ /aː/ /ɔː/ /ɒ /
Mid open (low) /e/ /ʌ/ /ɜː/ /ә/
According to the stability of Monophthongs /i:/ /ɪ/ /e/ /æ/ /ɑ:/ /ɒ/
articulation /ɔ:/ /ʊ/ /u:/ /ʌ/ / ɜ:/ / ә/
Diphthongs /eɪ/ /aɪ/ /ↄɪ/ /аʊ/ /әʊ/ /ɪə/
/εə/ /ʊə/
a) closing /eɪ/ / aɪ/ /ↄɪ/ /аʊ/ /әʊ/
b) centering /ɪə/ /εə/ /ʊə/
c) ɪ-glide /eɪ/ /aɪ/ /ↄɪ/
d) ʊ-glide /аʊ/ /әʊ/
e) ə-glide /ɪə/ /eə/ / ʊə/
phonemes
https://studfiles.net/preview/5271319/page:6/
https://megapredmet.ru/1-51772.html
ENGLISH CONSONANTS
As we have mentioned before there are 24 consonant phonemes in the
English language. Consonants are speech sounds in the articulation of
which there is an obstruction ( in the mouth or nasal cavities), the removal
of which causes noise, plosion or friction. The muscular tension is
concentrated at the place of obstruction. The stream of air is strong.The
Articulation of sound based on received pronunciation (R. P.)
24 English consonants can be classified

according to the following articulatory
principles:
the the active

presence/absence the manner of the position of
organs of articulation and
of voice and the speech and the soft
work of vocal the type of palate.
the place of obstruction;
cords; articulation;
Description of the articulatory principles of English consonant

classification
1) According to the presence/absence of voice and to the work of vocal cords

English consonants are subdivided into:
- voiced /b/,/d/, /ɡ/,/v/,/z/, /ð/, /ʒ/, /dʒ / ;
- voiceless /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /θ/, /s/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /h/.
When the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate we hear voice. If the
vocal cords are apart and do not vibrate we hear only noise and the
consonants are voiceless.
 According to the manner of articulation and to the type of obstruction
English consonants are classed into:
 English сonsonants are classified in the following way: - occlusive,-
constrictive,-occlusive-constrictive (affricates).
a) Occlusives /stops (plosives): - oral stops -/b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /p/, /t/, /k/,
and nasal sonants or stops: /m/, /n/, /ŋ /.
b) Constrictives /fricatives:/f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /h/, /θ/,/ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/
-oral sonants: medial /j/,/r/,/w/ and laterial/1/.
c) Occlusive /constrictive or affricates:/ʧ/, /ʤ/. [dʒ] is voiced and weak, [tʃ]
is voiceless and strong.
In the production occlusive consonants the air stream meets a complete
obstruction in mouth. Occlusive noise consonants are called stops because the
breath is completely stopped at some point of articulation and then it is
released with the slight explosion, that's why they are also called plosives.
Occlusive sonorants are also made with a complete obstruction but the soft
palate is lowered and the air stream escapes through the nose, so they are
nasal. In the production of constrictive consonants, the air stream meets an
incomplete obstruction in the resonator, so the air passage is constricted.
Constrictive noise consonants are called fricatives, the air passage is
constricted and the air escapes through the narrowing with friction. Sonorants
(or sonorous consonants) are made with tone prevailing over noise because of
a rather wide air passage. In the production of oralconstrictives, soft palate is
raised that is why they are called oral ones. Affricates are oral according to
the position of the soft palate. There are no sonorants in the classifications
suggested by British and American scholars. Daniel Jones and Henry A.
Gleason, for example, give separate groups of nasals /m/, /n/, /η/, the lateral /l/
and semi-vowels, or glides /w, r, j (y)/. Bernard Bloch and George Trager
besides nasals and lateral give trilled /r/. According to Russian phoneticians
sonorants are considered to be consonants from articulatory, acoustic, and
phonological point of view.
3)According to the position of the active organs of speech and according to
the place of articulation English consonants are classed into:
a) Labial: bilabial- /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/ and labio-dental - /f/,/v/;
b) Lingual:
-forelingual /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/ forelingual consonants may be:
· interdental /θ/, /ð/;
· alveolar /t/,/d/, /l/, /n/, /s/, / z/;
· post-alveolar (retroflex) /r/;
· palato-alveolar - /ʃ]/, /ʒ/, /ʧ/,/ʤ/;
-mediolingual dorsal (palatal) / j/;
-backlingual (velar) /k/, /ɡ/, /ŋ/;
-nasal /n/.
c) Phatyngeal ( glottal )/h/ , /ʔ/
Labial consonants are made by the lips. Bilabial consonants are produced
when both lips are active. Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the
lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth. Interdental consonants are made
with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth. Alveolar consonants
are articulated with the tip against the upper teeth ridge. Post-alveolar
consonants are formed when the tip or the blade of the tongue is against the
back part of the teeth ridge or just behind it.Palato-alveolar consonants are
produced with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and
the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate. Forelingual
consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue.
Mediolingual or palatal consonants are made with the front part of the tongue
raised high to the hard palate.Backlingual or velar produced with the back
part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate.The glottal consonant is
articulated in the glottis. V.A. Vassilyev, G.P. Torsuev, O.I. Dikushina, A.C.
Gimson give more detailed and precise enumerations of active organs of
speech than H.A. Gleason, B. Bloch, G. Trager and others. Concerning active
organs of speech Russian phoneticians divide the tongue into: (1) front with
the tip, (2) middle, and (3) back. Following L.V. Shcherba's terminology the
front part of the tongue is subdivided into: (a) apical, (b) dorsal, (c) cacuminal
and (d) retroflexed according to the position of the tip and the blade of the
tongue in relation to the teeth ridge. А.С. Gimson`s definition: apical is
equivalent to forelingual; frontal is equivalent to mediolingual; dorsum is the
whole upper area of the tongue. H.A. Gleason's definition: the bulk of the
tongue are: apex - the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the alveoli;
front - the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the fore part of the
palate; back, or dorsum - the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the
velum or the back part of the palate.
4) According to the position of the soft palate English consonants are
subdivided into:Nasal -the soft palate is lowered / m/, /n/, /ŋ /;
Oral - the soft palate is raised /b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /v/, /z/, /ð /, /ʒ /, /ʤ /, /p/, /t/, /k/,
/f/, /s/, /ʃ /, /θ/, /ʧ /,/w/, /l/, /r/, /j/.
The picture of articulators of English consonant sounds/phonemes.
The chart of articulatory classification of English consonant sounds /

phonemes/
Main principals of Phonemes
classification
1 According to the work of 1.Voiced/lenis(weak) / b/ /d / /ɡ / /v / /ð /
the vocal cords and /z / /ʒ/ /ʤ/
аccording to the force -voiced fricatives /v/ /ð/ /z/ /ʒ/
of articulation 2.Voiceless/ fortis /p/ /t / /f / /θ/ /s / /ʃ / /ʧ/ /h/
(strong)
-voiceless fricatives /f/ /θ/ /s/ /∫/ /h/
3. Sonorants or sonorous /m / /n / /ŋ/ /l/ /w/ /r/ /j/
2 According to the manner 1. Occlusive /plosive /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k / /ɡ/
of articulation occlusive /plosive voiced
occlusive /plosive / b / /d / /ɡ/
voiceless
/p/ /t / /k/
2. Occlusive nasal /m / /n/ /ŋ/
sonorants
3 According to the position 1. Labial:
of the active a) bilabial /p/ /b/ /m/ /w/
organs of speeсh b) labio-dental /f / /v/
and according to the place 2. Lingual /ʧ/ /ʤ/ /d / /n / /z / /s/
of articulation /r/ /k / /ɡ / /θ / /l / / j/
Forelingual / t / /d/ /s/ /z/ /θ/ /ð/ /ʧ/ /ʒ
/ /ʤ/ /l / /n/ /r /
Interdental /ð / /θ /
Alveolar /t / /d //z /s/ n/ l/
Post-alveolar /r/
Mediolingual-palatal /j /
Palato-alveolar /ʃ / /ʒ / /ʤ / /ʧ/
Backlingual/velar /ɡ/ / k /
3. Glottal /h/
According to the position of Oral /p/ /t/ /d/ /k / /ɡ/ /f/
4 the soft palate /v/ /ð/ /θ/ /s/ /z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/ /ʤ/
/ʧ / /l/ /w/ /r/ /h/ /j/
Nazal /m/ /n/ /ŋ/
https://yandex.ru/images/search?p=1&source=wiz&text=the%20articulatory%20c
%20speech%20sounds&pos=31&rp https://studopedia.com.ua/1_35571_lecture-four.html
https://studylib.net/doc/8976624/consonant-and-vowel-articulation-in-english
https://megapredmet.ru/1-51772.html
Modifications of sounds in connected speech

What are sound modifications? Sound modifications are allophonic variations
of speech sounds caused by their position in a word.They are usually quite
regular and can be stated in the form of rules which predict the use of certain
allophones in each position. Sound modifications are observed both within
words and at word boundaries. To characterize consonants,vowels different
types of sound modifications are used in modern English.The modifications are
observed both within word sand word boundaries. There are the following
types of modification: assimilation, accommodation, reduction, elision, and
inserting. The definitions and types of types of modifications.
Assimilation- the adaptive modification of a consonant by a neighbouring

consonant in a speech chain.
Such types of assimilation of consonants are differentiated:
1.According to the direction of sound modification assimilation is divided into:
—progressive :dogs—voiced /z/, cats—voiceless /s/);
—regressive: /t, /d/ becomes dental before /ð, θ/: eighth, at the, said that ,width;
—reciprocal :/ t/, /d/ becomes post-alveolar before /r/: tree, true, dream, the third
room /r/ is partly devoiced.
2.According to the degree of sound modification assimilation can be:
—complete,when two sounds become completely alike or merge
into one another (sandwich ['sænnwıʤ]→['sænwıʤ]→['sænıʤ]);
—incomplete,when the adjoining sounds are partially alike (sweet
/w/ is partially devoiced).
These types of assimilation may result in different modifications of the place of
articulation, the manner of articulation, and the force of articulation.
Assimilation affecting the place of articulation includes the following
modifications of consonants:
- alveolar /t/,/d/,/n/,/l/,/s/,/z/ become dental before interdental /ð/,/θ/:
eighth , said that, tenth, all the, guess that, does that;
- alveolar /t/,/d/ become post-alveolar before /r/: the third room true, dream;
-alveolar /s/ ,/z/ become post-alveolar before apical forelingual /ʃ/: this shop ,
does she;
-alveolar /t/, /d/ become fricative before palatal mediolingual /j/: graduate,
could you, congratulate;
-nasal /m/, /n/ become labio-dental before labio-dental /f/, /v/ : symphony,
infant;
-nasal /n/ becomes dental before interdental /θ/: seventeenth;
-nasal /n/ becomes velar before backlingual /k/: thank;
-nasal[n]becomes palato-alveolar before palato-alveolar /t∫/,/ʤ]/
(pinch,change).
Assimilation affecting the manner of articulation includes the following
-loss of plosion in the sequence of two stops /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /ɡ/: and dad,
great trouble, or in the sequence of a stop and an affricate :a pointed chin,a sad
joke;
-nasal plosion in the combination ofa plosive consonant and a nasal sonorant:
submarine sudden, let me, happen, at night ;
-lateral plosion in the sequence of an occlusive consonant and a lateral
sonorant: settle, please, at last, apple;
-anticipating lip-rounded position in the combination of consonants /t/, /d/, /k/,
/ ɡ/, /s/ and a sonorant /w/: quite, swim, dweller.
Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords includes the following
-progressive partial devoicing of the sonorous /m/, /n/, /l/, /w/, /r/, /j/before
voiceless /s/, /p/, /t/, /k/,/f/,/θ/, /∫/: small, slow, place, fly, sneer, try, throw,
square, twilight, pure, few, tune, at last , at rest;
-progressive voicing or devoicing of the contracted forms of the auxiliary
verbs is, has depended on the preceding phoneme: That’s right. Jack’s gone.
John’s come.;
-progressive voicing or devoicing of the possessive suffixes-’s / -s’, the
plural suffix-(e)s of nouns or the thirdperson singular ending-(e)s of verbs
according to the phonetic context: Jack’s, Tom’s, Mary’s, George’s; girls,
boys, dishes, maps; reads, writes, watches;
-progressive voicing or devoicing of the suffix -ed depending on the
preceding sound: lived, played, worked;
-regressive voicing or devoicing in compound words (gooseberry,
newspaper);
- regressive voicing or devoicing in closely connected pairs of
words, which usually include two functional words or a combination of
notional and a functional word:I have to do this. She’s fine. Of course.
Notice: In English typical assimilation is voiced > voiceless; voiceless > voiced
is not typical.
Accommodation - the interchanges of VC or CV types.
Accommodation is the adaptive modification of a consonant under the

influence of a neighbouring vowel which includes the following changes:
- labialization of consonants under the influence of the following back
vowels
/ɔ/, /ↄː/, /ʊ/, /uː/, /aː/, resulting in lip rounding: pool, rude, ball, car;
-labialization of consonants under the influence of the following
or preceding front vowels /ɪ /, /iː/,resulting in lip spreading : tea-eat, feet - leaf ,
keep -leak, pill - tip;
-palatalization of consonants under the influence of front vowels /ɪ/,
/iː/: part - pit, top - tip, far- feet, hard - hit, chance - cheese.
Elision - a complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants.
The following examples of consonant elision are observed in modern English:

-loss of /h/ in personal and possessive pronouns: he, his, her, hers
and the forms of the auxiliary verb have: What has he done?;
-loss of /l/when preceded by /ↄː/: always already, all right;
-loss of plosives /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /ɡ/in clusters followed by another
consonant: next day, just one, last time, old man, mashed potatoes;
-loss of /θ/, /ð/ in clusters with /s/, /z/, /f/, /v/ : months, clothes, fifth, sixth;
-loss of /v/ before other consonants in rapid speech :give me your pen.
Inserting - a process of sound addition.

There are the following cases of this consonant modification type in English:
-linking /r/, which reveals its potential pronunciation: car owner;
- intrusive /r/pronounced in word combinations with vowels in the
word-final and word-starting positions:china,and glass;
-inserted /j/after word-final diphthongs gliding to /ɪ /: saying, trying;
- inserted /w/ after word-final diphthongs gliding to /u/: going, allowing;
-inserted /t∫/, /ʤ/ instead of word-final /t/, /d/ before /j/: could you.
Modifications of vowels in connected speech. The main types of sound
modifications characterizing vowels are reduction and elision.
Reduction is the weakening of vowels in unstressed positions, determine by
the position of a vowel,the stress structure of a word or the tempo of
speech. This type of vowel modification may be qualitative,quantitative,or
both.
Quantitative reduction is the decrease of vowel quantity when its length is
shortened under the influence of the following factors:
-word stress: vowels in unstressed positions are usually shorter:Is /he [hiː] or\
she to blame? vs. At 'last he [hɪ] has\done it.;
-position of a vowel in a word: the positional length of English vowels is the
longest in the end, shorter before a lenis consonant, and the shortest before a
fortis consonant :he [hi ː]—heel [hi·l]—heat[hɪt].
Qualitative reduction is the loss of vowel quality(colour) which generally
results in the following changes:
—reduction of the vowels of full value to the neutral sound /ə/ in unstressed
positions: analyze ['ænəlaɪ z]—analysis[ə'nælɪsɪs]);
—slight nasalization of vowels preceded or followed by nasal consonants/n,
/m/: no, my, can, come.
Vowel elision(zero reduction) is the complete omission of the unstressed vowel
which is realized in connected speech under the influence of tempo, rhythm
and style of speech. It usually occurs:
—in notional words within a sequence of unstressed syllables: history
['hɪstərɪ]→ ['hɪstrɪ],territory ['terɪtərɪ]→['terɪtrɪ];
—in notional words within unstressed syllables preceding the stressed
one:correct [kə'rekt]→[k'rekt], suppose[sə'pəʊz]→[s'pəʊz];
—in unstressed form words within a phrase:Has he done it?[hæz hi·/dʌn
ɪt]→[həz hɪ/dʌn ɪt]→[əz ɪ/dʌn ɪt]→[z ɪ/dʌn ɪt].
Definition of articulation basis. The study of the identical sounds in different
languages demonstrates that they are pronounced according to the different
techniques, characteristic only of these languages. In other words, in every
language there are distinguished some characteristic articulatory tendencies
which determine position and movement of the articulators. These tendencies
form articulation basis of the language.
The articulation basis may be defined, as the general tendencies (or habits in
the way native speakers use their speech organs both during speech and at rest.)
These tendencies are characteristic of all speakers of the language and basis of
all or a larger part of articulatory gestures. The term articulation basis was first
introduced in 1906 by an outstanding British phonetician H.A. Sweet and was
later given rise to the development of foreign language teaching in view of
Teaching Foreign Pronunciation.There was a period when articulation basis
was viewed as a man’s inherited property dependent on his nationality.
Anthropologists however proved that there is no fundamental difference in
mechanism of the articulators of people of different nationalities. Moreover,
they stated that a man masters the language of the social environment he was
taught to speak in, regardless his origin. In later periods, articulation basis was
not associated with the mechanisms of the articulators but with the peculiarities
of the phonological system of the language. Articulation basis of non-sister
languages, as a rule, vary enormously, that is why it is necessary for all
learners of foreign languages to know peculiarities of articulation bases not
only of the mother tongue but the target language as well in order to bring their
speech more in line with R.P. standards. It is common knowledge that
interference of the mother tongue is revealed at all levels of the phonetic
system and touches upon such components as syllable, stress and intonation.
Therefore some linguists introduce a broader term of phonetic basis which
includes the prosodic basis along with the articulation basis. Phonetic basis is
understood as a complex of pronunciation tendencies more frequently occurred
in speech and perceived as a general “colouring”. Articulation basis in this case
is a part of phonetic basis. There are distinguished two aspects of articulation
basis: static and dynamic. The static aspect of articulation basis represents
the working position of the main organs of speech; it is articulatory setting,
i.e. habitual and constant position of the articulators kept at the moment of
speaking and at rest. Articulatory position represents the position of speech
organs which provides the fastest and the most natural accomplishment of
certain articulatory gestures. The dynamic aspect of articulation basis is
revealed in a specific character of changing sounds within one syllable and at
syllable (word) junctures. https://helpiks.org/9-16048.htm
The English articulation basis

The English articulation basis is the specific position of the main organs of
speech which makes English sound different from other languages of the
world.The scientists described tendencies of the tongue position of the English
articulation basis:
1) John Wallis “the English […] push forward the whole of their pronunciation
into the front part of the mouth, speaking with a wide mouth cavity” (Quoted
from the translation of Kemp; 1972).
2) Christopher Cooper “speak their syllables and words distinctly and
outwardly from the lips (cited by Laver (1978, 4)).
3) It was Henry Sweet “In English we flatten and lower the tongue, hollow the
front of it, and draw it back from the teeth.”
4) Heffner (1952, 98) “relatively low and retracted, with the tongue surface
quite broad”.
5) Viёtor (1887, 193) “[The English manner of articulation is different from the
German in general by pulling back and widening of the tongue f…]”. Storm
(1896, 32) quoted Sievers that in English “[the tongue must be pulled back
slightly and broadened]”.
6) Prokosch (1920) “[…] the tip of the tongue is apt to be withdrawn from the
teeth and raised in the direction of the front palate, while the body of the
tongue is comparatively inert, being neither raised nor lowered to any marked
extent” ) Heffner (1952, 98) the English basis of articulation is “low and
retracted, with the tongue surface quite broad”.
https://borissoff.wordpress.com/2013/04/03/english-basis-of-articulation-2/
From the descriptions of the scientists we can say the main peculiarities of the
English articulation basis.
So we can say that the main peculiarities of the English articulation basis are the
followings:
1) the tongue is 2) the tip is slightly hollowed 3) the lips are neutral, they are
broadened and out and slightly drawn back deliberately neutralized and
flattened; from the teeth; spread, the upper lip is tense.
Differences in the articulation bases of English, Kazakh, reflected in

the system of consonants.
Different languages each have their own basis of articulation, which means
that native speakers will share a certain position of tongue, lips, jaw, possibly
even uvula or larynx, when preparing to speak. The articulation basis
influences the phonetic system of a language. The articulation basis of one
language may differ from the articulation basis of another language. Though
the articulation bases of English, Kazakh have not yet been studied we may
only speak about the most characteristic features of the R.P. articulation basis
as compared with the Kazakh Standard articulation bases. Differences in the
articulation bases of English, Kazakh, reflected in the system of consonants,
are as follows:
1.The English have a tendency to hold the tip of the tongue in neutral position
at the level of the alveoli (or teeth-ridge), whereas the Kazakhs keep it much
lower, at tooth level . That is why there are about 50 % of all the consonants in
R .P. which are articulated with the tipof the tongue against the alveoli, as in /t,
d, n, 1, s, z, ʃ,ӡ , ʧ, ʤ , r/.They are alveolar, palato-alveolar and post-alveolar in
accordance with the place of obstruction. The tip of the tongue in the
articulation of Kazakh forelingual consonants occupies dental position. 2.The
English and the Kazakhs have a general habit to hold the bulk of the tongue in
neutral position a little further back, lower and flatter than the Russians. This
may be observed in the articulation of the consonants /h, ŋ,k, / in British R.P.
and /h, ң, k/ in Kazakh. In the production of the English /h/ and the Kazakh /h/
the root of the tongue moves in the direction of the pharyngeal cavity. In the
articulation of the Kazakh /ң/ the back part of the tongue is raised in the
direction of the soft palate. In the production of the English /ŋ/and Kazakh /ң/
the soft palate makes up a complete obstruction with the back part of the
tongue. Russian students are apt to substitute the fore-lingual /n/ for the
backliigual /ŋ/.The flatter and lower position of the bulk of the tongue limits
the system of English"soft" consonants of which there are only five /ʃ,ʒ, ʧ, ʤ,
l/, whereas in Russian almost all the consonants may be "soft" (or palatalized).
http://mylektsii.ru/1-28726.html?
http://3-net.ru/sign/sign-70898.php?
In contrast with Russian, the articulation basis of English language is
characterized by the following rules:
1) The tongue is flat and drawn back from the teeth, which it scarcely ever
touches. The front part of the tongue is lowered and slightly hollowed out.
2) In English lips are passive, they never go forward the way they do in
Russian. The upper lip is practically immovable. Only the lower jaw goes
freely up and down.
3) Lips are slightly spread in the so-called "phonetic smile".
4) The distance between the upper and the lower teeth should be very small, so
that you can place the tip of a well-sharpened pencil between them. However,
the main attention must be transferred to the glottis, because this is the
mainstay of the English articulation basis. Only by learning to manipulate it we
may hope to make real progress in the acquisition of literary English.
http://revolution.allbest.ru/languages/00566888_0.html?
Differences in the articulation bases of English and Kazakh reflected in
the system of vowels. Differences in the articulation bases of English and
Kazakh reflected in the system of vowels are as follows:
(1) The positions and movements of the lips are very peculiar. On the one
hand, when an English is silent, his lips occupy the so-called flat-type position,
they are more or less tense and the corners are raised as in a smile. A Kazakh
keeps the lips rather lax with the corners of the lips lowered. Spreading of the
lips for front vowels is rather typical of English. In Kazakh the lip position for
unrounded vowels is neutral.
On the other hand, in the production of the Kazakh vowels /о, ό,ý, ú, u/the lips
are rounded and considerably protruded. In English such protrusion does not
take place, аs in / ↄː/ /ʊ/ / uː/.
(2) In the production of English vowels the bulk of the tongue is more often at
the back of the mouth; in the production of Kazakh vowels the tongue is mostly
in this front part of the mouth. Besides, the tongue may occupy more positions
when articulating English vowels than in Kazakh vowel production.
(3) This is especially felt in unstressed syllables. In English and Kazakh an
unstressed vowel does not always differ greatly from a stressed one.
(4) There are in English short and long vowels which are different both in
quality and quantity. There are no such phonemic oppositions in the Kazakh
language.
References
1. О.О. Борискина, Н.В. Костенко. Theoretical phonetics.Study Guide for
second year students.Издательско-полиграфический центр Воронежского
государственного университета. Воронеж. 2007.
2. Евстифеева М.В.Теоретическая фонетика английского языка.
Лекции,семинары,упражнения:учеб.пособие/М.В.Евстифеева.— М.:
ФЛИНТА:Наука, 2012.—168 с.
3. Собчакова, Н.М. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: учебно-
методическое пособие / Н.М. Собчакова; Оренбургский гос. ун-т. -
Оренбург: ОГУ, 2012. - 120с.
4.Теоретическая фонетика английского языка : учебно- практическое
пособие / сост. А.В. Зырянова. – Челябинск: Изд-во Юж.-Урал. гос.
гуман.-пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
5.Retunskaya M.S. A Course of Lectures in Theoretical Phonetics of the
English Language. N.N., 2003.
6.T.T. Vrabel “Lectures in theoretical phoneticsof the English language and
Internet sources
http://vikidalka.ru/2-96151.html
https://infopedia.su/
https://studfiles.net
http://helpiks.org/7-18954.html
https://studopedia.org/
SEMINAR 2 SOUNDS OF SPEECH AS ACOUSTIC AND

ARTICULATORY UNITS
1.The study of acoustic aspect of speech sounds.
2.The classification of English speech sounds according to articulatory
principle.
3. General overview of classification of English phonemes/sounds.
4. Modifications of sounds in connected speech.

1.What is an acoustic phenomenon?
2. How is a sound generated?
3. How many physical properties does a sound have?
4.What is frequency ?
5. Why is a man’s voice is usually lower than that of a woman?
6. Whose voice is usually the highest?
7. What is the second physical property of a sound ?
8. What is the third physical property of a sound? Sounds can only exist in
time.
9.What is a vowel? What is a consonant?
10. What articulatory criteria are used for the classification of the English
vowels and consonants?
11. What are articulatory differences between vowels and consonants?
12. How are the vowels classified according to the articulatory principle?
13. How are the consonants classified according to the articulatory
principle?
14. Comment on the term ‘sound modifications’.What types of variations do
they concern?What units do they characterize?
15. Discuss the following variations and give your own examples to
illustrate each of them:
a) assimilation;
b) accommodation;
c) elision;
d) insertion.
16. Discuss the following variations and give your own examples to
illustrate each of them:
a) reduction;
b) elision.
17.What do you know about complex vowel and consonant modifications?
18.What is the articulation basis of the language?
19.May the articulation basis of one language be differ from the articulation
basis of another language? If yes/no.Why?
20.What is the most striking tendency of Englishmen in the way of holding the
tip of the tongue in neutral position?
21.How does this position of the tongue- tip influence the system of consonants
in English?
22.What are the differences in the articulation bases of English and Kazakh
reflected in the system of vowels?
23.What can you say about the position of the lips when an Englishman, a
Kazakh or a Russian is silent?
24.Which of the three languages is characterized by rounded and protruded
position of the lips?
25.Are vowels most tense in English, Kazakh or Russian?
26.What kind of vowels do English, Kazakh and Russian have when one
considers stability of articulation?
Practical tasks:
1. Make up a table of articulatory classification of English vowel sounds. Briefly
comment on it.
2. Create a table of articulatory classification of English consonant sounds.
Briefly comment on it.
3. Identify the difference of consonant and vowel sounds.
4. Give an overview of consonant modifications in modern English.
5. Analyze consonant and vowel modifications in modern English.
6. Describe the differences in the articulation bases of English, Kazakh, reflected
in the system of consonants.
Exercises:
Exercise 1 Write the symbols for the diphthongs.
a) boorish d) aware g) affair j) shoulder
b) purebred e) appearance h) cowed k) whale
c) boiling f) boyhood i) mouthful l) aisle
Exercise 2 Write the sound characteristics of the diphthongs in English. /aʊ eɪ
aɪ ɔɪ әʊ ɪә eә ʊә/
Exercise 3 Write the sound symbols to each picture and describe their
articulation.
Exercise 4 Show which of these quadrilaterials coincide with each phoneme.

Describe their articulation.
Exercise 5 State the sound characteristics of /t d p b k ɡ / plosive

consonants in English.
Exercise 6 Write the sound symbols for each diagram and describe their
articulation.
Exercise 7 State the sound characteristics of the nasal sonants /m n ŋ/ in English.

Exercise 8 Write the sound characteristics of the nasal sonants /m n ŋ/ in English.
Exercise 9 Transcribe the words phonemically.
a) sun – sung e) ask me
b) nothing f) belonings
c) undone g) not me
d) department h) aims
Exercise 10 Arrange the words into four columns depending on how the
phoneme
/r/ is pronounced. In the fifth column write the words where the
phoneme /r/ is not pronounced.
Rascal, around, Wright, cream, born, rhinestone, wrist, carry, where, rhythm,
write,are, rhetorical, yours, great, wrought, rhapsody,worker, raspberries,
prove, refreshing, there, wreck, merry ,Robert, rhyme, your, lorry, roll, friends.
Exercise 11 Find assimilations in the following sentences. For example:
The /t/ at the end of ‘that’assimilates /s/.
1. He`s going to give up smoking this year.
2. I bought ten cups.
3. There are eleven players in this team.
4. The coat is in that box.
5. Meet that kid over there, please.
Exercise 12 Explain assimilation processes in the following words and define the type
of
assimilation: worked, clock, Peter, placed, played, pencils, books, newspapers.
Exercise 13 Describe the difference in the transition from /p/ to /ɔː/ in the word
port and from /s/ to /p/ in the word stop.
Exercise 14 Describe the types of assimilation in the following words:
breadth,
wealth, at that, afraid, apron, thrive.
Exercise 15 Place the following words under these items (1) aspiration, (2)
lack of
aspiration , (3) palatalization , (4) labialization , (5) labialization
with
the with the extension of the lips: top, bee, pit, built, port, meal,
cope,
deep, beauty, tarn, port, corn, music, pepper, onion, peare, come,
lean,
car, cable, lion, dean, coop, tool, call, gorge, goose, doorn, down,
room,
thorn.
Exercise 16 Explain how assimilation effects on the place of articulation in the
underlined words: [taː - kaː , kiː -kaː, kuːl – kiːn, jes – pjuːt , iːl – kiːp]
Exercise 17 Determine what elisions can be found in the following
sentences.
For example: [æspekts[ becomes [æspeks] ; the / t/ is lost.
1 This work must be done immediately.
2 They arrived the next month.
3 Northern Ireland is the fourth country in GB.
4 Can I borrow your pen?- Certainly.
5 My father always watches five p.m. news on the TV.
Exercise 18 The following sentences are given in spelling and in a ‘slow,
careful’phonemic transcription. Rewrite the phonemic
transcription as a ‘broad’ one so as to show likely
assimilations, elisions.
a) One cause of asthma is supposed to be allergies
wʌn kɔːz әv æsθmә ɪz sәpәʊzd tә bɪ ælәʤɪz
[ ]
b) What the urban population could use is better trains
wɒt ðɪ ɜːbәn pɒpjәleɪʃn kʊd juːz ɪz betә treɪnz
[ ]
c) She acts particularly well in the first scene
ʃɪ ækts pәtɪkjәlәlɪ wel ɪn ðә fɜːst siːn
[ ]
1. Әбуов Ж.Ә., Баданбекқызы З. «Қазіргі ағылшын тілінің практикалық
фонетикасы»: Абай атындағы ҚазҰПУ, «Ұлағат» баспасы, .-Алматы.
2017.-368 бет.
2.Баданбекқызы З. Ағылшын және қазақ тілдерінің салыстырмалы
фонетикасы. - Алматы: “Бастау”, 2010.-136б.
3. Баданбекқызы Зәуре «Ағылшын тілі фонетикасы». Алматы:
«Эверо»2016. -264 б.
4.О. Борискина, Н.В. Костенко. Theoretical phonetics.Study Guide for
аэрокосмического приборостроения (ГУАП), 2013
гуман.-пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
Internet sources
http://lib.chdu.edu.ua
https://yandex.kz/video/search?filmId=13446739213607912398&text=acoustic
%20phonetics%20studies

Case study:
1. Write a short essay.Watch videos about the acoustic of a speech sound,
Acoustic Phonetics - YouTube. Film & Animation, Acoustic phonetics for the
teachers, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xD9Q5eEORNU study them then
write an essay about the topic.
2.Create a short video presentation. Watch the video “ Introduction to
Articulatory Phonetics (Consonants), “Introduction to Articulatory Phonetics
(Vowels)”, https:// www. youtube. com/ watch? v =dfoRdKuPF9I , then create
your own text and video about the topic. You should write your aim, plan
(what you are going to show about, make up brainstorming questions, complete
a small test about the topic using “iSpring QuizMaker”.
At the seminar present your video. Discuss the topic with your teacher and
groupmates , and evaluate your work.
Exercises:
Ex. 1 Write the symbols for the long vowel phonemes.
a) insert d) partial g) scarf
b) ornate e) peel h) sherbet
c) rune f) portion i) through
Ex. 2 Describe the sound characteristics of long vowel phonemes.
a) /iː/ b) / aː/ c) /ɜː/ d) / ɔː/ e) / uː /.
Ex.3 Show which of these quadrilaterials coinside to each phoneme, describe
their sound characteristics in English.Give examples.
Ex. 4 Using the descriptive labels introduced for vowel classification, say
what the following vowels are /uː/,/aː/,/ɔː/,/ɜː/,/iː/.
Ex.5 Draw a vowel quadrilateral and indicate on it the correct places for the
following vowels /uː/,/aː/,/ɔː/,/ɜː/,/iː/.
Ex.6 Write the sound characteristics of the long vowels/iː/, /uː/ /aː/, /ɔː/, /ɜː/.
Ex. 7 Transcribe the words phonemically.
a) insert d) partial g) scarf
b) ornate e) peel h) sherbet
c) rune f) portion i) through
Ex. 8 Write the sound symbols for each picture and describe their articulation.
Ex. 9 Write the sound symbols for each picture and describe their
articulation. Give your own examples with the phonemes in English.
Ex. 10 Draw a vowel quadrilateral and indicate on it the correct places

for the following short vowel phonemes / æ ʌ ɪ е ɒ ʊ /.
Ex. 11Write the symbols for the short vowel phonemes.
a) friend b) hymn c) pull d) threat e) rough f) boot g) sat h) bread
Ex. 12 Write the sound characteristics of the short vowels in English.
/æ ʌ ɪ е ɒ ʊ/
Ex. 13 Transcribe the words phonemically.
hook pushy would
cookie rook rude
Ex. 14 Which of these diagrams show the articulation of the phoneme /ð/?
State the sound characteristics of the phoneme /ð/ in English.
Describe its articulation.
Ex. 15 Which of these pictures show the articulation of the phoneme /θ/?
Say the sound characteristics of the phoneme /θ/ in English.Describe its
articulation.

2017.-368 бет.
«Эверо»2016. -264 б.
гуман.-пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
Internet sources
Summary
Summing up we can say that any sound in nature is an acoustic phenomenon.
It is a form of moving matter and energy. A sound is generated by a physical
body which is set into vibration by some external force.A sound has a number
of physical properties: frequency, intensity, duration.
There are few ways of seeing situation concerning the classification of
English consonants. According to V.A. Vassilyev primary importance should
be given to the type of obstruction and the manner of production noise. On
this ground he distinguishes two large classes:
a) occlusive, in the production of which a complete obstruction is formed;
b) constrictive, in the production of which an incomplete obstruction is
formed. Each of two classless is subdivided into noise consonants and
sonorants.
Another point of view is shared by a group of Russian phoneticians. They
suggest that the first and basic principle of classification should be the degree
of noise. Such consideration leads to dividing English consonants into two
general kinds: a) noise consonants; b) sonorants.
A.C. Gimson, H.A. Gleason, D. Jones and other foreign phoneticians include
in the manner of noise production groups of lateral, nasals, and semivowels -
subgroups of consonants which do not belong to a single class.Russian
phoneticians subdivide consonants into unicentral (pronounced with one
focus) and bicentral (pronounced with two foci), according to the number of
noise producing centers, or foci.
The articulation basis may be defined, as the general tendencies(or habits in
the way native speakers use their speech organs both during speech and at
rest).
The English articulation basis is the specific position of the main organs of
speech which makes English sound different from other languages of the
world.
The articulation basis influences the phonetic system of a language. The
articulation basis of one language may differ from the articulation basis of
another language. Though the articulation bases of English, Kazakh have not
yet been studied we may only speak about the most characteristic features of
the Received Pronunciation articulation basis as compared with the Kazakh
Standard articulation bases.
Glossary
Modification of phonemes in connected speech
Accommodation – adaptation of vowels to different adjacent sounds.
Assimilation – a modification of a consonant under the influence of a
neighbouring consonant. It is the result of coarticulation, when one sound
is made similar to its neighbour.
Close transition – articulation of two neighbouring sounds when the
first stage of the second sound takes place already during the medial stage
of the first sound.
Complete assimilation – when the articulation of the assimilated
consonant fully coincides with that of the assimilating one.
In contextual assimilation a word comes to have a pronunciation
different from that which it has when said by itself.
Elision – the process when one of the neighbouring sounds is not
realized in rapid or careless speech (complete loss of sounds, both vowels
and consonants. It is likely to be minimal in slow careful speech and
maximal in rapid relaxed colloquial forms of speech).
Historical assimilation – assimilation which took place at an earlier
stage in the history of the language (sound changes which are the result of
the historical development of the language).
Intermediate assimilation – the process when the assimilated
consonant changes into a different sound, but does not coincide with the
articulating consonant.
Living assimilation – assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in
the present day pronunciation.
Loose transition – articulation of two neighbouring sounds when the
final stage of the first sound is not affected by the initial stage of the
second sound.
Non-obligatory assimilation – appears in careless and slovenly
speech.
Obligatory assimilation – occurs in the speech of all persons who
speak a certain language no matter what style of speech is used.
Partial (incomplete) assimilation – the process when the assimilated
consonant retains its main phonemic features and becomes only partly
similar in some feature of its articulation to the assimilating sound.
Progressive assimilation – the process when the first of the two
neighbouring sounds influences the second and makes it similar to itself.
Reduction – actually qualitative or quantitative weakening of vowels
in unstressed position (a historical process of weakening, shortening or
disappearance of vowel sounds in unstressed positions).
Regressive assimilation – the process when the second of the two
neighbouring sounds influences the first one and makes it similar to itself.
Reciprocal (double) assimilation takes place when the neighbouring
sounds are equally affected by assimilation (when the two adjacent sound s
influence each other)
MODULE III THE SPEECH MECHANISMS
The aim of the module is the formation of

The content of the module student’s linguistic, intercultural,
Module contains: communicative and personally adaptive
- the aim of the module competencies on the topic.
-objectives of the module The objectives of the module:
-learning outcomes -to describe the stages of articulation process
-problems to be discussed of speech sounds;
-key words -to define the speech mechanisms;
- lecture topics -to characterize the types of speech
-seminar questions and assignments mechanisms.
- tasks of individual work
-glossary of the module
Learning outcomes:
By the end of the module a student :
- describes the stages of articulation process of speech sounds;
- defines the speech mechanisms;
- characterizes the types of speech mechanisms.
Problems to
be
discussed:
How speech
sounds are Types of What is a The functions of
produced? speech speech four types of
The stages of mechanisms mechanism? speech
articulation . mechanisms in
process of producing
speech speech sounds.
sounds.
KEY WORDS: speech mechanisms, power, resonator, vibrator, оbstructor

mechanisms.
The stages of articulation process of speech sounds
How speech sounds are produced?

Human speech is the result of a highly complicated series of events. Let`s
consider the speech chain, which may be diagrammed in simplified form like
this: Speaker's brain Speaker's vocal tract Transmission of sounds
through the ear Listener's ear Listener's brain. (Figure 1.)
http://studopedia.com.ua/1_35569_lecture-two.html?
The articulation process is realized in the following scheme:
1) the message is formed and incoded in the brain of the speaker (linguistic/
psychological level)
2) it is transmitted to the organs of speech and some sounds are articulated
(physiological stage)
3) the movements of the organs of speech produce sound waves (physical/
acoustic stage)
4) the sound waves are perceived, identified and decoded by the listener
(auditory stage).
The formation of the concept takes place in the brain of a speaker. This stage
may be called psychological. The message formed within the brain is transmitted
along the nervous system to the speech organs. Therefore, we may say that the
human brain controls the behaviour of the articulating organs which effects in
producing a particular pattern of speech sounds. This second stage may be called
physiological. The movements of the speech apparatus disturb the air stream thus
producing sound waves. Consequently, the third stage may be called physical or
acoustic. Further, any communication requires a listener, as well as a speaker. So
the last stages are the reception of the sound waves by the listener's hearing
physiological apparatus, the transmission of the spoken message through the
nervous system to the brain and the linguistic interpretation of the information
conveyed. (Figure 2.) http://studopedia.com.ua/1_35569_lecture-two.html?
Speech constitutes a favored means of human communication by virtue of its

“apparent” ease and because of the speed of information transmission that it
enables. An average output of 20 phonemes per second allows not less than 150
words per minute that humans can produce for communication purposes. Speech
is the result of a neuromotor activity. It is initiated by a current of air generated
by the lungs and transformed at the level of the larynx by the action of the vocal
folds, and directed towards the nasal or oral cavities by the velum or soft
palate. Finally, the air current is very precisely shaped at different places in the
mouth by the tongue until it emerges from the vocal tract through the double
shutter known as the lips as shown in Figure 2.
Mechanism system.
Power supply Modulator Filter
Velum
Lips
Respiratory Muscles Vocal folds Tongue Speech
LUNGS LARYNX VOCAL sounds
TRACT
The organs of speech

Organs which are active directly or indirectly in the process of speech
production are called organs of speech. In order to produce speech sounds
correctly we should know the speech apparatus, let`s watch a video about “The
organs of speech and their functions” from you tube. All speech organs can
be conventionally subdivided into active and passive (the most active are
tongue and lips, the most passive are upper teeth and hard palate)
The larynx
The larynx is a box-like structure made up of cartilage, muscle and connective
tissue. It is situated at the top of the windpipe (trachea). You can feel the
largest
cartilage in the larynx, which is known as the thyroid cartilage if you place
your
finger lightly on your "Adam's Apple". The larynx contains the vocal folds,
whichare also known as the vocal cords. Vocal cords are two horizontal folds
of elastic tissue. The vocal cords can take three positions: - they can be wide
apart /a/; - they can be brought close together /b/; - they are held loosely
together /s/.
The vocal cords for talking, singing, laughing, crying, screaming, etc. Its
frequency ranges from 200 to 7000 Hz.Physical characteristics of vocal cords
(size, mass, length) influence voice characteristics. Men and women have
different vocal cords sizes. Adult male voices are usually lower pitched and
have larger vocal cords. The male vocal foldsare between 17 mm and 25 mm in
length.The female vocal folds are between12.5 mm and 17.5 mm in length.
Speech-production mechanisms.
Speech sounds are the results of various movements and positions of human
speech organs. They are products of the complicated work of the speech
mechanisms.These mechanisms are closely interconnected, because in the
process of production of a sound several speech mechanisms function
simultaneously.
Speech mechanisms can be divided into the following 4 groups:
- the resonator mechanism;
- the оbstructor mechanism;
- the power mechanism;
- the vibrator mechanism.
All the speech sounds in English, Kazakh , Russian and many other languages
are made during exhalation. Breathing may be of two kinds: ordinary
biological breathing which takes place when we are silent. In ordinary
breathing the stream of air flows out freely: the vocal cords are apart and the
glottis is widely open, the soft palate is lowered letting the air through the
nasal cavity; sound-producing breathing (inhalation is quick and deep,
whereas exhalation is longer and drawn out). In sound producing breathing the
out flowing air undergoes some modifications in the glottis, in the pharynx and
in the mouth cavity. http://mylektsii.ru/1-75969.html?
As stated before there are four types of speech mechanisms. Let`s consider
speech mechanisms and their functions separately.
Resonator mechanism
It consists of the pharynx,the larynx,the mouth cavity, the nasal cavity.
The vocal tract above the larynx starts with a passage way called pharynx.
Then the vocal tract divides: one passage way goes up into the nasal cavity,
and the other into the mouth cavity. We can close off the access to the nasal
cavity by rising the soft palate (also called velum), and then the air will go
through the mouth, and the sound will be oral (most English , Kazakh and
Russian), or we can lower the soft palate and allow the air to go into the nasal
cavity, in which case the sound will be nasal /m, n, /. The extreme end of the
velum is a small piece of tissue called the uvula which plays a part in the
pronunciation of some languages: French for instance, has a uvular sound [R].
The obstructor mechanism The task of this

mechanism is to make obstructions to the air-stream thus producing different
speech sounds. It consists of the tongue (1-blade with the tip) 2-front ,3-
back or dorsum, the lips (lower, upper; they may be kept together, rounded,
open, spread, kept apart; they may be in contact with upper teeth), the teeth-
the soft palate with the uvula(the palate is divided: soft is very mobile,
hard is less mobile) and the hard palate. Obstructor mechanism is
responsible only for the production of consonants. There are several types of
articulatory obstruction:
Incomplete
Complete Intermittent
Power mechanism
It regulates the air-stream exhaled from the lungs.
The main speech organs of speech belonging to the power mechanism are
as follows: the diaphragm [`daɪəfræm ],the lungs [lʌŋz],the bronchi
[`brɔŋkaɪ] the windpipe [`win(d)paɪp] (or trachea [trə'ki:ə]),the glottis
[ɡlɔtɪs]. The function of the power mechanism is to supply the organs of
speech with energy in the form of air pressure, and to regulate it during
speech. Breathing consists of 2 phases: inhalation; exhalation.
Vibrator mechanism (the voice producing mechanism)
The task of this mechanism is to produce voice. It consists of the vocal
cords; they are in the larynx, or voice box. They vibrate when the air passes
between them. The opening between the vocal cords is called «glottis». All
English vowels and many English consonants are voiced.
References
1. Борисова Л. В. , Метлюк А. А. Теоретическая фонетика английского
языка : [ Учеб. пособие для ин-тов и факультетов иностр. яз. ] / Борисова
Л. В. , Метлюк А. А. – Мн. : Выш. школа, 1980. – С. 5 -16.
2.Паращук В. Ю. Теоретич на фонетика англійської мови: Навчальний
посібник для студентів факультетів іноземних мов / Паращук В. Ю. —
Вінниця, НОВА КНИГА, 2005. – С. 9 -20, 125 -126.
Оренбург: ОГУ, 2012. – 120 с.
4. Соколова М.А. и др.Теоретическая фонетика английского языка /
М.А. Соколова, И.С. Тихонова, Р.М. Тихонова,Е.Л. Фрейдина- Дубна:
+Феникс, 2010. -192 c.
гуман.-пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
6.Leontyeva S.F. A Theoretical Course of English Phonetics. M., Менеджер-
2003.
7. Retunskaya M.S. A Course of Lectures in Theoretical Phonetics of the
8. Vrabel T.T. “Lectures in theoretical phoneticsof the English language and
Internet sources
SEMINAR 3 THE SPEECH MECHANISMS

1.The stages of articulation process of speech sounds.
2.Definition of speech mechanisms.
3.Types of speech mechanisms.
4.Functions of speech mechanisms.
1. What mechanisms can the speech organs are divided into?
2. What organs of speech belong to the power mechanism?
3. What is the main function of the power mechanism?
4. What kind of breathing do you know?
5. What is the difference between ordinary biological breathing and sound-
producing breathing?
6. What speech organs belong to the vibrator mechanism?
7. What different positions may the vocal cords take up?
8. What speech organs belong to the resonator mechanism?
9. What is the resonator mechanism responsible for?
10. How the oral resonator be changed?
11. In what directions may the tongue move?
12. What is the obstructor mechanism responsible for?
13.What organs of speech belong to the obstruction?
14.Which are the different types of articulatory obstruction?
15.What do we call consonants which are articulated with a complete,
incomplete and
intermittent obstruction?
16.What types of obstruction are affricated produced with?
17.How many articulatory obstructions may consonants have?
18.What are unicentral and bicentral consonants?
19.What do we call front secondary obstruction? Give examples.
20.What do we call back secondary obstruction? Give examples.
Practical tasks:
1. Make a diagram of the speech production process. Briefly comment on her.

2. Create a card: ”types of speech mechanisms”. Briefly comment on each
speech mechanisms.
3. Give a brief outline of speech mechanisms functions.
4. Speak of speech production mechanisms. Make use of the following
phonetic terms in sentences of your own: organs of speech, speech production
process, active and passive organs of speech, power mechanism, obstructor
mechanism, vibrator mechanism, resonator mechanism.
Exercises:
Exercise 1 Make sure that you remember all organs of speech. Indicate
the corresponding parts of the sound producing mechanism in
the following pictures:
Exercise 2 Discuss with your partner: Why some organs of speech are called
active organs of speech? What organs of speech do they include?
Exercise 3 Why some organs of speech are called passive organs of speech?
What organs of speech do they include?
2017.-368 бет.
фонетикасы. - Алматы: “Бастау”, 2010.-136 б.
«Эверо»2016. -264 б.
Оренбург: ОГУ, 2012. – 120 с.
гуман.-пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
method-guides for seminars.”- PoliPrintUngv.r, 2009
Internet sources
STUDENT`S INDIVIDUAL WORK
Case study.
Project task.
1.Create a mini-video project. Find a video about the speech mechanisms.
Watch and study it then create your own text and video about the topic. You
should write your aim, plan (what you are going to show about, make up
brainstorming questions, complete a small test about the topic using . At the
seminar present your mini-video project. Discuss the topic with your teacher
and groupmates , and evaluate your work.
1. О.О. Борискина, Н.В. Костенко. Theoretical phonetics.Study Guide
for second year students.Издательско-полиграфический центр
Воронежского государственного университета. Воронеж. 2007.
2. И. И. Громовая Theoretical phonetics. Методические указания и
3.Евстифеева М.В.Теоретическая фонетика английского
языка.
Лекции,семинары,упражнения:учеб.пособие/М.В.Евстифеева. – М.:
ФЛИНТА:Наука, 2012. –168 с.
4.Собчакова, Н.М. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка:
учебно-методическое пособие / Н.М. Собчакова; Оренбургский гос.
ун-т. - Оренбург: ОГУ, 2012. - 120с.
гуман.-пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
7.T.T. Vrabel “Lectures in theoretical phoneticsof the English language
and method-guides for seminars.”-PoliPrintUngv.r, 2009
Internet sources
Summary
According to their main sound-producing functions, the speech organs can be
divided into the four groups: the power mechanism, the vibration mechanism,
the resonator mechanism, the obstruction mechanism. The functions of the
power mechanism consist in the supply of the energy in the form of the air
pressure and in regulating the force of the air stream. The power mechanism
includes: (1) the diaphragm, (2) the lungs, (3) the bronchi, (4) the windpipe,
or trachea. The glottis and the supra-glottal cavities enter into the power
mechanism as parts of the respiratory tract. The vibration mechanism consists
of the larynx, or voice box, containing the vocal cords. The most important
function of the vocal cords is their role in the production of voice. The
pharynx, the mouth, and the nasal cavity function as the principal resonators
thus constituting the resonator mechanism. The obstruction mechanism (the
tongue, the lips, the teeth, and the palate) forms the different types of
obstructions.
Glossary
Larynx –part of the vocal tract containing the vocal cords

Mouth cavity –the cavity between the teeth and the pharynx
Nasal cavity–the cavity inside the nose which is separated from the mouth
cavity with the soft palate and the uvula.
Obstruction mechanism –a group of speech organs which form
obstructions during articulation of consonants, it includes tongue, lips, hard
and soft palate and teeth.
Organs of speech –the human organs which together with biological
functions take part in sound production.
Pharynx –the part of the throat which connects the larynx to the upper part
of the vocal tract.
Power mechanism–a group of speech organs which supplies energy for
sound production, it includes lungs, diaphragm, windpipe, bronchi.
Resonator mechanism –a group of speech organs which can change their
shape and volume, thus forming the spectral component of the sound, it
includes nasal and mouth cavities.
Vibrator mechanism –a group of speech organs which vibrate while the air
passes through, thus producing voice, it includes larynx, vocal cords, glottis.
Vocal cords (folds) –two soft folds in the larynx which can be brought
together and apart, thus producing voice.
Vocal tract –the air passages above the vocal folds which form the system
used to produce speech. This starts at the larynx and includes the pharynx,
the mouth, and the nasal cavity.
MODULE IV THE PHONOLOGICAL ASPECT OF SPEECH
SOUNDS. PHONOLOGICAL SCHOOLS
Module contains: student’s linguistic, intercultural,
- the aim of the module communicative and professionally adaptive
-objectives of the module competencies on the topic.
-learning outcomes The objectives of the module:
-problems to be discussed -to differentiate main distinction between
-key words phonetics and phonology;
- lecture topics -to describe the phonological aspect of
-seminar questions and assignments speech sounds;
- tasks of students ` individual work -to define the concept phoneme/allophone;
-glossary of the module -to characterize the phonological schools.
Learning outcomes:
-differentiates main distinction between phonetics and phonology;
-describes the phonological aspect of speech sounds;
-defines the concept phoneme/allophone;
- characterizes the phonological schools.
1.The difference between phonology and phonetics.
2.Main problems of phonology.
3.The phoneme theory.
4.Phonological schools. Types of phonological schools.
Phonology, phoneme, allophones, phonological

aspect, typical, subsidiary, types of phonological
schools, symbols of phonemic and allophonic
What is the main distinction between phonetics and phonology?
transcriptions.
The development of different approaches to the interpretation of a phoneme
enriched the linguistic science in general and leads to the appearance within
phonetics a separate branch called phonology. Phonology was originated in the
30s of the 20th century by a group of linguists belonging to the Prague linguistic
school – Vilem Matesius, Nicolay Trubetskoy, Roman Jacobson. The
theoretical background of phonology is phoneme theory whose foundations
were first laid down by I.A. Bodoine – de- Courtenay (1845-1929) in the last
quarter of the 19th century (between the years 1868-1881). The most important
work in phonology is the Groundwork of Phonology (1939) by
NicolayTrubetskoy.He claimed that phonology should be separated from

phonetics as it studies the functional aspect of phonic components of language.
Phonetics is a biological science which investigates how speech sounds are
made, transmitted and received i.e. phonetics is the study of all possible speech
sounds. The human vocal apparatus can produce a wide range of sounds; but
only a small number of them are used in the language to construct all its words
and utterances Contemporary phoneticians hold the view that form and
function cannot be separated and treat phonology as a linguistic branch of
phonetics.
Americans rather divide between proper phonetics (which deals with physical
characteristics of speech sounds) and phonology. It should be mentioned here
that in many cases where the publications of American linguists have the word
phonology in their title they often deal with the same spheres and aspects of
speech sounds that are considered in papers and books of Soviet (Russian)
linguists which have the term phonetics on the cover.
The relation between phonetics and phonology is very intricate and intimate. If
for theoretical purposes we regard the phonemes and speech sounds as two
sides of one and the same object of reality (a view propagated by the Soviet-
Russian scholars), we shall have to consider phonemes representing its
abstract, ideal side, whereas speech sounds – representing its substantial,
material side. If, theoretically, we regard phonemes and speech sounds as
completely different objects of reality (the view propagated by Western
scholars), we still have to consider the former being abstract and ideal, whereas
the latter – being substantial and material. So, as you see the extremes meet if
not completely, yet partially, which happens often in science, and the
differences between Russian and Western schools show their partial relativity
to certain extent and in certain context.
Phonology as a sciencе
The term phonology is derived from Greek language -phōnē`"voice, sound" and
the suffix - logy "lóǵos" word, speech subject of discussion". Phonology is a
branch of linguistic which studies the functional aspect of speech sounds.
Phonology is based on the phoneme theory. It studies the way in which
speakers systematically use a selection of units – phonemes and intonemes in
order to express meaning. It investigates the phonetic phenomena from the
point of view of their use. Within phonology two branches of study are usually
recognized: segmental and supra-segmental.Segmental phonology analyses
speech into discrete segments such as phonemes. Supra-segmental phonology
analyses those features which extend over more than one segment such as
intonation contours. The primary aim of phonology is to discover the principles
that govern the way that sounds are organized in languages, to determine which
phonemes are used and how they pattern phonological structure of a language.
Phonology also solves the problem of the identification of the phonemes of the
language, the problem of the identification of the phoneme in particular word,
utterance. It establishes the system of phonemes and determines the frequency
of occurrence in syllables, words, utterances. The distribution and grouping of
phonemes and syllables in words are dealt with an area of phonology which is
called phonotactics. The relation between phonetics and phonology can be
understood by saying that phonetics is “the science which studies the
characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in
speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and
transcription”, whereas phonology is “a branch of linguistics which studies the
sound systems of languages” (Crystal, 2007 : 349, 351).
When we talk about how phonemes function in a language, and the relationship
among the different phonemes – (when, in other words,) we study the abstract
(the ideal) side of the sounds of a language – we are studying a related but
different subject that we call phonology. Only by studying both the phonetics
and the phonology of English is it possible to acquire a full understanding of
the use of sounds in English speech (Roach, 1990 : 35). To study the sounds of
a language from the phonological point of view means to study the way they
function, to find out which sounds a language uses as part of its pronunciation
system, how sounds are grouped into functionally similar units, termed
phonemes.
So the aim of phonology is firstly to determine which differences of sounds are
phonemic and which are non-phonemic, and secondly, to find the inventory of
phonemes of a language. In doing this, we must arrange sounds into
functionally similar groups. We do not know yet what sounds are contrastive in
this language and what sounds are merely allophones of one and the same
phoneme. These are achieved through application of methods of phonetic (and
phonological) studies.
https://infopedia.su/17xef4b.html
https://helpiks.org/9-16048.htm
The phonological aspect of speech sounds. The phoneme theory.

Phoneme – the shortest functional unit of a language. The segmental phoneme
is the smallest (i.e. further indivisible into smaller consecutive segments)
language unit(sound type) that exists in the speech of all the members of a
given language community as such sounds which are capable of distinguishing
one word from another word of the same language or one grammatical form of
a word from another grammatical form of the same word.
Phoneme has 3 functions:- constitutive (phonemes exist in their material form
speech sounds constitute morphemes, words, sentences all of each are
meaningful); - distinctive (it distinguishes one word from another, even whole
sentences); - recognitive (it manifests in the process of identification: native
speakers can identify combination of phonemes as meaningful units.).The basic
method of establishing the phonemic status of a sound is the method of
finding minimal pairs, which consists in finding at least one minimal pair of
words which are different in respect of that sound: pit – bit. When two words
are identical except for one sound which makes a contrast in the meaning of
words, they are said to form a minimal pair, and the two sounds are different
phonemes. The two phonemes are distinguished by at least one feature which is
called distinctive (phonemic) feature.
Variants of the phoneme (аllophones). Types of allophones.
The phoneme is realized in speech in the material form of speech sounds of
different type. Various speech realizations of the phoneme are called
its allophones. Each phoneme exists in speech in the form of mutually non-
distinctive speech sounds, its allophones. Allophones – variants of one and the
same phoneme, which never occur in identical positions, but are said to be in
complementary distribution, they are actual speech sounds. The number of
phonemes in each language is much smaller than the its number of allophones.
It means that each phoneme has several allophones. Allophones of the same
phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. They cannot differentiate
the meaning since there is no mutual opposition possible in this case.
Allophones
are divided
into:
typical or subsidiary
principal
positional
allophones
combinatory
allophones
The most representative allophone is called typical or principal. Principal

allophone is the variant of a phoneme which is free from the influence of the
neighboring sounds. Subsidiary allophones are variants of phonemes that
appear under the influence of the neighboring phonemes. They are subdivided
into combinatory and positional. Combinatory allophones are variants of a
phoneme which appear in speech as a result of assimilation and adaptation or
of the specific ways of joining sounds together. Combinatory allophones
appear in the process of speech and result from the influence of one phoneme
upon another.
Positional allophones are variants of a phoneme which are used in definite
positions due to the tradition of a language pronunciation, e.g. dark and light
/l/. Positional allophones are used in certain positions traditionally.
Usually native speakers do not observe the difference between the allophones
of the same phoneme. At the same time they realize that allophones of each
phoneme possess a bundle of distinctive features, that make this phoneme
functionally different from all other phonemes of the language concerned. This
functionally relevant bundle of articulatory features is called the invariant of
the phoneme.
Any change in the invariant of the phoneme affects the meaning. While studing
a foreign language anyone makes mistakes in the articulation of particular
sounds. L. V. Shcherba distinguished phonological and phonetic types of the
pronunciation mistakes .If an allophone of some phoneme is replaced by an
allophone of a different phoneme the mistake is called phonological, because
the meaning of the word is inevitably affected. It happens when one or more
relevant
features of the phoneme are not realized. For example: when the long vowel /i:/
in the word meat becomes slightly more open, more advanced or is no longer
diphthongized the word meat may be perceived as quite a different word mit. It
is perfectly clear that this type of mistakes is not admitted in teaching
pronunciation to any type of language learner. If an allophone of the phoneme
is replaced by another allophone of the phoneme the mistake is called phonetic.
It happens when the invariant of the phoneme is not modified and consequently
the meaning of the
word is not affected.For example:when the long vowel /i:/ is fully long in such
a word as meet, for instance, the quality of it remaining the same, the meaning
of the word does not change. Language learners are not to let phonetic mistakes
into their pronunciation. If they do make them the degree of their foreign
accent will certainly be an obstacle to the listener's perception and
understanding.
Let`s consider the system of phonetic notations which is termed
"transcription".
The International Phonetic Association (IPA) has given an accepted
inventory of symbols, used in different types of transcription.
What is transcription?
It is the system of signs in which sounds are symbolized. Transcription
represents sounding speech. The symbolization of sounds naturally differs
according to whether the aim is to indicate the phoneme, i. e. a functional
unit as a whole, or to reflect the modifications of its allophones as well.
Types of
transcription:
1. broad or 2. the narrow

phonemic or allophonic
Phonemic or broad transcription provides special symbols for all the

phonemes of a language. The symbols of a phonemic transcription are placed
within two slanting lines/ /. Allophonic transcription – a type of transcription
which is based on the principle “one symbol per allophone”. It suggests special
symbols including some notes about the articulation of a particular allophone.
It is used in research work.This transcription provides a special sign for each
variant of each phoneme. A phoneme is reflected in this transcription as a unity
of all its allophones. The symbols of an allophonic transcription are usually
placed between square brackets [ ]. Phonemic transcription – a type of
transcription which is based on the principle “one symbol per phoneme”. A
phoneme is reflected in this transcription as an abstraction and generalization.
There are different point of
views of the scientists about the
nature of the phoneme:
“Mentalist” The physical

view : Areal, Minimal sound The
view of the (D.Jones,B. independent units: abstractional
phoneme: Bloch, distinctive (S. conception:
theory. T.Trager unit: Trubetzkoy, (Ferdinand de
(I.A. Ferdinand de (L.V.Shcherba,
V.A.Vassilyev) L.Bloomfield , Saussure,
Baudouin Saussure) R. Jakobson) L.Hjelmslev)
de
Courtney)
These point of views are considered in phonological schools

differently.There are five phonological schools according to the conceptions
of the phoneme theory.
The phoneme theory was first formulated at the end of the 19th century. Its
founder was prof. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay (Kazan, St.

Petersburg). The two main problems of phonology are: (1) the inventory of
the phonemes of a given language, (2) the phonemic status of speech sounds in
unstressed position. The various phonological schools chiefly differ in their
solution of the two main problems of phonology.
2) The Prague linguistic circle
To the Prague linguistic Circle school belong:
N. S. Trubetzkoy R. Jakobson , A. Martinet and others .
According to N.S. Trubetzkoy phonology is a linguistic science, while phonetics

is a biological science. N.S. Trubetzkoy further develops his system of
oppositions by giving special prominence to the most essential members: the
phoneme and the speech sound. The arch-phoneme is defined as a unity of
relevant features common to two phonemes.
http://oplib.ru/random/view/510583
3) St. Petersburg/Leningrad phonological school

To the St. Petersburg school belong:
L. Scherba L.R. Zinder O.I. Dikushina M.I. Matusevitch and others
L.V. Shcherba, L.R. Zinder, M.I. Matusevich, O.I. Dikushina, V. A. Vassilyev,

G.P. Torsuyev consider that the /k/ sound of the words "лук" and "луг" are
allophones of the /k/ phoneme. The neutral sound of the words "бочок" and
"бачок" are allophones of the neutral vowel phoneme /ʌ/.They investigate the
phoneme mostly on the basis of theRussian language. L.V. Shcherba and his
followers have developed Ivan Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay’s
psychological conception of the late period. L.V. Shcherba has created a truly
materialistic phoneme theory.
https://allbest.ru/otherreferats/languages/00423097_1.html
4) To the Moscow Phonological School belong:
R.I. Avanesov R. I. Reformatsky P.S. Kuznetsov N.P.Yakovlev
and others
R.I. Avanessov, A.A. Reformatsky, P.S. Kuznetsov, N.F. Yakovlev, V.N. Sidorov and others
have developed I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay’s morphological conception of the early period.The
representatives of the Moscow phonological school say that the same speech sound may belong
to different phonemes, as the /k/ in “poк”, “poг” or the /ʌ/ of “бачок”, “бочок”. According to
the Moscow phonological school the neutral speech sound in the words “progressive”,
“activity”, “gooseberry” belongs to different phonemes, namely: the neutral sound in the word
“progressive” belongs to the /ou/ phoneme, because the /ou/ occurs in stressed position in
“progress”; the neutral sound in the word “activity” belongs to the /æ/ phoneme, because the /æ/
is pronounced in stressed position in “act”; the neutral sound in the word “gooseberry” belongs
to the /e/ phoneme, because the /e/ occurs in stressed position in “berry”. R. I. Reformatsky give
the following definitions of the phoneme: “Phonemes are minimal units of sound structure
of a language,serving to form and differentiate meaningful units: morphemes and words.”
5)The American phonological school

The American phonological school is headed by:
Leonard Bloomfield Sapir Edward
L. Bloomfield's definition of the phoneme runs as follows: "...a minimum unit

of distinctive sound — features..."W. F. Twaddell defines it as "an
abstractional fiction ".The representatives of the American phonological
school tend more and more to develop an abstractional view of the
phoneme.Ch. F. Hockett says that language may be compared to any system
of codes, such as Morse code or the waving flags code.
References
1. Бурая, Е.А. Фонетика современного английского языка. Теоретический
курс [текст]: учебн. для студ. лингв. вузов и фак. / Е.А. Бурая,
И.Е.Галочкина, Т.И. Шевченко. – М.: Изд. центр “Академия”, 2006.
2.Леонтьева, С.Ф. Теоретическая фонетика современного английского
языка (на английском языке) [текст]: учеб для студ. пед. вузов и ун-
тов /С.Ф. Леонтьева. – 3-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Изд-во
“Менеджер”, 2004.
3.Соколова, М.А. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка (на
английском языке) [текст]: учеб. для студ. высш. учеб. заведений /
М.А.Соколова, К.П. Гинтовт, И.С. Тихонова, Р.М. Тихонова. – 3-е изд.,
стереотип. – М.: Гуманитар, изд. центр Владос, 2004.
4. Торсуев, Г.П. Фонетика английского языка [текст]: учебн. Для
филологич. ф-тов ун-тов, ин-тов и фак-тов иностр. языков / Г.П. Торсуев.
–М.: Изд. лит-ры на иностранных языках, 1950. Шевченко, Т.И.
Теоретическая фонетика английского языка (на английском языке)
[текст]: Учебник / Т.И. Шевченко. – М: Высшая школа, 2006.
5. Щерба, Л.В. Фонетика французского языка [текст]: очерк
французского произношения в сравнении с русским / Л.В. Щерба. – 3-е
изд.исправленное и расширенное. – М.: Изд-во лит-ры на иностр. языке,
1948.
Internet sources
https://studopedia.ru
http://lektsii.net/
SEMINAR IV SEMINAR THE PHONOLOGICAL ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUNDS

1.The difference between phonology and phonetics.
2.Main problems of phonology.
3.The phoneme theory.
4.Phonological schools. Types of phonological schools.

1.What theory is phonology based upon?
2.Who was Prof. Ivan Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay?
3.Who continued I.A Baudouin de Courtenay’s work in Russia?
4.What is a phoneme according to Prof. V.A. Vassilyev?
5.Does a phoneme have one or more allophones?
6.What groups of allophones do you know?
7.Which allophone is typical?
8.What do know about subsidiary allophones?
9.What are positional allophones?
10.What types of phonetic transcription do you know of?
11.What functions does the phoneme fulfill?
12.What kind of mistakes may wrong pronunciation produce?
13.What are the two main problems of phonology?
14.Who belongs to the Moscow phonological school?
15.Who belongs to the Leningrad phonological school?
16.What kind of phoneme theory has L.V. Shcherba created?
17.What phoneme do the neutral speech sound belong to in the words ‘’
progressive’, ‘’activity’’, ‘’gooseberry’’ according to the Moscow
phonological school?
18.What phonemes do the neutral vowel sounds in the words ‘’ progressive’,
‘’activity’’, ‘’gooseberry’’ belong to according to the Leningrad phonological
school?
19.Which of the two phonological schools conceptions is more practical in
teaching a foreign language to students?
20.What phonological school was originated by N.S. Trubetzkoy?
21.What is one of the main points of N.S. Trubetzkoy’s theory?
22.Who is the London phonological school represented by?
23.What is D. Jones’ definition of the phonemes?
24.What conception does D. Jones develop in his monograph ‘’ The Phoneme:
its Nature and Use’’?
25.What is D. Jones’ ‘’ atomistic ‘’ theory criticized for?
26.Who are the representatives of the American phonological school?
27.What kind of phoneme theory do American descriptivists tend to develop?
Practical tasks:
1.Give a brief outline of the English phonemes.
2.Differentiate main distinction between phonetics and phonology.
3.Describe the phonological aspect of speech sounds.
4.Define the concept phoneme/allophone.
5.Characterize the types of allophones.
6. Give detailed characteristics of each approach to the study of a phoneme.
7.Give the concepts of the phoneme theory in different phonological schools.
8.Name the representatives of five phonological schools and their conceptions
about the phoneme theory.
2. И. И. Громовая Theoretical phonetics. Методические указания и учебные
3. Евстифеева М.В.Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. Лекции,
семинары, упражнения:учеб.пособие/М.В.Евстифеева. – М.:
Флинта:Наука, 2012. – 168 с.
4.Собчакова, Н.М. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: учебно-
гуман.-пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
method-guides for seminars.”- PoliPrintUngv.r, 2009
Internet sources

Case study
Project tasks:
1.Create a short video project presentation.Watch videos:
Phonemes & Allophones youtube.com / A brief overview of the differences
between phonemes and allophones. Phonology (Field Of
Study), Phonemes and allophones youtube.com Phonemes and allophones -
YouTube. yt:quality:high, Phoneme, Allophone./ study them then construct
your own text and create your own video about the topic. You should write
your aim, plan (what you are going to show about, make up brainstorming
questions, complete a small test about the topic using “Prezi “program. At the
seminar present your video project work. Discuss the topic with your teacher
and groupmates and evaluate it.
2. И. И. Громовая Theoretical phonetics. Методические указания и учебные
семинары, упражнения:учеб.пособие/М.В.Евстифеева. – М.:
Флинта:Наука, 2012. –168 с.
гуман.-пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
Internet sources
Summary
To sum up we can say that phonology is the study of the sound system of
languages. At one extreme, phonology is concerned with anatomy and
physiology- the organs of speech and how we learn to use them. At another
extreme, phonology shades into socio-linguistic as we consider social attitudes
to features of sound such as accent and intonation. And part of the subject is
concerned with finding objective standard ways of recording speech, and
representing this symbolically. The two main problems of phonology are: (1)
the inventory of the phonemes of a given language, (2) the phonemic status of
speech sounds in unstressed position. The various phonological schools chiefly
differ in their solution of the two main problems of phonology.
Glossary
Allophones – variants of one and the same phoneme, which never
occur in identical positions, but are said to be in complementary
distribution, they are actual speech sounds.
Allophonic transcription – a type of transcription which is based on
the principle “one symbol per allophone“.
Combinatory allophones – variants of a phoneme which appear in
speech as a result of assimilation and adaptation or of the specific ways of
joining sounds together.
Commutation method – one of the basic methods of phonemic
investigation, which consists in the discovery of minimal pairs.
Distributional analysis – a method that helps to establish the
distribution of speech sounds.
Method of minimal pairs – the discovery of as many pairs of words
as possible, that differ in one phoneme. .
Phoneme – the shortest functional unit of a language. .
Phonology – the science that deals with phonemes and their
sequences. It is functional phonetics since it investigates the functional side
of phonemes, accent, syllable, and intonation.
Positional allophones – variants of a phoneme which are used in
definite positions due to the tradition of a language pronunciation.
Principal allophone – that variant of a phoneme which is considered
to be free from the influence of the neighbouring sounds.
Statistical method – a method which helps to establish frequency,
probability and predictability of occurrence of phonemes and their
allophones in different positions.
Subsidiary allophones – variants of phonemes that appear under the
influence of the neighbouring phonemes with which they are in
complementary distribution..
Substitution method – the method of replacing of one speech sound
by another in the same position to see whether it results in a minimal pair.
Transcription – the system of signs in which sounds are symbolized.
MODULE V THE UNSTRESSED VOCALISM OF ENGLISH
Module contains: student’s linguistic, intercultural,
- the aim of the module communicative and professionally adaptive
- objectives of the module competencies on the topic.
- learning outcomes The objectives of the module:
- problems to be discussed -to characterize the system of unstressed
- key words vocalism;
- lecture topics -to define concept ‘schwa sound’;
- seminar questions and assignments -to differentiate the degrees of reduction.
- tasks of students` individual work
-glossary of the module
Learning outcomes:
- characterizes the system of unstressed vocalism;
- defines concept `schwa sound`;
- differentiates the degrees of reduction.
A vowel of full formation in A semi-weak vowel in an

an unstressed syllable. unstressed syllable.
An unstressed vowel in different types of reduc

tion.
unstressed vocalism, quantitative; qualitative,zero,
reduced vowels.
What is the system. of unstressed vocalism?
The English vowels occurring in unstressed syllables form a definite system
that is called the system of unstressed vocalism. The English vowels
occurring in unstressed syllables form a definite system. They may be
pronounced in three different ways:
(1) A vowel of full formation may be used in an unstressed syllable;
(2) A semi-weak vowel may be used in an unstressed syllable;
(3) An unstressed vowel may undergo different types of reduction.
A vowel in an unstressed syllable is most commonly reduced. Vowel
reduction is a characteristic feature of English some other languages. A vowel
in an unstressed syllable becomes shorter weaker and less distinct. There are
three degrees of reduction in English: 1) quantitative;2) qualitative; 3) zero.
Vowel reduction
As a result of the compression of unstressed syllables in English, very often
vowels in these syllables become weak and are reduced to the neutral vocalic
sound /ә/. This neutral vowel phoneme known as schwa is produced by the
vibration of the vocal cords alone, with the tongue in a neutral position and
requiring a minimal amount of articulatory effort. The schwa largely
characterizes the sound of English.
Three different types of reduction are noticed in English:
Quantitative i.e. shortening of a vowel sound in the

reduction unstressed position, affects mainly long vowels,
eg. [hiː - hi - hɪ].
When does he come?
Qualitative i.e. obscuration of vowels towards, affects both
reduction long and short vowels, eg. can [kæn – kən].You
can easily do it. [jʊ kən → iːzɪlɪ ˛duː ɪt].
Vowels in unstressed form-words in most cases
Zero reduction undergo both quantitative and qualitative
reduction, eg. [miː -mɪ- m].
consists in dropping out a vowel or a consonant,
as in the case of: Shall /ʃæl /- strong; /ʃl, l/-zero
In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa (sometimes

spelled shwa) can mean the following: Phonologically, this vowel is an
archiphoneme representing.
Archiphoneme
Oxford University Press have devised the non-IPA symbol [ᵿ ]to represent a
vowel which may be either /ʊ/ or /ə/, the two in free being variation. For
example awful [ˈɔːfᵿl] may be pronounced /ˈɔːfəl/ or /ˈɔːfʊl/. A rounded
vowel /ʊ/, corresponding to the /ɪ/ happY vowel is widely used in British
works for words such as influence [ɪnflʊəns], into [ɪntʊ/ǝ].
 An unstressed and toneless neutral vowel sound in some languages,
often but not necessarily a mid-central vowel. An example in English is the
vowel sound in the second syllable of the word sofa. Such vowels are often
transcribed with the symbol /ə/, regardless of their actual phonetic value. The
mid-central vowel sound (rounded or unrounded) in the middle of the vowel
chart, stressed or unstressed. In IPA phonetic transcription, it is written as /ə/.
In this case the term mid-central vowel may be used instead of schwa to avoid
ambiguity.
What is the etymology of schwa?
The word schwa is from the Hebrew word shva (‫ְׁש ָוא‬shewa’, pronounced [ʃə
ˈwa], modern shva [ʃva]), which designates the Hebrewniqqudvowel sign shva
"ְ" that in modern Hebrew indicates either the phoneme /e/ or the complete
absence of a vowel. also the Hebrew shva is sometimes represented by the
upside-down e symbol for schwa, a misleading transliteration, since the schwa
vowel is not representative of modern Hebrew pronunciation of shva and is
not characteristic of earlier pronunciations either (see Tiberian vocalization →
Mobile Shwa).The term was introduced into European linguistics byJacob
Grimm in the early 19th century, so the spelling sch is German in origin. It
was first used in English texts between 1890–1895. Sometimes the term
"schwa" is used for any epenthetic vowel In English, schwa is the most
common vowel sound. It is a reduced vowel in many unstressed syllables,
especially if syllabic consonants are not used. Depending on dialect, it may be
written using any of the following letters:
'a', as in about [əˈbaʊt]
'e', as in taken [ˈtʰeɪkən]
◦ 'i', as in pencil [ˈpʰɛnsəl]
'o', as in eloquent [ˈɛləkwənt]
◦ 'u', as in supply [səˈplaɪ]
'y', as in sibyl [ˈsɪbəl]
various combinations of letters, such as 'ai' in mountain [ˈmaʊntən]
◦ unwritten as in rhythm [ˈrɪðəm]
Internet sourses
http://mylektsii.ru/1-28729.html
https://prezi.com/xjfdg7croufd/the-unstressed-vocalism-in-english/
https://yandex.kz/video/search?text=JenniferESL&channelId=d
https://yandex.kz/video/search?text=unstressed%20vocalism%20of%20English
SEMINAR V THE UNSTRESSED VOCALISM OF ENGLISH
Problems to be discussed at the seminar

1. Definition of unstressed vocalism.
2. Characterize the quantitative, qualitative, zero degrees of reduction.
3. The definition of schwa.
1.In what different ways may vowels in unstressed position be pronounced in
English?
2.What vowels of full formation may be used in unstressed positions?
3.What examples can you give of vowels of full formation in unstressed
syllables?
4.What is a semi-weak vowel according to Ida Ward?
5.What examples does I. Ward give of a semi- weak vowel?
6.How does Prof. V.A. Vassilyev define a semi- weak vowel?
7.What other examples of semi- weak vowels can you give?
8.What usually happens to a vowel in an unstressed syllable?
9.What is a reduced vowel like?
10.How many degrees of reduction do you know in English?
11.What degrees of reduction are there in English?
12.What can you say about quantitative reduction?
13.What can you say about qualitative reduction?
14.What do you know about zero reduction?
15.Which vowel phoneme plays the most important role in the system of
English unstressed vocalism?
16.What do we call vowel gradation?
17.How many types of vowel gradation do you know of in English?
18.What vowels of full formation may alternate with the neutral vowel /ә/?
19.Give examples of alternation of vowels of full formation with the neutral
vowel /ә/?
20.What may the stressed /i: / alternate with in an unstressed syllable? Give
examples.
21.What does the stressed /e/ alternate with in an unstressed syllable? Give
examples.
22.What does the stressed/ei/sometimes alternate with in an unstressed
syllable? Give examples.
23.Is the neutral vowel /ә/ capable of forming minimal pairs?
24.What oppositions does the neutral vowel to other vowels prove?
Practical tasks:
1.Give a brief outline of unstressed vocalism of English.
2.Give examples for schwa.
2.Бурая, Е. А. Фонетика современного английского языка:
теоретический курс: учебник в электронном формате / Е. А. Бурая, И. Е.
задания Санкт Петербургский государственный университет
4. Евстифеева М. В. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. Лекции,
семинары, упражнения: учеб.пособие/М.В.Евстифеева.—М.:
Флинта:Наука,2012.—168с.
гуман.-пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
7.Хромов С.С. Теоретическая фонетика. Учебно-практическое пособие. -
9.T.T. Vrabel “Lectures in theoretical phonetics of the English language and
Internet sources

Case study
A project task:
1.Make a short a mini-video project. Watch videos:
“Reducing Unstressed Vowels - Understanding Fast Speech in English”.,
English pronunciation - the unstressed vowel, “Accent Reduction - Syllable
Stress - Part 3 (Unstressed Vowels” youtube.com and others study them then
create your own text and video about the topic. You should write your aim,
plan (what you are going to show about, make up brainstorming questions,
complete a small test about the topic using . At the seminar present
your video project. Discuss with your teacher and groupmates , and evaluate
your work.
1. Бурая, Е. А. Фонетика современного английского языка: теоретический
курс: учебник в электронном формате / Е. А. Бурая, И. Е. Галочкина, Т. И.
Шевченко. - 2014.
семинары, упражнения: учеб.пособие/М.В.Евстифеева.—М.:
Флинта:Наука,2012.—168с.
гуман.-пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
6.Хромов С. С. Теоретическая фонетика. Учебно-практическое пособие. -
Internet sources
Summary
So English vowels occurring in unstressed syllables form a definite system
which is called the system of unstressed vocalism. The English vowels
occurring in unstressed syllables may be pronounced in three different
ways: a vowel of full formation may be used in an unstressed syllable,
a semi-weak vowel may be used in an unstressed syllable,
an unstressed vowel may undergo different types of reduction.
Schwa is a very short neutral vowel sound.
Glossary
Reduced vowel –a weakened vowel
Reduction –weakening of vowels in unstressed positions
Schwa - Neutral vowel –a mid central vowel /ə/ Unstressed –bearing no stress
Qualitative –connected with spectral characteristics of a sound.
Quantitative –referring to the length of a sound.
MODULE VI THE SYLLABIC STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS

The content of the module students' linguistic,
Module contains: intercultural,communicative and
- the aim of the module
- objectives of the module professionally adaptive competencies on
- learning outcomes the topic.
- problems to be discussed The objectives of the module:
- key words - to define the concept of syllable; -
Learning outcomes:
- defines the concept of syllable;
- describes the types of syllable ;
- to differentiates the structure of syllable;
- characterizes the rules of syllable division.
Problems to be
discussed:
The structure of
Definition of The functions of
the syllable.
syllable. the syllable.
Types of syllable.
syllable , syllabic , non-syllabic, onset , rhyme,

nucleus, coda.
Definition of syllable
The syllable is a complicated phenomenon which can be viewed on: acoustic,

articulatory and functional levels. There exist numerous theories of the
syllable. Some of them consider the syllable to be a purely articulatory unit
without any functional value. The majority of linguists regard the syllable as
the smallest pronounceable unit which can perform some linguistic function.
Phonemes are rarely pronounced in isolation, they usually occur in sequences.
Sound sequences are broken up into smaller units known as syllables, which
are the minimal units of sounding speech. Words can be cut up into units called
syllables.
A syllable may consist of one or a number of phonemes, it may be formed by
any vowel or by a word-final sonorant preceded by a consonant. A speech
sound which is capable of forming a syllable is called syllabic. It is the most
sonorous sound in the syllable and makes up the peak of prominence. Speech
sounds which are not capable of forming syllables are called non-syllabic. The
syllabic structure of words may be graphically represented by the letter V
standing for a vowel and the letter C standing for a consonant. So we can say
that the syllable is the smallest pronounceable unit capable of forming
morphemes, words and phrases. As a meaningful language unit it has two
aspects: syllable formation and syllable division which form a dialectal unity.
The syllable division determines the syllabic structure of the language, its
syllable typology. Phonotactic possibilities of a language determine the rules of
syllable division. In English syllable formation is based on the phonological
opposition vowel –consonant.
As a meaningful language unit it has two aspects: syllable formation and
syllable division which form a dialectal unity.
Types of syllable
There are four

types of syllable
V – uncovered, CVC – covered,

VC – uncovered, CV – covered,
open, or fully closed, or fully
closed, e.g. it [ɪt], open, e.g. see
open, e.g. or [ↄː], add [æd] [si:], no [nǝʊ]
closed, e.g. catch
I [aɪ] [kæʧ], pit [pɪt].
Syllables can be open, when ending in a vowel (V, CV), closed, ending in a
consonant (VC, CVC), covered, with a consonant for an onset (CV, CVC),
uncovered, with no onset (V, VC), light, with a short vowel like /ə/ or/ɪ/ or/ʊ/ and
no consonants to follow, and heavy, with a long vowel or a diphthong, or a short
vowel with a consonant to follow.
Syllables can also be classified according to:
1) the position in the word:
(a) initial /ɪˈnɪʃəl/, b) medial /ˈmi:djəl/, (c) final/ˈfaɪnəl/.
2) the relation to stress:
(a) pretonic /prɪˈtɒnɪk/, (b) tonic /ˈtɒnɪk/, (c) postonic /pəʊstˈtɒnɪk/, (d) atonic /ə
ˈtɒnɪk/.
Syllables and their parts
The syllable may consist of the onset, the nucleus and the coda. The nucleus plus
coda constitute the rhyme. There is no syllable without the nucleus, the presence of
the onset and the coda depends on the phonotactic rules of a particular language.
The parts are onset and rhyme; within the rhyme we find the nucleus and coda.
Not all syllables have all parts; the smallest possible syllable contains a nucleus
only. A syllable may or may not have an onset and a coda. Technically, a syllable:
must have a centre (called peak or nucleus) which is a vowel
 could have an onset (which is the initial part of the syllable) that consists of
either one or more consonants.
 could have a coda (which is the final part of the syllable) that consists of either
one or more consonants.
Tree diagrams are often used to illustrate the syllabic structure. 'Flop', for
example, would look like this (the word appears in IPA symbols, not English
spelling). 's' = 'syllable'; 'O' = 'onset'; 'R' = 'rhyme'; 'N' = 'nucleus'; 'C' = 'coda'. The
syllable node at the top of the tree branches into Onset and Rhyme; the Onset node
branches because it contains two consonants, / f / and / l /. The Rhyme node
branches because this syllable has both a nucleus and a coda.
O R
f l N-a C-p
Syllable
onset rhyme
Consonant(s) coda -
nucleus - Consonant(s)
Vowel
ONSET (O)
Onset: the beginning sounds of the syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus.
These are always consonants in English. The nucleus is a vowel in most cases,
although the consonants / r /, / l /, / m /, / n /, and the velar nasal (the 'ng' sound)
can also be the nucleus of a syllable. The syllable onset:
- If the syllable begins with a vowel, it has a zero onset as in ‘am’ /{m/; ‘ease’
/iːz/.
- If a syllable begins with one consonant, the initial consonant can be any
consonant phoneme except Examples: ‘key’ /kiː/; ‘kick’ /kIk/.
- If a syllable begins with two or three consonants, such a sequence of
consonants is called a consonant cluster.
Examples: ‘play, stay, street, split, etc’.
RHYME (or rime): the rest of the syllable, after the onset (the underlined
portions of the words above). The rhyme can also be divided up: Rhyme =
nucleus + coda Nucleus (N) is the core or essential part of a syllable. -In
English and most other languages, most syllable nuclei are vowels. - The
English liquids [ r l ] and the nasals [ m n ] can be the nuclei of syllables under
certain conditions. [ r ] can be a nucleus as easily as a vowel, in any position: the
words 'bird', have [ r ] as the nucleus; in other words, there is no vowel in the
pronunciation of these syllables, even though they have one in the spelling.
[brd] - [ l ] and the nasals [ m n ] become syllable nuclei when they follow an
alveolar consonant in the last syllable of a word. This happens in the relaxed or
casual rather than very formal articulation of the word. Compare casual vs.
formal pronunciations of 'button', 'bottle', 'bottom'.
https://docslide.us/documents/syllable-in-phonology.html
CODA
The coda is the part of a syllable that follows the nucleus vowel. If a syllable has
the coda, it is called as closed syllable. Example : cap, sit, man. If a syllable
doesn’t have the coda it is called as open syllable. Example : he, she, me. The
syllable structure of the words: sing[sɪŋ] ; plant [plænt], cat [kæt] ; skin [skɪn],
extreme [ɪkˈstriːm].
DIVIDING WORDS INTO SYLLABLES
There are four ways to split up a word into its syllables:

1. Divide between two middle consonants.
Split up words that have two middle consonants. For example:
Hap-pen, bas-ket, let-ter, sup-per, din-ner,. The only exceptions are the
consonant digraphs. Never split up consonant digraphs as they really
represent only one sound.
2.Usually divide before a single middle consonant.
When there is only one middle consonant, you usually divide in front of it.
For example: “o-pen”, “i-tem”, “e-vil”.
3.Divide before the consonant before an “-le” syllable.
For example: a-ble, ti-tle.
4. Divide off any compound words, prefixes, and suffixes which have vowel
sounds. Sail-boat, un-paid, teach-ing.
Syllabification
A word A word consisting

A word A word of more than
consisting of consisting
consisting of three syllable
two syllable of three (such as
one syllable (like monkey)
(like tip) is syllable intelligence) is
is called a (such as called a
referred to as a disyllable. polysyllable.
interpret) is
monosyllable. called a
trisyllable.
Functions of English syllabic structure

The syllable performs three functions: constitutive and distinctive and
identificatory.
The constitutive function consists in the fact that syllables constitute the material
forms of all the words, phrases and sentences.
The distinctive function of the syllabic structure includes differences in both
syllable formation and syllable division. Presence or absence of a syllable in one
and the same position, as well as different syllabic boundaries may differentiate
one word from another word. Here are some phonological oppositions of
presence vs absence of a syllable in the same position in a minimal pair: /bet/
- /betǝ/, /dri:m/ - /dri:mɪ/, /sli:p/ - /ǝ’sli:p/.
The word-distinctive function of syllable division may be illustrated by the
example /naɪ-treɪt/ - /naɪt-reɪt/. The number of combinations of words
distinguished from each other by different syllabic boundaries is rather
considerable: a name – an aim, I scream – ice-cream, a nice house – an ice
house, I saw her eyes – I saw her rise, confined – can find, a notion – an ocean,
etc.
References
2017.-368 бет.
2. Баданбекқызы З. Ағылшын және қазақ тілдерінің салыстырмалы
«Эверо»2016. -264 б.
5. Паращук В. Ю. Теоретич на фонетика англійської мови: Навчальний
посібник для студентів факультетів іноземних мов / Паращук В. Ю. –
Вінниця, НОВА КНИГА, 2005. 6. Собчакова, Н.М.
Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: учебно-методическое
пособие / Н.М. Собчакова; Оренбургский гос. ун-т. - Оренбург: ОГУ, 2012.
- 120с.
7.Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: Учеб. для студ. ин-тов и
фак. иностр. яз. / М. А. Соколова, К. П. Гинтовт, И. С. Тихонова, Р. М.
Тихонова. – М. : Гуманит. изд. центр ВЛАДОС, 1996.
пособие / сост. А.В. Зырянова. – Челябинск: Изд-во Юж.-Урал. гос. гуман.-
пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
9.Retunskaya M.S. A Course of Lectures in Theoretical Phonetics of the English
Language. N.N., 2003.
10. T.T. Vrabel “Lectures in theoretical phoneticsof the English language and
Internet sources
http://mypresentation.ru/presentation/Syllablespptx
http://lektsii.net/
SEMINAR 6 THE SYLLABIC STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS

1. Definition of syllable.
2.Types of syllables.
3. Functions of syllable.
7.What is syllabication?
8. Important rules for syllabic division.
9.The difference of syllabic division in the English and the Kazakh languages.
1.What sounds may form syllables in English?
2.What sounds are syllabic and non- syllabic?
3.What is a syllable according to Prof. V.A Vassilyev?
4.What do we call covered and uncovered syllables?
5.What syllables are open and what are closed?
6.What are the main types of syllables in English? Define them.
7.What is the oldest theory of syllable formation and syllable division?
8.What does a syllable correspond to according to the expiratory theory?
9.What theory did O. Jesperson propound?
10.How many syllables does the word ‘’examination’’ consist of?
Substantiate your answer.
11. Where does the syllable boundary lie according to L. V. Shcherba’s
theory?
12. What rules define syllable division in English?
13.What can you say about phonetic and orthographic syllables in English?
14. What are the main functions of the syllabic structure of English?
15.What can you say about the constitutive, recognitive, distinctive functions
of the syllabic structure of English?
16. Give some examples of phonological oppositions in the syllabic structure
of English.
17.What happens when wrong syllable division is used?
Practical tasks:
1. Watch the videos: “Speaking English - How to count syllables”, Straight
Up English - Teaching Syllables youtube.com,”about the English syllabic
structure, discuss with your partner and speak of syllable.
2.Make a glossary of the main notions and give their definitions.
STUDENTS` INDEPENDENT WORK

Case study
Project task:
1.Watch the videos: “English Pronunciation - Syllables and Word Stress”,
“Syllable Structure. - YouTube. linguistics, Syllable (Literature Subject),
syllable, syllable structure, phonology, onset, coda.” youtube.com about the
syllabic structure of English words, study them then create a mini project
with your group about the topic and present your work. Discuss the topic
with your teacher and groupmates , and evaluate your work.
Exercises:
Exercise 1 Decide how many syllables are there in the following words.
Apple, London ,Lovely, Forgotton , Aside.
Exercise 2 Split the following words into syllables.
Listening, drizzling, cattle, muddle, struggle, knuckle, kernel, eaten,
Babel,ducal,parsel.
Exercise 3 Fill in the vowel phonemes , put no vowel if a syllabic consonant
is appropriate.
1 We ought to make a collection to cover the expenses
w tt m k k l kʃ nt k v ð ksp ns z
2 Finally they arrived at a harbour at the edge of the mountains
fn l ð r vd t h b r tð ʤ v ð m nt nz
3 A particular problem of the boat was a leak
p t kj l pr bl m v ð b t w z l k
4 Opening the bottle presented no difficulty
p n ŋ ð b t l pr z nt d n d f k lt
5 There is no alternative to the Government`s proposal
ð r zn lt n tv t ð ɡ v nm nt spr p zl
Exercise 4 Split the following words into syllables. Define the types of each
syllable and write transcriptions of the words.
Reading, ready, standing, nature, natural, picture, brightly, finish, many, pity,
colony, colonial, putting, pupil, flour, flower, during, Mary, marry, starry,
merry, study, studying, enjoying, without, another, over, discover, pooling,
follower, father, story, brother, sorry, body, hurry, early, houses, stony,
nearer, preparing, buyer, destroyer, power, poorer.

2017.-368 бет.
фонетикасы. -Алматы: “Бастау”, 2010.-136б.
«Эверо»2016. -264 б.
Вінниця, НОВА КНИГА, 2005.
7.Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: Учеб. для студ. ин-тов и
фак. иностр. яз. / М. А. Соколова, К. П. Гинтовт, И. С. Тихонова, Р. М.
Тихонова. – М. : Гуманит. изд. центр ВЛАДОС, 1996.
пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
Internet sources
http://mypresentation.ru/presentation/Syllablespptx
http://lektsii.net/
Summary
Summing up we could enumerate the following peculiarities of the syllabic
structure of English which learner`s remember: 1) syllabic boundary normally
runs after a long vowel: la-dy, sai-lor,la-ter, spea-ker; 2) in case of a short
stressed vowel the following consonant joins it to form a closed syllable, and
the boundary goes within or after the consonant:pit-y,bettt-er,mon-ey,rack-et;
3) the consonants /i/, /m/, /n/ are syllabic if they are preceded by noise
consonants, for example: litt-le, bloss-om, sudd-en; 4) There are cannot be
more than one vowel ( a diphthong or a monophthong) within one syllable; 5)
CV(C) structure with a single onset consonant followed by a vowel is basic for
human language; 6) word final consonants are normally of weak-end type.
Glossary
Closed syllable – a syllable which ends in a consonant
Coda - one or more phonemes that follow the syllabic phoneme
Nucleus – the centre of a syllable, usually a vowel
Onset - sounds that precede the nucleus of a syllable
Open syllable - a syllable which ends in a vowel
Rhyme – the vowel (nucleus) and any consonants occurring after the vowel in
a syllable
Syllable – the shortest segment of speech continuum
Syllable pattern – the type of syllable most common for the language
Syllabic – capable of forming a syllable
Syllabic sounds – sounds that can form the peaks of prominence
MODULE VII THE ACCENTUAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS
The aim of the module is the formation

The content of the module of students' linguistic, intercultural,
Module contains: communicative and professionally adaptive
- objectives of the module The objectives of the module:
- learning outcomes - to define the concept `word stress`;
- problems to be discussed - to characterize the principles of word-
- key words stress classification;
- lecture topics -to differentiate functional characteristics
- seminar questions and assignments of word stress.
- individual tasks of students
- glossary of the module
Learning outcomes:
- defines the concept `word stress`;
- characterizes the principles of word-stress classification;
- differentiates functional characteristics of word stress.
Problems to be
discussed:
The
Functional The principles
The concept accentuation
characteristics of word-stress
`word stress`. tendencies of
of word stress. classification.
English.
Word stress , accentuation, word stress

classification ,characteristics of word stress, types
of stress.
Word-stress is the singling out of one or more syllables in a word which is
accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative
and quantitative characteristics of the sound, which is usually a vowel.
Word-stress is a complex phenomenon, marked by the variations in force, pitch,
quantity and quality.
Word-stress is a greater degree of prominence, given to one or more syllables in a
word, which singles it out through changes in the pitch and intensity of the voice
and results in qualitative and quantitative modifications of sounds in the accented
syllable:according to phonologically relevant features, according to the position in
words, according to the degree of special prominence.
https://slideplayer.com/slide/10857414/
According to the
phonological
relevant feature
musical
dynamic (force-) (tonic) stress
stress intensity of English, French, quantitative change of pitch
articulation German, stress length of qualitative
Kazakh, Russian a vowel stress
colouring
of a vowel
oriental and African subsidiary do not exist

Scandinavian languages e.g. separately from dynamic
languages Japanese stress
[hana]“nose”“begin
ning flower”
According to
the position in
words:
free word-stress shifting stress on

fixed word- constant stress in different
stress in all the different
on the same words of a morphemes in
words of the morpheme in languаge any
languages one grammatical
grammatical position English, forms or in
and the same forms of a word Russian,
position Finnish, derivatives
or in derivatives German
Polish, French
(ex. wonder, wonderful, wonderfully)

(ex. ig'nore – 'ignorant, 'contrast – to con'trast)
According to the degree of special prominence:
A. Gimson, D. Jones majority of British phoneticians:

degrees of stress = number of stress syllables
syllables in the word primary strongly -stressed
e.g.examination [3iɡ-2zæ-4mɪ- secondary weakly-stressed
1
neɪ-5∫n] weak unstressed
H. Gleason H. Sweet
B. Bloch, G. primary [´] extra-strong (emphatic) [;]
Trager secondary [^] strong [˙]
loud [´] reduced tertiary [ ̀] medium (half) strong [‫]׃‬
medial [ ̀]loud weak [ˇ] weak [ˇ]
[^]weak
Tendencies and functions of syllable

In English the freedom is restricted by certain tendencies. There are three:
recessive , rhythmical , retentive tendencies in the English language.
Recessive tendency consists in placing the word-stress on the initial syllable is
characteristic of all Germanic languages influenced the constant nature of word-
stress in Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian polysyllabic derivative words ex. 'wonder,
'wonderful, 'wonderfully ;
Affected polysyllabic French words, borrowed during and after the Norman
conquest ex. 'colour, 'marriage, 'reason` is still felt in Modern English ex.
'cosmonaut`.(unrestricted recessive stress on the first syllable ex. `mother,`father;
restricted recessive stress on the root of words with a prefix, which lost its meaning
ex. be'gin, for'get, a'mong).
Rhythmic, or
rhythmical tendency
historically (diachronically)
rhythmical stress primary the genuinely (synchronically)
on the third syllable rhythmical stress secondaryon the
from end in three- and second pretonic syllable in
four-syllabic words ex. polysyllabic words ex.
'family, ar'ticulate e'xami'nation
Retentive tendency consists in retaining the stress in a derivative on the same

syllable on which it falls on the original word .For example:
`similar a`ssimilate , simi`larity
primary primary secondary

Primary opposition weak Ex.ìmport- im`port
There are three
functions of word
accent:
constitutive -
organizes the syllables of a distinctive
word into a language unit recognitive accenteme –
-devides sound facilitates recognition phonologically
continuum into words and comprehension relevant degree of
ex. Family [ fæ- word-stress
mɪ-lɪ] of words
Reference
фонетикасы»: Абай атындағы ҚазҰПУ, «Ұлағат» баспасы, .-Алматы. 2017.-
368 бет.
3. Баданбекқызы Зәуре «Ағылшын тілі фонетикасы». Алматы: «Эверо»2016. -
264 б.
4. О.О. Борискина, Н.В. Костенко. Theoretical phonetics.Study Guide for second
year students.Издательско-полиграфический центр Воронежского
Вінниця, НОВА КНИГА, 2005. 6. Собчакова, Н.М.
Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: учебно-методическое пособие /
Н.М. Собчакова; Оренбургский гос. ун-т. - Оренбург: ОГУ, 2012. - 120с.
7.Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: Учеб. для студ. ин-тов и фак.
иностр. яз. / М. А. Соколова, К. П. Гинтовт, И. С. Тихонова, Р. М. Тихонова.
– М. : Гуманит. изд. центр ВЛАДОС, 1996.
8.Теоретическая фонетика английского языка : учебно- практическое пособие
/ сост. А.В. Зырянова. – Челябинск: Изд-во Юж.-Урал. гос. гуман.-пед. ун-та,
2016. – 154 с.
Internet sources
SEMINAR VII THE ACCENTUAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS

1. General characteristics of word stress. Types of stress.
2.The principles of word-stress classification.
3. The accentuation tendencies of English.
4. Functional characteristics of word stress
Questions and assignments for discussion:
1. What is word accent?
2. What different types of word accent do you know?
3.What can you say about the force type of word accent?
4.What is musical word accent?
5.What are the main types of word accent that all existing languages have as
their leading principle?
6.What type of word accent do English, Kazakh and Russian use?
7.What degrees of word accent do British and Russian phoneticians distinguish
in English?
8.What degrees of word accent do American descriptivists distinguish in
English?
9.What are secondary and tertiary stresses according to Prof. V.A. Vassilyev?
Give examples.
10.What types of word accent depend on position of word accent in disyllabic
and polysyllabic words?
11.Which of these types do English, Kazakh and Russian use?
12.What is constant accent? Give examples in English and Russian.
13.What is shifting accent? Give examples in English and Russian.
14.What factors help to predict the position of stress in most English words?
15.What do you know about the recessive tendency in English? Give examples
of recessive stress.
16.What do you know about the rhythmic tendency in English? Give examples.
17.What do you understand by historically rhythmical stress?
18.What do you know about synchronically rhythmical stress in English? Give
examples.
19.What can you say about the retentive tendency in English? Give examples.
20.In what group of words is the semantic factor most commonly observed in
English?
21.What functions does the accentual structure fulfill?
22.Which function do you think is the most important one?
23.What can you say about the distinctive function of word accent? Give
examples phonological oppositions?
24.What different degrees of word accent may be opposed phonological
oppositions in English?
25.What can you say about the recognitive function of word accent?
26.What does violation of the recognitive function result in?
Practical tasks:
Exercise 1 Mark stress (').
[entәteɪn] entertain [kәlekt] collect
[pærәdaɪs] paradise [prɒfɪt] profit
[ әbzɜːvә] observer [enɪmɪ] enemy
[elɪfәnt] elephant [kæpɪtl] capital
[sәbtrkæt] subtract [kaːneɪʃn] carnation
Exercise 2 Mark the stress on two- syllable verbs.
1 [dɪpend] depend 6 [kɒpɪ] copy
2 [kɒŋkә] conquer 7 [dɪsiːv] deceive
3 [ʃaːpәn] sharpen 8 [kәlekt] collect
4 [pɒlɪʃ] polish 9 [әraɪv] arrive
5 [rɪkɔːd ] record 10 [әsɪst] assist
Exercise 3 Mark the stress on the two-syllable adjectives:
1 [hɒlәʊ] hollow 6 [iːvn] even
2 [dɪvaɪn] divine 7 [әlaɪv] alive
3 [ɒnɪst] honest 8 [pɜːfɪkt] perfect
4 [sәblaɪm] sublime 9 [iːzɪ] easy
5 [meɪʤә] major 10 [kәmpliːt] complete
Exercise 4 Mark the stress on the two-syllable nouns.
1 [pælɪs] palace 6 [mʌðə] mother
2 [brʌðә] brother 7 [kʌlə] colour
3 [lærɪŋks] larynx 8 [prɒdʌkt] product
4 [dɪzaɪn] design 9 [ɪsteɪt] estate
5 [bɪʃәp] bishop 10 [pәtrәʊl] patrol
Written exercises.
Exercise 1 Fill in the table with the given words.
Stressed words with suffixes Unstressed words with suffixes
[ - -′ ] [ - - -′ ] [ -′ - [- - -′-] [ - -′ -] [- -′ -
-] -]
Employee, reality, cigarette, conversation, tradition, picturesque,
economic, unique, engineer, unity, occasion, etiquette, revolution,
parenthetic, ability, procession, demonstration, pedagogic, statuette,
confusion, volunteer composition, sympathetic, admission, wagonette,
oblique, collision, patriotic, mountaineer, exclamation, pioneer, antique,
financier.
Exercise 2 Fill in the table with the given words.
[ -′ -′] [ -′ - ] [ - -′ ] [ - -′ ] [ -′ - ]
Noun
Adjective
Numeral
Verb
Beefsteak, middle-aged, thirteen, break out, armchair, good-looking,
call up, headquarters, fair-haired, booking-office, hard-working, mix-up,
fourteen, engine-driver, dressing-gown, blue-eyed, motorcycle, public –
house, fifteen, narrow – minded, put on, country-house, post-graduate,
table-spoon, out-of-doors, make up, mankind, opera-glasses, post-war,
shortcoming, run out.

368 б.
фонетикасы. - Алматы: “Бастау”, 2010.-136 б.
264 б.
4.О. Борискина, Н.В. Костенко. Theoretical phonetics.Study Guide for second
2016. – 154 с.
Internet sources
http://doclecture.net/http://lektsii.net/

Case study
Project task:
1.Find a video about the accentual structure of English words. Watch and study it
then create your own text and video about the topic.You should write your aim,
plan (what you are going to show about, make up brainstorming questions,
complete a small test about the topic using .Discuss the work with your
teacher and groupmates and evaluate.
2016. – 154 с.
Internet sources
Summary
Word-stress or word accent is a greater degree of prominence, given to one or
more syllables in a word, which singles it out through changes in the pitch and
intensity of the voice and results in qualitative and quantitative modifications of
sounds in the accented syllable: according to phonologically relevant features,
according to the position in words, according to the degree of special prominence.
According to the phonological relevant feature there are dynamic, musical stress,
quantitative , qualitative word stresses. According to the position in words there
are constant, shifting, fixed, free types of word stresses. There are three: recessive ,
rhythmical , retentive tendencies in the English language. There are three functions
of word accent : constitutive, recognitive and distinctive.
Glossary
Dynamic stress – force stress based mainly on the expiratory effort
Fixed stress – this type of stress which is characterized by the fixed position
Free word-stress – the type of stress which is characterized by the free accidence
of the word stress
Primary stress – the stress which is the strongest compared with the other
stresses used in a word
Secondary stress – this type of stress which appears in words of five or more
syllables. It falls on the second pretonic syllable
Word stress – a singling out of one or more syllables in a word by giving them
a greater degree of prominence as compared with the other
syllable or syllables in the same word
MODULE VIII THE INTONATIONAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

SENTENCES
The aim of the module is the
formation of students' linguistic,
The content of the module intercultural, communicative and
Module contains: professionally adaptive competencies
- the aim of the module on the topic.
-learning outcomes - to define the conceptìntonation`;
-problems to be discussed - to characterize components of
-key words intonation;
- lecture topics -to differentiate the types of
-seminar questions and assignments intonation.
- students` individual work tasks
Learning outcomes:
- defines the concept ìntonation`;
- characterizes components of intonation;
- differentiates the types of intonation.
Problems to be
discussed:
General Components The role of Graphical

characteristics of intonation in the Types of Representation
of intonation. intonation. process of human intonation. of Intonation.
intercommunication.
Intonation, functions, components, head, pre-head, tail, rhythm,

pitch , sentence stress, role of intonation, human
intercommunication, graphical.
DEVELOPMENT OF INTONATION
 The study of intonation went through many changes in the twentieth century.
 The most intensive development began during the 1940.
 In United States the theory that evolved was based on ‘pitch phonemes’
 It was developed in 1951 and then by Halliday (1967).
WHAT IS INTONATION?
Intonation is a complex unity of variations in pitch, stress tempo and timbre.
Intonation is a term used to refer to the distinctive use of different patterns of pitch
that carry meaningful information. It can be described as the movement or
variations in pitch to which we attach familiar labels describing levels (high/low)
and tones (falling/rising).
The role of intonation in the language

Intonation plays an important role in the process of human
intercommunication. On the other hand, it points to different communicative types
of sentences, and on the other, it indicates the attitude and emotions of the speaker.
Intonation is an essential component of the discourse structure of speech. We must
indicate what type of information we are presenting and how it is structured and at
the same time we must keep our listeners’ attention and their participation in the
exchange of information. Intonation is important and must be paid due attention to
in the process of studying language. - Nowadays there exist two principal
methods of indicating intonation: in the line of text and outside the line of
text. In both methods only its pitch and force components can be indicated.
- The method of indicating intonation outside the line of text is represented by the
well-known system of tonogram. Two horizontal lines show graphically the upper
and the lower limits of the human voice pitch. Different signs are used between the
lines (which are known as staves) to indicate the stressed and unstressed syllables.
Intonation may
be shown in the
line of text and
on the scales
(staves).
To mark the intonation in

the line of text we use We use Lily Armstrong’s system of
Roger Kingdon’s stress- dots for unstressed syllables, dashes
mark system, which for stressed syllables and slant marks
consists of vertical stress (curves) for final tones to indicate
marks to indicate stressed intonation on the scales. A
syllables and slant marks downward curve represents the final
(\ /) above and below the fall and an upward curve represents
line of print to show the the final rise.
final tones.
COMPONENTS OF
INTONATION
Sentence
Pitch Rhythm Pause Tempo
stress
•the main acoustic correlate of tone and intonation

PITCH the relative highness or lowness of a tone.
•the way a speaker highlights certain words in each
SENTENCE sentence
STRESS •it helps the listener focus on important parts and
understand the speaker’s meaning.
•the main acoustic correlate of tone and intonation the
RHYTM •Is connected speech and the linking of words,
relative highness or lowness of a tone.
which together, change how we say sentences.
TEMPO •The relative speed with which sentences and

intonation-groups are pronounced in connected
speech.
•perform del imitative and distinctive functions
PAUSE and act like junctures.
•A long pause (#) shows the end of a sentence, a
half - long pause (||) is used in the boundary
between main and subordinate clauses and a short
pause () signals the end.
SPEECH TIMBRE
•a special coloring of voice which shows the
speaker`s emotions, i.e. pleasure, displeasure,
sorrow, etc.
INTONATION PATTERNS
Intonation patterns consist of one or more syllables. Intonation patterns containing

a number of syllables consist of the following parts:
initial unstressed syllables. It may be low and high. A
low pre-head consists of unstressed syllables
PRE-HEAD pronounced at a low pitch. It is used frequently and
considered neutral. A high pre-head is pronounced at a
high pitch and makes the utterance sound emotional.
HEAD the first stressed syllable in the utterance. It may be low

and high. A low head introduces ascending scale and a
high head introduces descending scale.
NUCLEUS the last stressed syllable.
TAIL the unstressed and half-stressed syllable that follow the

nucleus.
Examples :I \didn’t ‘know you’ve been to London.

I – the pre-headDEP
Didn’t know you’ve `been to‘ - the headDE H
‘Lon’ – the nucleusDE N
‘don’ – the tailDE T
It was a very ‘sunny ,day yesterday.
It was a… DEP
… very ̍sunnyDEH
… ,day …DEN
… yesterday DET
PH N:I am afraid we can't go.
NT:DEWe hope so.
PN:DEIt was at night.
HNT:DEWhen are they coming?
HN:DEPeter has arrived.
NT:DELook at him.
N:DHelp!
Each tone group has its own pitch-and-stress pattern. Generally three pitch levels are
distinguished: low, medium, high.
We distinguish certain elements in the pitch-and-stress pattern of every intonation group

A scale. It is a series of stressed and unstressed syllables beginning with the
first stressed syllable up to the last stressed syllable.
Scales may be
According to their general pitch

According to the direction of pitch
direction level, descending (the
movement within and between
stressed syllables are gradually
syllables descending scales may be
descending) and ascending (the
falling, stepping, gliding (sliding)
stressed syllables are gradually
and scandent.
ascending.
Linguists distinguish several types of English Intonation. The main two

types are: rising intonation and falling intonation.
RISING INTONATION
English rising intonation is a rather  Rising intonation is used in
complicated phenomenon.  General questions - Do you go there /OFten?
It can express various emotions, such as  Introductory phrases (at the beginning)- If
non-finality, incompleteness, question, he /CALLS, ask him to \COME.
surprise, doubt, hesitation, interest, request  Alternative questions - Does he speak
and suggestion, politeness, readiness to /ENGlish or \GERman?
continue the conversation, lack of  Direct address - /TOM, could you /HELP me,
confidence, and even insecurity please?
 Enumerating items- She bought /bread,
/cheese, and to\Matoes.
 Introductory phrases (at the beginning)- If
he /CALLS, ask him to \COME.
 Alternative questions - Does he speak
/ENGlish or \GERman?
 Direct address - /TOM, could you /HELP me,
please?
 Enumerating items- She bought /bread,
/cheese, and to\Matoes.
FALLING INTONATION
 Falling intonation is the most common Falling Intonation is used in:
type of intonation in English.  Statement - We live in \MOScow. He doesn't
 Falling intonation is used for asking have a \CAR.
and giving information in normal, quiet  Special questions - Where do you \LIVE? How
style. much \IS it?
 Falling intonation conveys certain  Commands - \STOP it! Sit \DOWN.
emotions, such as completion, finality,  Exclamatory sentences - Hel\LO! Good \
confidence. Falling intonation sounds more MORNing!
categorical, confident, and convincing than  Alternative questions - Do you want /COFfee
or \TEA?
 Tag questions - You \LIVE here, \DON'T you?
(The speaker is sure and expects the answer
"yes".)
 rising intonation.
Other types of intonation are:
High Fall
Low Fall Rise Fall
Rise-fall- Types of
Low Rise
rise Intonation
Midlevel High
Rise Rise
Fall Rise
Examples:
 Low fall: ̍Open your ̍books at ̍page ˎseven.
 High fall: This ̍story was ˋwonderful.
 Rise-fall: ̍This is for ˆyou.
 Low-rise: ̍Did you ̍clearly ˏsee?
 High-rise: ̍Do you ̍say it’s ˏreal?
 Fall-rise: ̍Don’t you ̍think it’s ˇnice?
 Rise-fall-rise: ˷Really?
Functions of intonation
Main functions of intonation are:

 Attitudinal function
Allow us to express emotions: finality, confidence, interest, surprise, doubt, joy,
pain, irony, etc.
 Accentual function
It implies that the placement of stress is somewhat determined by intonation.
 Grammatical function
A) The listener recognize the placement of boundaries between phrases, clauses
and sentences.
B) The difference between questions and statements .
 Discourse function
It can indicate when the speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with
material in another tone unit.
There is no general agreement about either the number or the headings of the
functions of intonation which can be illustrated by the difference in the approach to
the subject by some prominent. There are other functions of intonation:
•Constitutive function • Distinctive function •Emotional function •Informational
function •Textual function •Psychological function •Indexical function •Stylistic
function.
SEMINAR 8 THE INTONATIONAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

SENTENCES

1.Definitation of intonation.
2.Types of intonation.
2.Components of intonation.
3.Functions of intonation.
4. Graphical Representation of Intonation.
Questions and assignments for discussion:
1.Give different approaches to the definition of intonation.
2.Types of intonation.
3.Name the basic components of intonation.
4. What is the connection between pitch and tempo?
5. What for do we need different nuclear tones?
6. Which nuclei are the commonest?
7. Describe the functions of intonation.Give the definitions and peculiar
features of the prosodic constituents of intonation: pitch, loudness, tempo,
rhythm.
8. Make up a table of the ways of representing intonation in the text: The
author Way of representing Example Advantages Disadvantages
9. Enumerate the functions of intonation. Give the characteristic of each
function.
10. Is intonation important in the process of studying language? Why ?
11.Does intonation play an important role in the process of human
intercommunication?
12.What do you know about Graphical Representation of Intonation?
13.What can you say about the importance of studying intonation?
14.What are the two principal methods of indicating intonation
graphically?
15.What do you know about the different ways of indicating intonation
outside the line of the text (or on the staves)?
16.What do you know about the different ways of indicating intonation on
the staves?
17.Do the other two systems of large dots and wedge-like sings differ
radically from the ‘’ dash and dot’’ system?
18.In what cases is the musical notation system used?
19.What system of indicating intonation in the line of the text was widely
used in our country until recently?
20.What are the advantages and disadvantages of H.E Palmer’s system?
21.What can you say about R. Kingdon’s ‘’tonetic stress- mark system’’?
Practical tasks:
1.There are given 5 sentences and each of them has its drawn prosodic
structure by PRAAT program.You have to match them.
a)After he travelled a long way, he met an old woman who asked her to
give his piece of cake.
b) Keep my knife till I come back.
2.Find a video about the intonational structure of English sentences.Watch
and study it then construct your own text and create your own video about
the topic. At the seminar present your video.Discuss the topic with your
teacher and groupmates and evaluate it.
Written exercises.
Exercise 1 The sentences are given with intonation transcribed. Draw
underneath them a diagram of the pitch movements, leaving a gap
between each syllable. Example: 'would you 'like some 'more ˌmilk
a) 'Only when the ˯ wind blows
b) ˌWhen did you say
c) 'What was the ˎ name of the place
Exercise 4 The following sentences are given with intonation marks. Sketch
the
pitch within the lines below, leaving a gap between each syllable.
'Which was the ˏcheap one did you say
b) I 'only 'want to˯ taste it
с) ˌShe should have ˌthought it was obvious
d) There 'wasn`t 'even a 'piece of ˎbread in the ∙house
e) ˎNow will you be∙lieve me
Exercise 5 Draw an appropriate pitch movement between the lines.

Example:
a) (rise -) opportˏunity
--╯¯ ¯
b) (fall-rise) actually
c) (fall) confidently
d) (rise-fall) magnificent
e) (rise) relationship
f) (fall-rise) afternoon
6. Make tonograms on the given sentences.

Kitty doesn’t know French. What’s the time? (Low Fall)
What’s the time? (High Fall)
Is he a student? He is five. (Low Rise)
When did he come? What did you say? (High Rise)
You promised it for Saturday.- Monday. (Fall Rise)
I knew nothing about it. (Rise Fall)
Exercise 7 What intonation marks are used in this tale?
The Fox and the Grapes
The 'Fox and the \GRAPES
A 'hungry
'FOX 'saw some 'fine 'bunches of \GRAPES |
'hanging from a \VINE |
that was 'trained along a 'high \TRELLis, |
and 'did his \BEST to 'reach them
by 'jumping as 'high as he 'could into the \AIR. ||
'But | it was 'all in /vain, | for they were 'just out of \REACH: ||
so he 'gave up /trying, |
and 'walked 'away with an 'air of 'dignity and 'uncon\CERN, |
re/marking, | 'I 'thought those 'grapes were \ripe, |
but I 'SEE 'now they are 'quite \SOUR. ||
('End of The 'Fox and the \Grapes)
Exercise 8 Confirm the following statements according to the model. Use Low
Fall.
Model: 'Oxford Uni'versity is ˎold.|| -
ˎYes,| ' Oxford Uni'versity is ˎold.||
1. Helen comes from England. 2. Aberdeen is a small town. 3. There are many
lochs in Scotland. 4. Scotland is very bleak in winter. 5. It is a very wise choice. 6.
We are involved in farming. 7. Ann wants to be a secretary. 8. Mike is fond of
music. 9. His family is slightly larger than average. 10. His birthday is on the fifth
of May. 11. She has five sisters. 12. Scotland is a mountainous region.

фонетикасы»: Абай атындағы ҚазҰПУ, «Ұлағат» баспасы, .- Алматы. 2017.-
368 бет.
264 б.
2016. – 154 с.
Internet sources

1. Make a glossary of the main notions and give their definitions.
2. Watch a video about English intonation “What is INTONATION?
What does INTONATION mean? and write a short essay on the topic.
368 бет.
264 б.
2016. – 154 с.
Internet sources
Summary
Intonation delimitates the text into smaller units, on the other hand, it ties together
smaller units into bigger ones. Intonation conveys the information content of an
utterance. Intonation plays a very important role in structuring spoken discourse.
At the same time it reflects the influence of the context, both verbal and
extralinguistic, on the speech realization. Nowadays there exist two principal
methods of indicating intonation: in the line of text and outside the line of text. In
both methods only its pitch and force components can be indicated. To mark the
intonation in the line of text Roger Kingdon’s stress-mark system is used. Lily
Armstrong’s system of dots for unstressed syllables is used. Components of
intonation are pitch, sentence stress,tempo, rhytm,speech timbre,pause. Intonation
patterns consist of one or more syllables.
Glossary
Ascending scale – gradual rising of the voice pitch
Descending scale – gradual lowering of the voice pitch
Head – stressed syllables preceding the nucleus together with the
intervening unstressed syllables
Intonation - a component of the phonetic structure which is viewed
in the narrow meaning as pitch variations, or sp eech melody
Melody – changes in the voice pitch in the process of speech
Nucleus of an intonation group – the last stressed syllable of a
sense group
Pause – a short period of time when sound stops before starting
again
Pre-head – unstressed and half-stressed syllables preceding the head.
Rhythm – the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed
syllables
Scale (head) – the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables
of a syntactic whole
Sentence stress – the greater degree of prominence given to certain
words in a sentence
Speech melody – variations in the pitch of the voice in connected
speech
Staves – two parallel lines for intonation recording
Syntagm - a group of words which is semantically and syntactically
complete
Tempo of speech – the rate of utterance
Tail - unstressed or partly stressed syllables that follow the nucleus of
the intonation group
Timbre – the quality of a musical sound, depending on what
overtones are present and their respective amplitudes
Terminal tone – a change of pitch at the junction of two sense-groups
Tonogram – graphic representation of intonation
MODULE IX THE ENGLISH LITERARY PRONUNCIATION IN BRITISH

ISLES AND IN THE USA
The content of the module students' linguistic, intercultural,
Module contains: communicative and professionally adaptive
-learning outcomes - to define the concepts “pronunciation,
-problems to be discussed dialect and accent”`;
-key words -to differentiate different types of
- lecture topics pronunciation in the British Isles and in the
-seminar questions and assignments USA;
- tasks of students` individual work -to characterize pronunciation differences of
Learning outcomes:
- defines the concepts “pronunciation, dialect and
accent”`;
-differentiates different types of pronunciation in the British Isles and in the USA ;
-characterizes differences between the British and American pronunciation.
The concepts
Spread of English in `pronunciation,
the world and reasons dialect and
for that. accent`.
Differences between
Main pronunciation the British and
types of British Isles American
and the USA. pronunciation.
key words Literary pronunciation, accent, dialect, British English,

American English, differences in pronunciation.
Spread of English
Statistics says that after Chinese English language has the world’s largest
speaking population – some 300 million, or, to put it in another way, one person
out of every ten in the world. It is the official language of countries covering one
fifth of the earth’s surface. It is the language of trade and business. Three fourths
of the world’s mail is written in English. English is at present the most widely
studied language in countries where it is not native. Five million people of the
European countries speak English in addition to their native tongues. English is
not concentrated in one land mass. It is spread from the British Isles to the far
corners of the earth. Besides English is the mother tongue of the USA, Australia,
and New Zealand. It is also used by the greater part of the population of Canada
and the republic of South Africa. Spoken English is not uniform geographically.
It may vary from country to country, from district to district, or even from city
to city. Though the variants of English spoken in different countries have many
features in common, they differ from Standard English in pronunciation,
grammar and vocabulary. This is due to the different conditions in which they
developed after separation from British English.Today all the English-speaking
nations have their own national variants of pronunciation and each of them has
peculiar features that distinguish it from other varieties of English. It is
generally accepted that for the "English -English" it is "Received
Pronunciation" or RP; for "The American English" – "General American
pronunciation"; for the Australian English – "Educated Australian". One of the
accents in the country (or more!) implicitly enjoys the status of being "correct",
cultivated and accepted by the educated speakers throughout the national
community, it is called literary pronunciation. A standard of pronunciation
can be defined as phonetic shaping of spoken form of a national language
received by the educated users of that language which at a given time is
generally considered correct, statistically relevant and/or enjoys social prestige.
The term 'standard' is to be interpreted to mean ' implicitly considered to
represent correct and socially acceptable usage for educated purposes'. The use
of the other pronunciation types is applied to certain regions, smaller localities,
social, professional, and age groups. Thus varieties in pronunciation within a
country can include a national standard of pronunciation and territorial or
area accents. Accents always mark the geographical origin of the speaker.
Though every national variant of English has considerable differences in
pronunciation, lexics and grammar, they all have much in common which gives
us ground to speak of one and the same language – the English language.
First of all let`s define what is pronunciation, dialect and accent.
What is pronunciation?
The way in which we make the sound of words is called pronunciation.
In order to pronounce sounds we push air from our lungs up through our throat
and vocal chords, through our mouth, past our tongue and out between our teeth
and lips. (Sometimes air also travels through our nose.)
A word can be spoken in different ways depending on many factors such as:
• the area in which they grew up ,
• the area in which they now live,
• if they have a speech or voice disorder their ethnic group,
• their social class,
• their education.
What is accent? Accent means the differences in pronunciation. It is typically
differ in: - quality of the voice, - pronunciation and distinction of vowels and
consonants, - stress and prosody. Often àccent` is a subset of `dialect`. Accents
can also refer to the characteristics of people belonging to a geographical region,
and social class. It is typical of their group, age, sex and usually their level of
education. Accents can be good indicators of geographical identity. We can tell
where people are from just by listening to their accents.
What is dialect? Dialect – a variety of a language spoken by a group of people
and having features of vocabulary, grammar or pronunciation that distinguish it
from other varieties of the same language. Dialects usually develop as a result of
geographic, social, political, or economic barriers between groups of people who
speak the same language.What is the difference between accent and dialect?
Dialect = a form of a language which is peculiar to a specific region or social
group { from the Greek dialektos "discourse, way of speaking“}
Accent (comes from the Latin accentus "tone, signal, or intensity")= a way of
pronouncing a language, associated with a country, area, or social class, an
emphasis given to a syllable, word, or note. A person from Birmingham will
have a different accent from a person from London. Dialect can have words that
are unique to itself and variant grammatical structures; Accents are variations in
the way English is spoken. Most learners of English learn the standard dialects
of the language. There are many different forms of standard English: - Standard
British English, -Standard American English, -Standard Australian English, -
Standard Indian English and etc.
The orthoepic norm
Any language exists as a collection of forms coexisting side by side. These

forms are known as varieties of the language. Among all the existing variants
of pronunciation there is one which is considered to be literary pronunciation or
orthoepic norm. What is the orthoepic norm? It is the regulator which
determines the inventory of the variants, the borders of variation and also
acceptable and non-acceptable variants of pronunciation.
Some phoneticians prefer the term standard pronunciation. Literary
pronunciation is a higher form as compared with other local variants of
pronunciation. Literary pronunciation is the pronunciation used by educated
people. It is maintained and extended by educational institutions, the radio and
by television. It is recorded in pronunciation dictionaries. The existence of
literary norm is very important because it is understandable to all the population
of the country and to all the native speakers of the language. There may be
variants too within the literary pronunciation of the language. They are
considered to be equally correct and acceptable (direct [dɪ'rekt], [daɪ'rekt];
Sunday ['sʌndeɪ] , ['sʌndɪ]). The orthoepic norm is also not fixed. It changes due
to the normal evolution of the language, i.e. due to the linguistic factors and it
changes as a result of the extra-linguistic factors (the movement of the
population, for example). But the rate of these changes in not rapid. Selected
languages dialects of English pronunciation in British Isles.
At present there exist literary English of Scotland, Oreland, England and Wales.
Each of these has their local dialects. There are nine principal dialects in
Scotland, three in Ireland, thirty in England and Wales. Let us consider some of
the dialects of British Isles. The cockney dialect is an English dialect spoken in
the east End of London. It is typically associated with working class citizens of
London, who were called cockneys, and it contains several distinctive traits that
are known to many English speakers, as the dialect is rather famous. Some
linguistics considers that the cockney dialect fall out of spoken English , due to
the influence of multicultural immigrants in London who have added their own
regional slang and speech patterns to the dialect. The term “cockney” comes from
a Middle English word, cokenei, which means “city dweler”. It is first noted in
1362, when it meant a ‘cock’s egg’—that is, a defective one. It is probably
derived from a medieval term referring to the runt of a litter or clutch of eggs,
which was used pejoratively to refer to people in the then crowded, desease
ridden, and dirty cities. The distinctive accent of working class Londoners,
especially those living in the East End, was remarked upon by observers as long
ago as the 17th century. Linguistically, cockney English refers to the accent or
dialect of English traditionally spoken by working-class Londoners as we have
stated before. In recent years, many aspects of cockney English have become part
of general South East English speech, producing a variant known as Estuary.
Cockney speakers have a distinctive accent and dialect, and occasionally
use rhyming. As with many accents of the United Kingdom, cockney is non-
rhotic. A final -er is pronounced /ә/. Broad /ɑː/ is used in words such as bath,
path. This originated in London in the 16th–17th centuries and is also part
of (RP).
Estuary English is a contemporary variety of British English: a mixture of non-
regional and southeastern English pronunciation , grammar, and vocabulary,
which is thought to have originated around the banks of the River Thames and its
estuary. Also known as Cockneyfied RP and Nonstandard Southern English.
Characteristics of Estuary English- the glottalization (replacing 't' with a glotal
stop, as in butter pronounced as 'buh-uh'), pronunciation of 'th' as 'f' or 'v' as
in mouth pronounced as 'mouf' and mother pronounced as 'muvver,' the use of
multiple negation, as in I ain't never done nothing, and the use of the non-
standard them books instead of those books."
https://www.antiessays.com/free-essays/The-Cockney-Dialect-668775.html
Main types of pronunciation in GB
In general phoneticians distinguish 3 main types of pronunciation in GB:
1) Southern English Pronunciation, or RP;
2) Northern English Pronunciation;
3) Standard Scottish Pronunciation.
Received Pronunciation (or RP) is a special accent - a regionally neutral accent
that is used as a standard for broadcasting and some other kinds of public
speaking. It is not fixed - you can hear earlier forms of RP in historical
broadcasts, such as newsreel films from the Second World War. Queen Elizabeth
II has an accent close to the RP of her own childhood, but not very close to the
RP of the 21st century.
RP is defined as the educated spoken English of south-eastern England.
Contemporary RP is not homogeneous and is represented by 3 types:
 the conservative RP used by the older generation and by people of certain
professions or social groups;
 the general RP forms are most commonly in use on the BBC;
 the advanced RP forms are favored by the young people, mostly of the
upper classes, for being prestigious.
Southern English pronunciation is also known as received pronunciation (RP
for short), or standard English pronunciation, or public school pronunciation, or
BBC English, or king’s English. Received Standard English is based upon the
speech of the leading boarding schools and the older universities. But in Britain
very many of the population begin their linguistic careers with one of the regional
dialects as their sole speech. Because of the barriers to communication created by
the diversity of the dialects, Englishmen, even Britons in general, readily accept
the notion of a Standard English Pronunciation and they are willing to learn it
through intensive effort, at school and elsewhere. Thus, although probably less
than 10 % of the British population is original speakers of Received Standard
English, it is universally accepted as desirable by educational authorities and by
the mass of the population. It is taught to foreigners as a second language, is
spoken by BBC announcers and broadcasters. In our country this type of
pronunciation is accepted as the teaching norm.
Northern English pronunciation is the speech of those who were born and
brought up in the region between Birmingham and the border of Scotland. This
type has peculiarities in the phonemic and intonational components. Northern
English represents the earlier type of London speech that was the standard in the
16th, 17th, and early 18th centuries. NE is characterized by the so-called
Northern drawl which is due to its slow tempo. Form-words are pronounced
distinctly. The level scale is most characterized of NE that is why it sounds rather
monotonous. This type of pronunciation was carried to America. That is why
there are many features in common between American English and Northern
English. The most marked of them are as follows: bad [bad], man [man];glass
[ɡlæs], ask [æsk] – before a word-final consonant or two consonants other than
/r/;cup [kup], love [luv], much [mut∫][e] or [ε:] in may, take.
Standard Scottish pronunciation
Fall-rise and Rise-fall are often used in general questions. The sliding scale is
common. Standard Scottish pronunciation is widespread in Scotland. Its peculiar
features in pronunciation are as follows:
The table of RP and NE, here we can see differences of pronunciation.
RP NE
dance /dɑ:ns/ /dans/ or /dæns/
once /wʌns/ /wuns/
sat /sæt/ /sat/
make /meik/ /mek/ or /mε:k/
speak /spi:k/ /spe:k/
live /liv/ /łiv/
looking /´lukiŋ/ /´łukin/
born /bo:n/ /bo:rn/
which /wiʧ/ /hwiʧ/
fondl /fondl/ /fonł/
Literary English pronunciation in the USA
The English language is native on at least 4 continents of the world. Out of its
300 million speaking population 190 million live in the United States of America.
The English language was brought to America in the 17th century by the first
emigrants from Great Britain. In 1620 they settled on the Atlantic coast which
was lately called New England. These emigrants brought with them 17th century
educated English. This type of English developed in the new world under
different conditions.
The variety of English spoken in the USA has received the name of American
English. The term variant or variety appears most appropriate for several reasons.
American English can not be called a dialect although it is a regional variety,
because it has a literary normalized form called Standard American, whereas by
definition that any dialect has no literary form.
Neither is it a separate language, as some American authors realize because it has
neither grammar nor vocabulary of its own. From the lexical point of view one
shall have to deal only with a heterogeneous set of Americanisms. An
Americanism may be defined as a word or a set expression peculiar to the English
language as spoken in the USA. The American English differs from the British
English in pronunciation, some minor features of grammar, but chiefly in
vocabulary.
The literary standard or literary pronunciation in the USA is called : GA (General
American), it is regionally neutral, used by radio and TV and is spoken by
educated Americans. The total number of GA consonants differ in one phoneme,
it is |ʍ |. This symbol represents the pronunciation of words, spelt with initial –
wh-as in where, why, when… some phoneticians even consider there is /ʍ /-as an
aspirated on-glide to the sound |w|: |hwen, hwaɪ| | | -is considered to be
voiceless, fricative, and according to place of obstruction-labio-velar. |r| -is the
most characteristic sound of GA pronunciation. In its articulation the tip and the
blade of tongue are turned upward to the hard palate. In pronunciation it is
accompanied by some slight protrusion of lips. GA |r| is pronounced not only
initially, but also word-final even before a consonant.
It is known that there are two variants of phoneme |l|-dark and light, and we also
know that dark-l is usually pronounced word-finally and doubled like in: dull,
small. etc. As for GA most speakers us only dark |l| in all positions: initially,
medially, finally. Dark |l| is pronounced with major part of the tongue raised to the
velar part of mouth cavity. As for glottal, whispered |h| -it has several variants in
GA:
-it is voiced in intervocalic position like in: perhaps
-it is lost, when initially in unstressed form, like in: where has he gone.Nasals are
one more point of difference between RP and GA. A common characteristic of
GA is so-called “American twang”. In GA a vowel before a nasal consonant is
also nasalized which results from lowering the soft palate while vowel is
pronounced, like in: candy, manner. The distinction between diphthong and
monophthong in GA is not consistent, because diphthongs are pronounced with
weakening the glide, so they tend to diphthongoids or clear monophthongs: |ai|-|
a:| - die. Though every national variant of English has some essential differences
in pronunciation, grammar and lexics-they all still have much in common, so we
can’t speak of different languages: the British language and the American
language but of one and the same language -the English language. Thus,
gradually, three main varieties of American English came to be recognized.
MAIN
PRONUNCIATION
TYPES OF THE
USA
The Easten type is Western (General

The Southern type is American
spoken along the east
used in the south and Pronunciation) is
coast of New England
southeast of the widely spread in the
and largely in New
United States. central Atlantic States:
York city.
New Jersey, New
York, Wilsconsin.
Eastern American English type includes New York City and its environs,
the New England east of the Connecticut River. The pronunciation of
Eastern American is closer to British RP because of constant intercourse
between Great Britain and America. Eastern American English developed
under the strong influence of educated British English, as many rich
families sent their sons to their mother country to be educated there. This
helped to preserve the British standards of pronunciation in New England.
There are some slight differences between RP and Eastern American
English. Vowels are often nasalized in Eastern American English.
http://mylektsii.ru/1-75968.html?
Geographically Southern American English is spoken in the south and
south east of the USA. Cultured Southern American pronunciation has a
number of peculiarities in the pronunciation of vowels. The most striking
of them is the so-called Southern drawl which consists in diphthongization
and triphthongization of some monophthongs . On the contrary, some
diphthongs are replaced by lengthened monophthongs. The chief
characteristics are the following: 1) The vowels /i, e, æ, o/ are broken into
diphthongs when stressed. 2) The front vowel /i/ is usually lowered and
diphthongized to /ei/ before /ŋ/. 3)The vowels of “dish”, “fish” and the
final vowel of ‘city’, ‘charity’, etc. occurs as /i:/ in many parts of the aria.
4) The diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ are adapted to consonants: they are open
and tense before voiced consonants and are obscured before voiceless
consonants. http://referat911.ru/Inostrannye-yazyki/teoriyaly-fonetik...-
2700461-place6.html?
Geographically General American is the least regional. It is being spoken

in all parts of the country, from Ohio through the Middle West and to the
Pacific Coast. General American English constitutes the literary language of
the USA. Consequently, GA pronunciation makes its pronunciation
standard. This type is used by radio and television announcers and
broadcasters. It is also accepted in motion pictures and in theatre, it is used
in scientific and business intercourse. As GA presents the standard
pronunciation of the USA it will be viewed in detail from different points:
a) the system of vowel phonemes;
b) the system of consonant phonemes;
c) accentual structure of words;
d) reading rules system;
e) intonational structure of sentences.
http://referat911.ru/Inostrannye-yazyki/teoriyaly-fonetik...-2700461-
place6.html?
The British and American pronunciation
The General American (GA) and the British Received Pronunciation (RP)
accents have some significant points of difference.
English pronunciation is different from country to country and even from
region to region. But usually isolated and taught two types of English
pronunciation: British English and American. The standard used for the
British pronunciation of pronunciation, taken in the south of England in the
areas of Oxford, Cambridge, Brighton and London. British actors,
journalists on television, politicians, scientists and teachers also use a
classic English pronunciation. Other residents of the UK usually speak in
their local dialect, which can be very different from the standard English
pronunciation. The main difference between American pronunciation is the
letter "r" is always pronounced. For example, the word farther and father in
the British version will sound the same, but in the U.S. the pronunciation is
very different. In the British pronunciation of "r" pronounced only in cases
where it stands after a vowel (red) or the "r" at the end in the word, and the
next word begins with a vowel (far away). Another notable difference - the
letter "o", for example in such words as dot, hot in the American version
will sound more like the sound of "a" / ɑ :/.
There are some more specific, but much less important, features of
American pronunciation. One of them - a kind of sound [t] in words such as
lighter - lighter or center - center. The manner in which to pronounce this
sound, calle
Another specific phonological American pronunciation - exclusion of sound [j]
in the pronunciation of words like suit - a suit or Tuesday - Tuesday. Classic
British spelling - [dju:tɪ]. But in American version it sounds like [du:tɪ]. Such
phonological feature does not add clarity. For example, words do will be
performed in the American version is practically the same - [du:].Word forehead
- brow Englishmen read like ['forιd], and Americans – [' fo: hed]. Obviously, the
American pronunciation is much closer to a word. The letter Z in the British
alphabet is called [zed]. Americans call it [zi:].Numeral twenty - twenty
Americans have acquired a completely illogical sound color. Given the manner
of "swallow" t in combination - nt ... display the American pronunciation of the
numeral twenty possible so: ['twonɪ].
Some Americans pronounce English words differently. This has nothing to do
with the American pronunciation of certain phonemes, discussed above. There
are just a small number of words that the Americans and British were read in
different ways, for example:In the words either and neither the British in the first
syllable sounds /aɪ/, and the Americans /iː/ The word is the opposite direction -
to the British more typical to say [dʌɪ'rekʃn], and for Americans - [dɪ'rekʃn] .
SEMINAR 9 THE ENGLISH LITERARY PRONUNCIATION IN

BRITISH ISLES AND IN THE USA

1.Spread of English. Definitions of pronunciation, dialect and accent.
2.Types English pronunciation in British Isles.
3. Types English pronunciation in the USA.
4.Differences between English pronunciation in British Isles the USA.
1.Why is English spoken all over the world and reasons for that?
2.What is pronunciation?
3. What is accent? What is dialect? The difference of accent and dialect.
4. What are the main types of English pronunciation in the USA?
5.Speak about main differences between British and American English
pronunciations.
6.What do you know about the distribution of the English language all over the
world?
7.What countries is English the mother tongue in ?
8.Why isn’t English the same in all English speaking countries in?
9.What are the main pronunciation types in Great Britain?
10.What group of people speak Southern English Pronunciation?
11.Which type of pronunciation do YOU speak?
12.Where is Northern Pronunciation spread?
13.What are the striking features of the vocalic system of Northern English
(N.E. for short)?
14.What kind of /I/ do they pronounce in N.E.?
15.What sound does the combination of ‘’ng’’ correspond to in unstressed
position in N.E.?
16.How is ‘’wh’’ pronounced in N.E.?
17.What kind of tempo do they speak in N.E.?
18.Where is Standard Scottish Pronunciation spoken?
19.How are ‘’man, dust, lake, house,’’ pronounced in Scottish English (Sc.E. for
short)
20.Are ‘’ home, near, sure’’ pronounced with diphthongs or with monopthtongs
in Sc.E?
21.What consonants exist in Sc.E. which have no cognates in R.P.?
22.What kind of /r/ do they pronounce in Sc.E.?
23.What do you know about the distribution of /r/ in SC.E?
24.How is the combination ‘’wh’’ pronounced in Sc.E?
25.Pronounce the words ‘’ developing, reading’’ the way they pronounce them
in Sc.E?
26.How general questions often are pronounced in Sc.E?
27. What main types of pronunciation do you know in the USA?
28. Where is Eastern American English spoken?
29. What are the distinctive features of Eastern American English (or E.A.) that
distinguish it from R.P.?
30. Where is Southern American English (or S.A.) spoken?
31. What are the most striking peculiar features of the articulation of vowels in
S.A.?
32. What happens to R.P. monopthongs and diphthongs in S.A.?
Give examples of the latter.
33.What can you say about the distribution of General American English (or
G.A.)?
34.Which type of the tree types of pronunciation is standard pronunciation in the
United States of America?
35. How are the /e/ and /α/ of R.P. articulated in G.A.?
36.What do you know about the articulation of /r/ in G.A.?
37. How can the letter ‘’w’’ be read in G.A?
38. How does the accentual structure of words differ in G.A. from that in R.P.?
39. What communicative types of sentences differ in intonation in G.A. from
that in R.P.?
Practical tasks
1.Make a glossary of the main notions and give their definitions.
2. Make up a table about territorial varieties of English pronunciation.
Case study
Project tasks :
1. Make a comparison table of the differences between the English literary
pronunciation in the USA and British Isles. Briefly comment on her.
2. Create a mini-video project. Watch a video about “The English literary
pronunciation in the USA” https:// you tube/Auqap G1H2AE, Learn British
accents and dialect – Cockney, RP, Northern, and more! and speak of the
English literary pronunciation in the USA. study them then create your own text
and video about the topic. At the seminar lesson present your video. Discuss the
topic with your teacher and group, and evaluate your job.
Exercises:
Ex.1 Read the words according to the GA standard: balm, doctor, father, worry,
courage, furrow; winter, mister, sister, perceiver, hurry, not, crop, dock, nod,
palm, calm, current.
Ex.3. Read the GA general questions with a falling tone: Are you going?
Does he care? Shall we stay here?
Ex.4. Give definitions of the following phonetic terms: dialect, national
language, orthoepic norm, Received Pronunciation, styles of pronunciation.
Ex.5.Read the following words according to the GA standard: national, bird,
sister, when, due, leave, let, berry, merry, very city, certainly, that one,
mountain, which, what, tune, excursion, version, man, name, farm, noun, Betty,
bottle, little,.
Ex.6. Read the following words with the GA /æ/more front and longer
than the RP /æ/: half, answer, dance, last, ask, aunt.
Ex.7. Give examples of regional variations within British English, enumerate
their main phonemic peculiarities.
Ex.8. Say how the following sentences would sound in different styles of
pronunciation (the full, the careless colloquial, the careful colloquial styles).
Transcribe the three variants of each sentence: 1) This year I am going to
visit Great Britain. 2) I am sorry that you should think so.
References
1. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка : учебно- практическое
пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.T.T.
2. Peters, Pam (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
4. Vrabel “Lectures in theoretical phonetics of the English language and
Internet source
Check yourself with the ‘Quizizz.com’ program test!

1. Some ….million people speak English in the world.
A) 300 B) 400 C) 500 D) 100
2. It is the official language of countries covering ….of the earth’s surface.
A) one fifth B) two fifth C) three fifth D) four fifth
3.Three …..of the world’s mail is written in English.
A) fourths B) fifth C) sixth D) sevens
4. …..million people of the European countries speak English in addition to
their native tongues.
A) Five B) Six C) Seven D) eight
5. Besides , English is the mother tongue of:
A) the USA B) Australia C) New Zealand D) all of them
6. Pronunciation is…
A) the way in which we make the sound of words B)the way of writing C) the
way of singing D) the way of drawing
7. Accent means the differences in….
A) pronunciation. B) spelling. C) writing. D) drawing.
8. Dialect is a form of a language which is peculiar to….
A) a specific region or social group
B) pronouncing a language
C) drawing picture
D) singing
9.How many types of English Literary pronunciation do phoneticians
distinguish?
A) they distinguish 3 types
B) they distinguish 2 types
C) they distinguish 4 types
D) they distinguish only one type
*****
10.What are the main types of pronunciation in GB?
A) Southern English, Northern English, Standard English
B) Standard English, Standard Scottish
C) Received and Scottish
D) Southern English, Received Pronunciation and Northern English
E) Received Pronunciation and General English
11. Literary pronunciation is the pronunciation used by…
A) educated people.
B) educational institutions.
C) the radio and by television.
D) all above mentioned.
12. Received Pronunciation (or RP) is defined….
A) as the educated spoken English of southeastern England.
B) as the educated spoken English of northern America.
C) as the educated spoken English of southern Africa.
D) as the educated spoken English of Newzeland.
13. Southern English pronunciation is also known as:
A) RP B) standard English pronunciation, king’s English C) public school
pronunciation, BBC English D) all above stated.
14.Northern English pronunciation is the speech of those who were born in…
A) Birmingham and the border of Scotland. B) England C) Wales D) Scotland
15. Standard Scottish pronunciation is wide spread in ..
A) Scotland. Northern Ireland. C) England. B) America.
STUDENTS` INDVIDUAL WORK
Project tasks :
1. Create a variaties of English literary pronunciation in British Isles card.
Briefly comment on each section.
2. Watch the videos : You tube 30.04.16 Learn British accents and dialects –
Cockney, RP You tube 15.09.11 BBC Learning English Pronunciation Tips 1
from BBC,“The English pronunciation in British Isles study them then create
your own text and video about the topic. You should write your aim, plan (what
you are going to show about, make up brainstorming questions, complete a
small test about the topic using . At the seminar lesson present your
video. Discuss the topic with your teacher and group, and evaluate your work.
References
1.Peters, Pam (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
2.McArthur, Tom (2002). Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
Internet source
Summary
The way in which we make the sound of words is called pronunciation. A

standard of pronunciation can be defined as phonetic shaping of spoken form of
a national language received by the educated users of that language which at a
given time is generally considered correct, statistically relevant and/or enjoys
social prestige. Dialect = a form of a language which is peculiar to a specific
region or social group { from the Greek dialektos "discourse, way of
speaking“}.
Accent (comes from the Latin accentus "tone, signal, or intensity")= a way of
pronouncing a language, associated with a country, area, or social class, an
emphasis given to a syllable, word, or note. In general phoneticians distinguish 3
main types of pronunciation in GB: Southern English Pronunciation, or RP,
Northern English Pronunciation,Standard Scottish Pronunciation. Main
pronunciation types of the USA are eastern american English, the Southern type,
western type. Eastern American English, is spoken along the east coast of New
England and largely in New York city. The Southern type is used in the south
and southeast of the United States. Western (General American Pronunciation)
is widely spread in the central Atlantic States: New Jersey, New York,
Wilsconsin.
GLOSSARY
American English –the national variant of the English language spoken in the
USA.
Dialect – a form of a language that is spoken in a particular area.
National language – a language of a nation and its literature.
Orthoepic norm – the correct pronunciation of the words of a language.
Received Pronunciation – the type of standard pronunciation most
commonly described in books on the phonetics of British English and
traditionally taught to foreigners.
Styles of pronunciation – different ways of pronouncing words and
joining them in the flow of speech.
MODULE X TEACHING NORMS OF ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION

students' linguistic, intercultural, communicative
The content of the module and professionally adaptive competencies on
Module contains: the topic.
- the aim of the module The objectives of the module:
-objectives of the module - to define the сriteria for choosing a particular
-learning outcomes type of pronunciation as the teaching norm;
-problems to be discussed - to characterize the main facts that
-key words influence to choose teaching norms of English
- lecture topics pronunciation;
-seminar questions and assignments -to describe the teaching norms in the
- tasks of students` individual work articulation of vowel and consonant sounds in
R.P.;
- to differentiate the styles of pronunciation.
Learning outcomes:
- defines the сriteria for choosing a particular type
of pronunciation as the teaching norm;
- characterizes the main facts that influence to choose
teaching norms of English pronunciation;
-describes the teaching norms in the articulation of vowel and consonant sounds
in R.P.;
- differentiates the styles of pronunciation.
The main Teaching

Criteria for facts that The teaching norms,
choosing a influence to norms in the criteria,
particular choose articulation articulation of
type of teaching of vowel and vowels and
pronunciati norms of consonant consonants, Styles of
on as the English sounds in R.P., styles of pronunciation
teaching pronunciati R.P. pronunciation, .
norm. on. subjective and
objective.
Teaching norms, criteria, articulation of vowels and

consonants, R.P., styles of pronunciation, subjective and
KEY WORDS objective.
1.Teaching norms of English pronunciation

The English language is the second most spoken language in the world. In each
country language develops in its own way and has a lot of different local types of
pronunciation. Since it is the most favored foreign languages in countries where it
is not native, the question arises which type of pronunciation should be chosen as
the teaching norms R.P or G.A. The choice of teaching norms is necessary in order
to:
-Facilitate and accelerate the process of teaching and learning;
-Ensure the uniformity of the learners` pronunciation.
The choice should be based on certain criteria. We will consider subjective and
objective criteria.
Subjective criteria: a) correctness of pronunciation, its beauty and degree of
affectation;
b) coarse character of pronunciation, or vulgarity.
These subjective criteria shouldn’t taken into consideration when choosing a type
of pronunciation as the teaching norm.
Objective criteria: a) the geographical, economic, political and cultural factors
of an English- learning country; b) the number of native speakers of this type of
pronunciation; c) the degree of the understandability of particular type
pronunciation in all the English- speaking countries; d) dependence of an English-
learning country upon an English- speaking country; e) the extent of investigations
made in this type of pronunciation; f) the number of audio-visual aids in teaching
this type of pronunciation; g) the fact that this type of pronunciation has been
compared to the pronunciation system of the mother tongue.
These objective criteria may be crucial for choosing a particular type of
pronunciation as the teaching norm.
RP meets these requirements better than does any other single type English
pronunciation.
Let`s consider the opinions of some scientists about British Received
Pronunciation and American English:
1) J.Kenyon says: “ mere majorities, without consideration of historical linguistic
background and regional distribution, are not decisive. For example, the fact that
more speakers in the English speaking world habitually use the General American
than any other single type cannot vitiate the standing of the Southern British
pronunciation for the educated Englishman”.
2) According to Mario Pei, General American is used by 120 million speakers, 40
million Americans speak Southern-American English, and 30 million people in the
USA use the Eastern-American type.
2) G.B. Shaw :‘England and America are two countries separated by the same
language”.
3) D. Jones Received Pronunciation is “… readily understood in most parts of the
English-speaking world”. Alexander Ellis (phonetician) in his book "Early English
Pronunciation" (1869) introduced and described the term received pronunciation.
4) Phonetician John C. Wells estimated that, in 1982, two-thirds of the American
population spoke with a General American accent.
2. The main facts that influence to choose teaching norms of English
pronunciation:
1) the geographical, economic, political and cultural factors. These factors
influences in a number of contacts and exchanges between the two countries.
2) the extent to which this or that type of has been investigated. There are a lot of
textbooks in which British Received Pronunciation has been investigated ( L.
Armstrong and A. Ward, H. Palmer , D. Jones, J.D. O’Connor and G.F Arnold, R.
Kingdon, V.A Vassilyev and others.)
Of course there are some works written on General American Pronunciation by
American scientists. American descriptivists are not unanimous in solving some
questions concerning the problems of vowel length. The problems of diphthongs,
function of /r/, the status of the /t/ sound and other problems have not solved jet. It
means that some phonetic phenomena have not been yet stabilized in American
pronunciation in general.
3) the number of existing audio-visual aids necessary to teaching the chosen norm.
A lot of books have been published about English pronunciation. They contain
phonetic drills, practical exercises, transcribed texts and tape-recorded texts and
gramophone records based on British Received pronunciation. Dictionaries of R.P.
are also published.
4) The fact a certain type of pronunciation has been compared with the
pronunciation system of the mother tongue of the students.
Bringing all these facts together, we may say that British Received
Pronunciation must be prevailing teaching norm in schools and colleges.
Practically all teachers have an active knowledge of British Received
Pronunciation.
3. Teaching norms in the articulation of English vowels in R.P.:
A specific feature of the English phonetic system is diphthongization of the
vowel /i:/. It must be especially clearly heard after /w/ and at the beginning of
words.
•The vowel /e/ is to be pronounced with the bulk of the tongue in the front part of
the mouth cavity and the middle of the tongue raised in the direction of the hard
palate.
•The vowel /ǽ/ is always pronounced in its broad variation of the low position of
the tongue, which makes it possible to oppose /ǽ / with /e/.
• All the English labialized monophthongs and diphthongs must be pronounced
with rounded lips.
•While articulating the vowel /ʌ/ the tongue must be held back more and in front a
little higher as compared with its position in pronouncing the English /a:/.
•While pronouncing the vowel /з:/ there must be no lip-rounding in all the position
of the sound /з:/, /wз:/ included. The flat position of the tongue must be strictly
kept in all the combinations.
•The nucleus of the diphthong /ai/ and /aʊ/ is to be pronounced as a front open
vowel.
•The facultative phoneme /oə/ is not included into the teaching norms.
•The nucleus of the diphthons /eɪ/ is articulated as in the vowel /e/.
4.Teaching norms in the articulation of consonants in R.P. are as follows:
•The consonants /t, d, n, l/ must be articulated with the tip of the tongue against the
teeth-ridge.
•When the final voiced plosive consonants are articulated the vibration of the vocal
cords must stop before the obstruction is realized.
•The constrictive fricative consonants /θ, ð/ must have interdental articulation.
•The sonorant /w/ is to be pronounced with the round narrowing of the lips.
•When articulating the constrictive fricative consonants /ʒ/ /ʃ/ the blade of the
tongue must be held close to the back of the teeth-ridge and the tongue must be
raised in the direction of the hard palate.
•The voice occlusive-constrictive /ʤ/ is to be articulated with the dorsal
articulation of the tongue.
•In producing the English /h/ the bulk of the tongue and the lips are held in the
position necessary for the articulation of a following vowel.
Styles of pronunciation
A person may utter one and the same word quite differently under different
circumstances. Different ways of pronouncing words rely on the different styles of
speech, and accordingly upon different styles of pronunciation.
Such types of pronunciation styles are distinguished by the scientists.
For example:
L.V. Shcherba
supposed 2 styles of
pronunciation:
colloquial style - full style, which is

characteristic of used when we want
people’s relaxed to make our speech
speech, especially distinct.
D. Jones
distinguished 5
styles of
pronunciation:
the natural the

the rapid the acquired the slower style used in acquired
familiar style used in colloquial addressing a style of the
style, singing, style, fair-sized
audience.
stage.
The degree of cautiousness of pronunciation distinguishes different styles.

1) In the full style of pronunciation words are pronounced by a slow tempo and
careful pronunciation in their full forms without vowel reduction or assimilation:
“I should like to see her” /aɪ ʃʊd `laɪk t `si: hз:/.
2) In the slower colloquial style is characterized by a quicker tempo and by a
more carelessness in articulation of words. It is the result of reduction of speech
sounds and various kinds of assimilation. “I should like to see her” /aɪ ʃəd `laɪk
tə`si: hз:/.
3) The rapid familiar style (or, in other words, the careless, colloquial style)
differs from the careful colloquial style in free use of nonobligatory
assimilation: “I should like to see her” /aɪ ʃt`laɪk tə `si: ə/.
As we have noticed the sentence “I should like to see her” is pronounced
differently in the three different styles.
In teaching a foreign language to students the teacher is faced with the problem
of choosing a style of pronunciation to begin with.
D. Jones said the slower colloquial style is the most suitable for the use of
foreign students.
A.C. Gimson recommended “the foreign learner to aim at a careful colloquial
style of English in his own speech” but advices him “to be aware of the features
which characterize the rapid colloquial style. In conclusion we can say that R.P.
is the most suitable type of pronunciation in teaching English language.
https://studopedia.com.ua/1_252192_Lecture--teaching-norms-of-english-
pronunciation.html
References
1. Паращук В. Ю. Теоретична фонетика англійської мови: Навчальний
3. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка : учебно- практическое
пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
Internet sources
http://doclecture.net/ http://lektsii.net/
SEMINAR X TEACHING NORMS OF ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION
Problems to be discussed at the seminar

1. Criteria for choosing a particular type of pronunciation as the teaching norm.
2. The main facts that influence to choose teaching norms of English
pronunciation.
3. The teaching norms in the articulation of vowel and consonant sounds in R.P.
4.Styles of pronunciation.

1 What do different ways of pronouncing words depend on?
2.What different styles of pronunciation D. Jones distinguish?
3.What different styles distinguished by L. V. Scherba?
4.What are the characteristic features of full and slower style?
5.Which style of pronunciation should we begin with when teaching English as
a second language and why?
6. What criteria—articulatory or phonological—are more suitable in
the view of teaching pronunciation? Why?
7. Why is the choice of teaching norms necessary?
8. What criteria the choice should be based on?
9. Characterize the subjective and objective criteria.
10. Name the main facts that influence to choose teaching norms of English
pronunciation.
11. Name the specific feature of the English phonetic system.
12. What are teaching norms in the articulation of consonants in R.P.?
13. What types of pronunciation styles are distinguished by L.V. Shcherba?
14. What types of pronunciation styles are distinguished by D.Jones?
Exercise.
Finish the sentences:
In the full style of pronunciation words are pronounced by …………….
In the slower colloquial style is characterized ……………………………
The rapid familiar style differs from the careful colloquial style ……….
In teaching a foreign language to students the teacher is faced ………….
D. Jones said the slower colloquial style is ………………………………
A.C. Gimson ……………………………………………………………..
References
пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
Internet sources
STUDENTS` INDVIDUAL WORK
Project task:
1. A short video project presentation. Find a video about the teaching norms
of English pronunciation. Watch and study it then create your own text and
video about the topic. You should write your aim, plan (what you are going to
show about, make up brainstorming questions, complete a small test about the
topic using . At the seminar present your video. Discuss the topic with
your teacher and groupmates , and evaluate your work.
пед. ун-та, 2016. – 154 с.
Internet sources
http://www.llas.ac.uk/materialsbank/mb063/eapindex.htm
Summary
The main facts that influence to choose teaching norms of English pronunciation
are: the geographical, economic, political and cultural factors, the extent to
which this or that type of has been investigated,
the number of existing audio-visual aids necessary to teaching the chosen
norm,the fact a certain type of pronunciation has been compared with the
pronunciation system of the mother tongue of the students. Bringing all these
facts together, we may say that British Received Pronunciation must be
prevailing teaching norm in schools and colleges. Practically all teachers have
an active knowledge of British Received Pronunciation.
Different ways of pronouncing words rely on the different styles of speech, and
accordingly upon different styles of pronunciation.
Such types of pronunciation styles are distinguished by the scientists.
L.V. Shcherba supposed 2 styles of pronunciation colloquial style, full style.
D. Jones distinguished 5 styles of pronunciation: the rapid familiar style, the
slower colloquial style, the acquired style of the stage, the acquired style used in
singing, the acquired style used in singing, the natural style used in addressing a
fair-sized audience. D. Jones said the slower colloquial style is the most suitable
for the use of foreign students. A.C. Gimson recommended “the foreign learner
to aim at a careful colloquial style of English in his own speech” but advices
him “to be aware of the features which characterize the rapid colloquial style. In
conclusion we can say that R.P. is the most suitable type of pronunciation in
teaching English language.
Glossary
American English –the national variant of the English language spoken in the
USA
Received Pronunciation – the type of standard pronunciation most
commonly described in books on the phonetics of British English and
traditionally taught to foreigners
Styles of pronunciation – different ways of pronouncing words and
joining them in the flow of speech
FINAL TESTS OF THE MODULERS
The term “phonetics” is derived from:

A) English
B) Latin
C) Hindus
D) Greek
E) French
*****
The origin of the word ‘…’ is a Greek ‘phona’
A) a sonorant;
B) a sound, a voice;
C) acoustics;
D) articulation;
E) vowel.
*****
. … which is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the
language.
A) segmental phonetics;
B) practical phonetics;
C) normative phonetics;
D) suprasegmental phonetics;
E) theoretical phonetics.
*****
Sound alterations are also widely spread on the synchronical level in the
present-day English and are known as …
a) contextual phonetics;
b) practical phonetics;
c) experimental phonetics;
d) acoustic phonetics;
e) normative phonetics.
*****
The branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant
and vowel sounds, syllable structure, word accent and prosodic features,
such as pitch, stress and tempo is called …
a) phonology;
b) instrumental phonetics;
c) practical phonetics;
d) theoretical phonetics;
e) experimental phonetics.
*****
. … studies the larger units of connected speech syllables, words, phrases,
texts.
a) Segmental phonetics
b) Normative phonetics
c) Theoretical phonetics
d) Practical phonetics
e) Suprasegmental phonetics
*****
. … studies the system of sound units and their function.
a) Phonology
b) Instrumental phonetics
c) Practical phonetics
d) Theoretical phonetics
e) Experimental phonetics
*****
What sciences are connected with phonetics?
a) medicine; physics, psychology, statistics, engineering;
b) mathematics, statistics, computer technologies;
c) physics, mathematics, engineering, computer technologies;
d) medicine, physics, psychology, linguistics, maths, statistics, computer
technologies;
e) psychology, biology, physics.
*****
The branch of phonetics that studies the way in which the air is set into
motion, the movement of the speech organs and the coordination of these
movements in the production of English sounds and trains of sounds is
called …
a) articulator phonetics.
b) practical phonetics.
c) normative phonetics.
d) acoustic phonetics.
e) theoretical phonetics.
*****
. … studies the linguistic function of individual sounds or segments of
speech.
a) Segmental phonetics
b) Practical phonetics
c) Normative phonetics
d) Suprasegmental phonetics
e) Theoretical phonetics
*****
Some sound alterations are traced to the phonetic changes in earlier periods
of the language development and are known as …
a) historical.
b) functional.
c) phonological.
d) principal.
e) abstract.
*****
What Phonetics can you define?
A) a branch of linguistics dealing with the phonetic structure of a language
b) studying the structure of a sentence
c) a branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning and word-building
d) a branch of linguistics studying the structure of a language
e) a branch of linguistics governing the combination of word
*****
Phonetics is an independent branch of:
a) lexicology
b) linguistics
c) stylistics
d) grammar
e) logics
*****
Phonetics is connected with:
a) grammar and physics
b) lexicology and anatomy
c) physiology
d) stylistics
E) all above them
*****
There are:
a) 6 branches of Phonetics.
b) 5 branches of Phonetics.
c) 4 branches of Phonetics.
d) 3 branches of Phonetics.
e) 2 branches of Phonetics.
*****
What is the unit of phonetics?
a) a phoneme
b) a minimal pair
c) an allophone
D) a speech sound
e) a sound
*****
What does physiological phonetics study?
a) it studies the acoustic properties of speech sounds
b) it studies the functional aspect of speech sounds
c) it studies the fundamental frequency of a sound
d) it studies the articulatory and auditory aspects of speech sounds
e) it studies speech sounds
*****
Phonetics is connected with such non- linguistic sciences as:
a) anatomy, biology
b) biology, physics
c) anatomy, physiology, physics and others
d) grammar, math’s
e) anatomy, lexicology
*****
What is the oldest and the most developed branch of phonetics?
a) physiological phonetics
b) phonology
c) acoustic phonetics
d) general phonetics
e) comparative phonetics
*****
Phonetics, which is concerned with the study of the phonetic structure of
the language at different periods of its historical development is called:
a) historical phonetics
b) general phonetics
c) descriptive phonetics
d) comparative phonetics
e) functional phonetics
*****
What branch of phonetics studies the articulatory and auditory aspect of
speech sounds?
a) general phonetics
b) phonology
d) physiological phonetics
*****
A branch of phonetics which treats of the correlations between the
phonetics of two or more languages called:
a) contemporary phonetics
c) comparative phonetics
d) special phonetics
e) historical phonetics
*****
Phonetics which studies the contemporary phonetic system of a particular
language is called:
a) historical phonetics
c) comparative phonetics
d) descriptive phonetics
c) special phonetics
*****
What branch of phonetics is a statistical method widely used in?
a) general phonetics
b) historical phonetics
c) phonology
d) acoustic phonetics
e) physiological phonetics
*****
What is the principle method used in acoustic phonetics:
a) the method of direct observation
b) the experimental method
c) the method of discovering minimal pairs
d) the statically method
e) the method of commutation
*****
The experimental method is based on:
a) the ear.
b) the muscular tension.
c) the direct observation.
d) use of special apparatus.
e) the equipment
*****
Articulatory phonetics studies:
a) how speech sounds are produced.
b) how the sounds are perceived.
c) the system of sounds only.
d) the patterns of sounds.
e) the physical characteristics of speech sounds.
*****
Auditory phonetics deals with:
a) the system of speech sounds.
b) the functions of speech sounds.
c) the study of how the speech sounds are perceived.
d) the patterns of speech sounds.
e) the syllabic system.
*****
What are the principal methods used in physiological phonetics?
a) the method of direct observation
b) the experimental method
c) the method of discovering minimal pairs
d) the statistical method
e) the method of commutation
*****
Investigation by means of ear, sight, muscular sensation is called:
a) direct observation.
b) linguistic.
c) experimental.
d) biological.
e) analytical.
*****
The aim of linguistic method of investigation is:
a) to interpret the linguistic function of a phonetic phenomenon.
b) to differentiate one word from another.
c) to discover minimal pair.
d) to study functional aspects of speech sounds.
e) to differentiate the loudness of speech sounds.
*****
Acoustic aspect of speech sounds is studied by:
a) auditory phonetics.
b) acoustic phonetics.
c) historical phonetics.
d) descriptive phonetics.
e) practical phonetics.
*****
The function of speech sound which constitutes the material forms of
morphemes, words and sentences is called:
a) distinctive.
b) recognitive.
c) constitutive.
d) auditory.
e) acoustic.
*****
The function of speech sound which differentiates one word from another
word is called:
a) acoustic.
b) distinctive.
c) recognitive.
d) constitutive.
e) auditory
*****
The recognitive function consists of:
a) the use of right allophone in the right place.
b) the material form of words.
c) the material form of morphemes.
d) the forms of sentences.
e) acoustic aspect.
*****
There are:
a) 2 methods of investigation.
b) 3 methods of investigation.
c) 4 methods of investigation.
d) 5 methods of investigation.
e) 6 methods of investigation.
*****
According to the sound producing functions the speech mechanisms are
divided into:
a) 6 groups.
b) 5 groups.
c) 4 groups.
d) 3 groups.
e) 2 groups.
*****
What are the main speech mechanisms?
a) power, vibrator, resonator, obstructer
b) power, resonator
c) power, vibrator
d) resonator, timber, obstructor
e) obstructor, vibrator, resonator
*****
Vocal cords and glottis constitute:
a) the resonator mechanism
b) the power mechanism
c) the obstructor mechanism
d) the vibrator mechanism
e) the articulator mechanism
*****
What organs of speech belong to the vibrator mechanism?
a) the lungs, the windpipe, the glottis, the pharynx
b) the vocal cords and glottis
c) the nasal cavity
d) the alveolar
e) the teeth
*****
What is obstructor mechanism responsible for?
a) for the production of vowels
b) for the production of consonants
c) for the production of sonorants only
d) for the production of all the sounds
e) for the production of nasal sounds
*****
The power mechanism includes the following organs:
a) the diaphragm, the pharynx
b) the lungs
c) the bronchi, the windpipe, the glottis
d) the pharynx, the mouth cavity, the nasal cavity
e) all above them.
*****
What organs of speech belong to the resonator mechanism?
a) the pharynx
b) the larynx
c) the mouth cavity
d) the nasal cavity
e) all above them
*****
The obstructor mechanism consists of:
a) the tongue, uvula, the back boundary of the pharynx
b) the lips, vocal cords
c) the teeth, the teeth-ridge
d) the soft palate, the hard palate
e) all above them.
*****
What resonator mechanism is responsible for the articulation of vowels?
a) oral resonator
b) nasal resonator
c) resonator mechanisms are not responsible for it
d) oral together with nasal resonator
e) nasal resonator and the vocal cords.
*****
What functions do the vocal cords perform?
a) flexible and articulatory
b) physiological and physical
c) aboriginal and vibrating
d) perceptive and auditory
e) biological and linguistic
*****
According to the lip position English vowels are classified into:
a) lax, tense.
b) tense, short.
c) long, short.
d) short, rounded.
e) rounded, unrounded.
*****
According to the horizontal movements of the tongue vowels are classified:
a) front, retracted
b) central, back
c) back- advanced
d) front, front-retracted, central, back, back-advanced
e) back
*****
The tongue may move:
a) horizontally, vertically.
b) horizontally, direct.
c) vertically down.
d) direct.
e) down.
*****
Consonants produced with a complete obstruction are called:
a) rolled.
b) constrictive.
c) b occlusive.
d) rolled, constrictive.
e) occlusive, rolled.
*****
Consonants produced with an incomplete obstructions are called:
a) rolled.
b) occlusive, constrictive.
c) rolled, occlusive.
d) constrictive.
e) occlusive.
*****
Consonants produce with an intermittent are called:
a) rolled.
b) nasal.
c) constrictive.
d) sonorant.
e) occlusive.
*****
What type of obstruction are affricates articulated:
a) with complete obstruction
b) with incomplete obstruction
c) beginning with complete and ending with incomplete one
d) with no obstruction at all
e) with slight obstruction
*****
The consonants formed by active speech organs are called:
a) labial, lingual
b) lingual
c) glottis
d) uvular
e) labial, lingual, glottal
*****
According to the length English vowels are classified into:
a) tense, short
b) short, long
c) short, rounded
d) rounded, long
e) lax, short
*****
According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants are classified
into:
a) dental
b) alveolar
c) interdental
d) post-alveolar and palato-alveolar
e) all above them
*****
What are the principles of consonant classification?
a) work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation
b) active organs of speech and
c) the place of obstruction
d) manner of noise production and the type of obstruction
e) all above of them
*****
What are the principles of vowel classification?
a) positions of the lips
b) positions of the tongue
c) degrees of tenseness and the character of the end
d) length and stability of articulation
E) all above of them
*****
What is palatalization?
a) work of vocal cords
b) softness of consonants
c) adaptation of sounds
d) softness of vowels
e) adaptation of speech sounds
*****
What is the definition of assimilation:
a) the result of obstruction
b) the result of adaptation of one sound to another
c) the result of length
d) the result of softness
e) the result of height
*****
According to the passive speech organs consonants may be classified:
a) dental, velar
b) alveolar, lingual
c) lingual, dental
d) velar, alveolar
e) dental, alveolar, palatal, velar
*****
According to the work of vocal cords consonants may be classified:
a) weak
b) strong
c) voiced, voiceless
d) voiced
e) voiceless
*****
According to the force of articulation consonants are classified:
a) voiced
b) voiceless
c) open
d) closed
e) weak, strong
*****
Lingual consonants are subdivided into:
a) mediolingual, backlingual
b) forelingual, backlingual
c) mediolingual, fofelingual
d) labiolingual, backlingual
e) forelingual, mediolingual, backlingual
*****
What are the main physical properties of a sound?
a) vibration, timber
b) rhythm, duration, length
) frequency, intensity, duration
d) pitch, tension, length
e) duration, mass
*****
What are the main types of articulatory obstructions?
a) complete
b) complete, incomplete, momentary
c) complete, incomplete
d) central, uncentral
e) palatalized, velarized
*****
What are the verbal functional styles?
a) bookish, official, publicist
b) bookish, scientific, official
c) the belles-lettres, newspaper
d) the belles-lettres, publicistic, newspaper, scientific prose, official
e) official, bookish
*****
What is Phonology?
a) phonology investigates speech sounds
b) phonology studies and investigates allophones
c) phonology investigates the phoneme
d) phonology studies variants of phonemes
e) all above them
*****
What branch of phonetics studies the functional aspect of speech sounds?
a) physiological phonetics
b) phonology
d) general phonetics
*****
What is the unit of Phonology?
a) a sentence
b) a word
c) articulation
d) a phoneme
e) intonation
*****
When the phoneme theory became widely known and spread?
a) in 1930
b) after 1928
c) after 1940
d) in 1938
e) after 1926
*****
What is the definition of the phoneme?
a) a functional unit
b) the smallest non-distinctive unit
c) a functional distinctive unit
d) the smallest distinctive unit
e) a distinctive unit
*****
Who defined the phoneme as a physical image of a sound?
a) I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay
b) Prof. Plotkin
c) Prof. Bloomfield
d) Prof. Trubeskoy
e) Prof. Jakobson
*****
The smallest unit of the language is:
a) a speech sound
b) an allophone
c) a syllable
d) a phoneme
e) a word
*****
What are allophones?
a) distinctive speech sounds
b) functional speech sounds
c) variants of phonemes
d) non-distinctive sounds
e) phonemes
*****
Variants of phonemes are:
a) speech sounds
b) letters
c) allophones
d) sounds
e) words
*****
Allophones which are influenced by neighboring speech sounds are called:
a) typical allophones
b) positional allophones
c) combinatory allophones
d) principal allophones
e) musical allophones
*****
Allophones which is not influenced by neighboring speech sounds are
called:
a) typical allophones
b) combinatory allophones
c) principle allophones
d) subsidiary
e) musical allophones
*****
What aspects does a phoneme have according to V.A. Vassilyev?
a) generalized, functional
b) real, material, abstructional, generalized
c) material, abstructional, functional
d) material, subjective
e) functional, objective
*****
Who was the founder of phonology?
a) I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay
b) V.A. Vassilyev
c) L.V. Shcherba
d) N.S. Trubetzkoy
e) R.I. Avanesov
*****
What are the main aspects of the phoneme?
a) material, generalized, functional
b) objective, material, abstractional
c) material, abstractional, functional
d) real generalized, functional
e) all above of them
*****
What functions does the phoneme perform?
a) constitutive, distinctive
b) constitutive, distinctive, recognitive
c) constitutive, distinctive, functional
d) functional, constitutive
e) distinctive, functional
*****
What theory is phonology based on?
a) the phoneme theory
b) the muscular tension theory
c) the three types of consonants theory
d) the expiratory theory
e) the sonority theory
*****
What groups are allophones divided into?
a) typical and general allophones
b) subsidiary and general allophones
c) typical and special allophones
d) typical and subsidiary allophones
e) general and special allophones
*****
The phoneme theory first formulated at:
a) the beginning of the 19-th century
b) the end of the 19-th century
c) the beginning of the 18-th century
d) the end of the 18-th century
e) the end of the 20-th century
*****
There are:
a) two main problems of phonology
b) three main problems of phonology
c) four main problems of phonology
d) five main problems of phonology
e) six main problems of phonology
*****
The inventory of the phonemes of a given language is studied by:
a) grammar
b) lexicology
c) stylistics
d) phonology
e) history of a language
*****
The phonemic status of speech sound is studied by:
a) physics
b) anatomy
c) phonology
d) stylistics
e) phonetics
*****
What types of transcription exist?
a) phonetic and phonemic
b) phonetic
c) phonemic
d) not at all
e) allophonic
*****
To the Moscow school belongs:
a) R.I.Avanessov
b) A.A.Reformatsky
c) P.S.Kuznetsov
d) N.P.Yukova, V.N.Sidorov
e) all above them
*****
Moscow phonological school has developed:
a) psychological conception
b) abstractional conception
C) materialistic conception
d) oppositional conception
e) minimal pair coseption
*****
To the Leningrad school belongs:
a) L.V.Shcherba
b) L.D.Zinder
c) O.I.Dikushina, M.I.Matusevitch
d) V.A.Vassilyev, G.P.Torsuev
e) all above them
*****
Leningrad phonological school has developed:
a) abstractional conception
b) materialistic conception
c) morphological conception
D) c psychological conception
e) all above them
*****
To the London phonological school belongs:
a) D.Jones
b) F.Hockett
c) L.Bloomfield
d) E.Sapir
e) W.F.Twaddell
*****
London phonological school has developed:
a) minimal pair conception
b) atomictic conception
c) abstractional conception
d) materialistic conception
e) morphological conception
*****
To the Prague Linguistic Circle belongs:
a) N.S. Trubetzkoy
b) R. Jakobson
c) H. Martinet
d) D. Jones
e) N.S. Trubetzkoy, R. Jacobson
*****
Prague Linguistic Circle pointed out:
a) materialistic conception
b) morphological conception
c) minimal pair conception
d) archiphonemes conception
e) descriptive theory
*****
To the American Phonological School belongs:
a) L. Bloomfield
b) E. Sapir
c) W.F. Twaddell
d) F. Hockett
e) all above them
*****
American phonological school tend to develop:
a) morphological conception
b) abstractional conception
c) minimal pair conception
d) materialistic conception
E) all above them
*****
What types of word-stress do you know?
a) constant and fixed
b) shifting and free
c) fixed and free
d) shifting and constant
e) fixed and constant
*****
What tendencies of word-stress do you know?
a) recessive, retentive, rhythmic
b) rhythmical, accentual
c) recessive, retentive, accentual
d) rhythmical, recessive, retentive
e) rhythmical, recessive, accentual
*****
What functions does word-stress perform?
a) meaningful, subjective, recognitive
b) constitutive, distinctive, recognitive
c) identificatory, distinctive, recognitive
d) supra-segmental, segmental, distinctive
e) supra-segmental, segmental, constitutive
*****
Within free word-stress what two subtypes of word-stress do you know?
a) constant and shifting
b) fixed and free
c) long and short
d) emphatic and weak
e) variable and stable
*****
What type of word-stress does English have?
a) it has free word-stress
b) it has fixed word-stress
c) it has no word-stress at all
d) it has musical word-stress
e) it has word-stress on penultimate syllable only
******
What type of word-stress does the English accentual structure belong to?
a) musical
b) quantitative
c) dynamic
d) quantitative, qualitative, dynamic
e) qualitative only
*****
If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly through the
intensity of
articulation we have:
a) qualitative word-stress
b) musical word-stress
c) dynamic word-stress
d) quantitative word-stress
e) free word-stress
*****
Word-stress in Oriental language is traditionally defined as:
a) musical
b) force
c) dynamic
d) qualitative
e) quantitative
*****
What is a syllable?
a) morphemic structure
b) one of the speech sounds
c) the shortest segment of speech continuum
d) the shortest speech continuum
e) the smallest phonetic groups
*****
What is an open syllable?
a) which begins with a vowel
b) which begins with a consonant
c) which ends in a vowel
d) which ends in a consonant
e) which begins and ends in a consonant
*****
What is a closed syllable?
a) which begins with a vowel
b) which begins with a consonant
c)which ends in a vowel
d) which ends in a consonant
e) which begins and ends in a consonant
*****
Syllables are traditionally classified as:
a) covered, uncovered
b) closed, covered
c) open, closed, covered, uncovered
d) stressed, open, closed
e) unstressed, covered, uncovered
*****
Are vowel sounds always syllabic?
a) less frequently
b) in all cases
c) it depends
d) no
e) yes
*****
According to their accentual weight, syllables may be:
a) stressed and unstressed
b) constant and shifting
c) free and fixed
d) complex and simple
e) open and closed
*****
According to their length, syllables may be:
a) primary and secondary
b) stressed and unstressed
c) short and long
d) covered and uncovered
e) strong and weak
*****
A syllable which begins in a vowel sound is called:
a) open
b) closed
c) covered
d) uncovered
e) fixed
*****
What syllable is covered:
a) which begins and ends in a consonant
b) which begins in a vowel
c) which ends in a vowel
d) which begins with a consonant
e) which ends in a consonant
*****
What theories of the syllable do you know?
a) expiratory, sonority, (muscular tension) loudness
b) sonority, functional, expiratory
c) articulatory, acoustic
d) articulatory tension, functional
e) auditory, acoustic
*****
A syllable which begins in a vowel sound is called:
a) open
b) closed
c) covered
d) uncovered
e) fixed
*****
Uncovered open type of syllable is:
a) CV
b) VC
c) VCC
d) V
e) CVC
*****
Uncovered, closed type of syllable is:
a) VC
b) VV
c) CVC
d CV
e) VV
*****
Covered, open type of syllable is:
a) CV
b) CVC
c) VC
d) V
e) VCV
*****
Covered, closed type of syllable is:
a) VV
b) CC
c) CVC
d) CVCV
e) VCVC
*****
The oldest theory of syllable formation is:
a) sonority
b) articulatory
c) expiratory
d) functional
e) auditory
*****
The syllabic structure of English fulfills:
a) two main functions
b) three main functions
c) four main functions
d) five main functions
e) six main functions
*****
Distinctive function of the syllable:
a) differentiates words and word forms
b) differentiates sounds
c) differentiates sentences
d) differentiates utterances
e) differentiates minimal pairs
*****
Constitutive function of the syllable:
a) has an ability to differentiate sentences
b) has an ability to differentiate words and word forms
c) has an ability to differentiate speech sounds
d) has an ability to differentiate utterances
e) has an ability to be part of a word
*****
What is Unstressed Vocalism?
a) a definite system of the English vowels
b) the definite system of the english consonants in the unstressed position
c) the stressed and unstressed syllables occurring in sentences
d) the unstressed syllables
e) the system of peculiar stressed syllables
*****
The most sonorous sounds in phonetics are:
a) medium sonorants
b) vowels
c) voiced consonants
d) voiceless consonants
e) sonorants
*****
What sounds are syllabic in English?
a) all vowel sounds
b) all consonants
c) all vowels and sonorants (m, n, l)
d) only diphthongs
e) voiced sonorants
*****
The accepted theory which explains mechanisms of syllable formation and
syllable division
in our country is:
a) sonority theory
b) muscular tension theory
c) expiratory theory
d) loudness theory
e) there is no accepted theory in our country
*****
What phonetician suggested these two theories: the muscular tension theory
and the three types of consonants theory?
a) O. Jesperson
b) L.V. Shcherba
c) G.B. Torsuev
d) G.D. Antipova
e) Galperin
*****
What are the main components of Intonation?
a) speech melody, sentence-stress, rhythm
b) tempo, rhythm
c) timber, pausation
d) rhythm, tempo, pausation
e) all above them
*****
Speech melody, sentence-stress, rhythm, tempo, timber, pausation are:
a) the types of intonation
b) the degrees of intonation
c) the components of intonation
d) the functions of intonation
e) the forms of intonation
*****
What functions does English Intonation perform?
a) identificatory, rhythmic, fixed
b) the sentence-distinctive, the sentence-constitutive, the sentence-
identificatory
c) constitutive, recessive, retentive
d) rhythmical, accentual
e) segmental, supra-segmental
*****
Which is the most important part in the intonation-group?
a) the nucleus
b) the pre-head
c) the tail
d) the head
e) the scale
*****
The first stressed word in an intonation-group is:
a) the pre-head
b) the head
c) the scale
d) the nucleus
e) the tail
*****
The unstressed and half-stressed syllables preceding the first stressed
syllable is:
a) the pre-head
b) the head
c) the tail
d) the scale
e) the body
*****
The last stressed word in an intonation-group is:
a) the pre-head
b) the head
c) the scale
d) the nucleus
e) the tail
*****
The terminal tone is:
a) the first stressed word
b) the last stressed word
c) the unstressed word preceding the stressed word
d) the unstressed word with the last stressed word
e) all unstressed words in an intonation-group
*****
A change in the pitch of the voice is called:
a) the pausation
b) the rhythm
c) the melody
d) the tempo
e) the sentence stress
*****
A special prominence given to on one or more syllables in a word is:
a) the pausation
b) the rhythm
c) the melody
d) the tempo
e) the stress
*****
What are the basic functions of intonation in the text?
a) structural, rhythmic, stylistic
b) constitutive, recognitive, distinctive
c) constitutive, distinctive
d) recognitive, constitutive
e) structural and distinctive
*****
How many types of English Literary pronunciation do phoneticians
distinguish?
a) they distinguish 4 types
b) they distinguish 2 types
c) they distinguish 3 types
d) they distinguish 5 types
e) they distinguish only one type
*****
What are the main types of pronunciation in GB?
a) Southern English, Northern English, Standard English
b) Standard English, Standard Scottish
c) Received and Scottish
d) Southern English, Received Pronunciation and Northern English
e) Received Pronunciation and General English
*****
What are the main dialectal varieties of American English?
a) Midwestern, Southern American English
b) Northern, Southern American English
c) Eastern, Southern, General American English
d) General American English
e) Eastern and General American English
*****
English-based pronunciation standards are:
a) British English
b) Irish English
c) Australian English
d) New Zealand English
e) all above them
*****
The Standard Pronunciation of the USA is:
a ) Eastern American English
b) Southern American English
c) General American English
d) Received Pronunciation
e) Northern type of pronunciation
*****
How many people speak English?
a) 1460 million
b) 450 million
c) 1250 million
d) 800 million
e) more than 300 million
*****
What are the main styles of pronunciation by L.V. Shcherba?
a) spoken, acquired
b) colloquial, full
c) colloquial, bookish
d) full, spoken
e) natural, rapid
*****
L.V. Shcherba distinguishes:
a) 1 style of pronunciation
b) 2 styles pronunciation
c) 3 styles pronunciation
d) 4 styles pronunciation
e) 5 styles pronunciation
*****
D. Jones speaks of:
a) 1 style of pronunciation
b) 2 styles pronunciation
c) 3 styles pronunciation
d) 4 styles pronunciation
e) 5 styles pronunciation
*****
According to Mario Pei, General American is used:
a) by 150 million speakers
b) by 140 million speakers
c) by 130 million speakers
d) by 110 million speakers
e) by 120 million speakers
*****
Modification of a consonant under the influence of a neighboring
consonant is:
a) accommodation
b) assimilation
c) adaptation
d) elision
e) loss of plosion
*****
When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel or
vice versa this phenomenon is called:
A) accommodation
b) elision
c) palatalization
d) asimilation
e) loss of plosion
*****
When one of the neighbouring sounds is not realized in rapid or careless
speech this process iscalled:
a) loss of plosion
b) palatalization
c) elision
d) accommodation
e) assimilation
*****
Complete, partial and intermediate are:
a) the direction of assimilation
b) the degrees of assimilation
c) the aspects of assimilation
d) the types of assimilation
e) the functions of assimilation
*****
What directions of assimilation do you know?
a) double and regressive
b) regressive and reciprocal
c) progressive, regressive and reciprocal
d) progressive and reciprocal
e) progressive and regressive
*****
Assimilation which took place at an earlier stage of the language is called:
a) regressive
b) progressive
c) complete
d) historical
e) living
*****
Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present-day
pronunciation is called:
a) progressive
b) complete
c) regressive
d) historical
e) living
*****
What pronunciation must prevailing teaching norm in schools and
colleges?
a) Midwestern American English
b) General Received Pronunciation
c) British Received Pronunciation
d )American English
e) Standard Scottish Pronunciation
*****
GLOSSARY OF TERMINOLOGY
Accent – 1) a variety of a language which is distinguished from others

exclusively in terms of pronunciation, type of pronunciation, that is the way
sounds, stress, rhythm and intonation are used in the given language community.
Accommodation – modifications of consonants under the influence of the
neighbouring vowels and vice versa; the process of mutual influence of
consonants and vowels, e.g. in /tu:/ /t/ is labialized under the influence of /u:/
and /u:/ is a little bit advanced under the influence of /t/.
Acoustics – the study of the physical properties of sound.
Acoustic Phonetics – science which studies the way in which the air vibrates
between the speaker’s mouth and the listener’s ear.. It is concerned with the
physical properties of speech sounds and uses special technologies to measure
speech signals.
Affricates – noise consonants produced with a complete obstruction which is
slowly released and the air stream escapes from the mouth with some friction;
an affricate starts as a plosive, but instead of ending with plosion, ends with a
fricative made in the same place. English /ʧ,ʤ/ are affricates.
Allophones – variants of a phoneme, usually occur in different positions in the
word, cannot contrast with each other and are not used to differentiate the
meaning. Allophones of a certain phoneme are speech sounds which are
realizations of one and the same phoneme and which therefore, cannot
distinguish words.
Allophonic transcription – a type of transcription which is based on the
principle “one symbol per allophone“. This transcription provides a special sign
for each variant of each phoneme. A phoneme is reflected in this transcription as
a unity of all its allophones. The symbols of an allophonic transcription are
usually placed between square brackets [ ].
Allophonic variation of phonemes – variation which is conditioned by
phonetic position and phonetic environment.
Alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the alveolar
ridge.
Alveolar-palatal – post-alveolar consonant made with considerable raising of
the front of the tongue, making it equivalent to a palatalized palato-alveolar.
American English – the national variant of the English language spoken in the
USA.
Apical consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against either the
upper teeth or the alveolar ridge. English /t, d, s, z, ɵ, ð, ʃ, ʒ, ʤ, ʧ, n, l/.
Approximant – a class of consonant produced with little obstruction to the flow
of air. An articulation in which one articulator is close to another but without the
tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent air-stream is produced. In
many forms of English, /j, l, r, w/ are approximants.
Applied Phonetics – a branch of phonetics used for practical purposes.
Articulation – coordinated movements of speech organs in the process of
speech.
Articulation basis of the language – articulatory and phonational habits
characteristic of all the native speakers of a language are called the articulation
basis of the language.
Articulator – part of the vocal tract with which we produce speech sounds; used
as a reference point for classifying consonants.
Articulatory phonetics– also Physiological Phonetics, is concerned with the
description and classification of speech sounds articulated by the speech
apparatus.
Ascending scale – gradual rising of the voice pitch.
Ascending head – a type of head in which syllables form an ascending
sequence.
Aspects of a phoneme – a phoneme is a dialectical unity of three aspects: 1)
material, real and objective; 2) abstract and generalized; 3) functional.
Aspiration – a period of voicelessness after the release of articulation, as in
English pie [pʰaɪ]; a slight puff of breath which is heard after the explosion of /p,
t, k/ in initial position.
Assimilation – the modification of a consonant by a neighbouring consonant in
the speech chain. It is the result of coarticulation, when one sound is made
similar to its neighbor; in English it mainly affects the place of articulation. e.g.:
̩tenˈ men → ̩temˈ men. It can be progressive, regressive or reciprocal.
Attitudinal function – this function is performed by intonation, when the
speaker expresses his attitude to what he is saying, by intonation alone, e.g.: low
fall – lack of interest: ˎHave you? high fall – surprise: ˋIs she?
Back-advanced vowels are produced with the bulk of the tongue in the back
part of the mouth, but somewhat advanced while the back part of the tongue is
raised in the direction of the front part of the soft palate.
Back vowels are produced with the bulk of the tongue in the back part of the
mouth while the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate,
forming an empty space in the front part of the mouth. The vowels [u:, ʊ, ɒ, ɔ:,
ɑ:] form a set of back reference vowels.
Backlingual consonants are articulated by the back of the tongue against the
soft palate.
Back vowels are produced with the bulk of the tongue in the back part of the
mouth while the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate,
forming an empty space in the front part of the mouth.
BBC English – BBC accent (BBC English) – the accent used by most English-
born announcers and news-readers on serious BBC radio and television
channels; proposed as a standard accent for the description of the English
spoken in England: cf. Received Pronunciation (RP).
Bicentral consonants – consonants articulated with two centres of complete or
incomplete obstruction: /w, l, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ/.
Bilabial consonants are articulated by the two lips, as in English /m/ in my.
Bilabial consonants are: /p,w, b, m/..
British English – the national variant of the English language spoken in Great
Britain.
Broad transcription – also phonemic transcription, provides special symbols
for all the phonemes of a language.
Broad variations – a subclass of the vertical position of the tongue which in
this case is placed slightly lower in the mouth cavity.
Cacuminal consonants are articulated by the tongue tip raised against the back
part of the alveolar ridge.
Cardinal vowels – a set of vowels devised by phoneticians (first defined by
Daniel Jones) as a standard or reference set of vowels that do not belong to any
one language. The vowels of any language can be described by stating their
relations to the cardinal vowels.
Central vowels – sounds articulated when the central part of the tongue is raised
towards the juncture between the hard and soft palate.
Checked vowels are those which are pronounced without any lessening the
force of utterance towards their end. They have, therefore, a strong end. They
end abruptly and are interrupted by the consonant immediately following.
Therefore, they can only occur in a close syllable.
Checkness – a vowel property which depends on the character of articulatory
transition from a vowel to a consonant.
Close (high) vowels are those which are produced when one of the parts of the
tongue comes close to the roof of the mouth and the airpassage is narrowed, but
not so much as to form a consonant.
Close transition – articulation of two neighbouring sounds when the first stage
of the second sound takes place already during the medial stage of the first
sound.
Close vowels – sounds articulated when the tongue is raised high towards the
hard palate.
Closed syllable – a syllable which ends in a consonant, as the first syllables in
English country, magpie, banter.
Coarticulation – the overlap of the articulatory movements for adjacent sounds,
causing modifications to those sounds. See also assimilation.
Coda – one or more phonemes that follow the syllabic phoneme; the consonants
occurring after the vowel in a syllable.
Combinatory allophones – variants of a phoneme which appear in speech as a
result of assimilation and adaptation or of the specific ways of joining sounds
together.
Commutation method – one of the basic methods of phonemic investigation,
which consists in the discovery of minimal pairs.
Commutation test – the procedure of substituting a sound for another sound in
the same phonetic environment with the aim of establishing the phonemic
system of a language.
Comparative phonetics – a branch of phonetics which is concerned with the
comparative study of the phonetic systems of two or more languages, especially
kindred ones.
Complete assimilation – assimilation when one of the two adjacent sounds
fully coincides with the other. For example: less sugar /leʃ ˈʃugə/.
Complete obstruction is formed when two organs of speech come in contact
with each other and the air-passage through the mouth is blocked. Consonant –
a sound made with air stream that meets an obstruction in the mouth or nasal
cavities. It is usually found at the beginning or end of a syllable rather than in
the middle of it.
Constitutive function of speech sounds – the function to constitute the material
forms of morphemes, words and sentences.
Constrictive consonants are produced with an incomplete obstruction, that is
by a narrowing of the air-passage. /f, ɵ, s, ʃ, h/, /v, ð, z, ʒ/; /w, l, r, j/ (constrictive
sonants).
Conversational style – also Familiar style, a style of speech used in everyday
communication.
Coronal – sounds articulated with the tip or blade of the tongue raised toward
the teeth or the alveolar ridge (or, sometimes, the hard palate), such as [ʧ, ʤ, s,
t].
Dark sound – the sound which is made harder due to additional articulatory
work – the raising of the back part of the tongue to the soft palate (back
secondary focus), [w] and [ł] “dark” are pronounced with the back secondary
focus.
Delimitation – segmentation of speech into phrases and intonation groups.
Dental consonants are articulated against the upper teeth with the tip, or with
the blade of the tongue.
Descending head (scale) – a type of head (scale) in which syllables form a
descending sequence; gradual lowering of the voice pitch.
Descriptive phonetics studies the contemporary phonetic system of a language,
i.e. the system of its pronunciation, and gives a description of all the phonetic
units of this language.
Devoicing – a process that results in a voiced consonant being pronounced as
voiceless.
Diaphonic variation of phonemes – variation which affects the quality and
quantity of particular phonemes. It is caused by concrete historical tendencies
active in certain localities.
Dialect –a form of a language that is spoken in a particular area, a variety of
language which differs from others in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation:
cf. accent.National language – a language of a nation and its literature.
Diphthong – a complex sound consisting of two vowel elements pronounced so
as to form a single syllable. In its pronunciation the organs of speech start in the
position of one vowel and glide gradually in the direction of another vowel,
whose full formation is generally not accomplished. The first element of an
English diphthong is called the nucleus, it is strong, clear and distinct; the
second element is rather weak, it is called the glide.
Diphthongization – slight shifting of the position of the organs of speech within
the articulation of one and the same vowel (these organs are mostly – the
tongue, the lips and the lower jaw). Diphthongization changes the quality of the
sound during its articulation.
Diphthongoid – a vowel articulated when the change in the tongue position is
fairly weak,in this case the articulated vowel is not pure, but it still consists of
one element. In English /i:/ and /u:/ are diphthongoids.
Direct methods – methods of phonetic investigation which consist in observing
the movements and positions of one’s own or other people’s organs of speech in
pronouncing various speech sounds, as well as in analyzing one’s own
kinaesthetic sensations during the articulation of speech sounds and in
comparing them with the resultant auditory impressions.
Discourse – language seen from the point of view of information structure, the
interaction between language users, and the background knowledge which
speakers and hearers share.
Distinctive (relevant) features – the articulatory features which form the
invariant of the phoneme.
Distinctive function of speech sounds – it is manifested most conspicuously in
minimal pairs when the opposition of speech sounds is the only phonetic means
of distinguishing one member of that pair from the other.
Distributional analysis – a method that helps to establish the distribution of
speech sounds, i.e. all the positions or combinations in which each speech sound
of a given language occurs (or does not occur) in the words of the language.
Dorsal – sounds produced when the blade of the tongue is active. Dorsal sounds
are articulated with the back of the tongue.
Dorsum – the back of the tongue.
Duration – the quantity of time during which the same vibratory motion, the
same patterns of vibration are maintained.
Dynamic stress – force accent based mainly on the expiratory effort.
Dynamic stress – force stress based mainly on the expiratory effort.
Elision – the process when one of the neighbouring sounds is not realized in
rapid or careless speech (complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants.
It is likely to be minimal in slow careful speech and maximal in rapid relaxed
colloquial forms of speech).For example: ’tis instead of it is, th’ eternal instead
of the eternal.
Emphasis – combination of the expressive means of the language to single out
emphatic words, groups of words or whole sentences.
Enclitic – unstressed words or syllables which refer to the preceding stressed
word or syllable. Together with the stressed word enclitics form one phonetic
unit.
Epenthesis – the insertion of one or more sounds in the middle of a word, such
as the pronunciation of sense as /sents/.
Estuary English – a variety of modified regional speech, a mixture of non-
regional and local south-eastern English pronunciation and intonation. Estuary
English speakers place themselves “between Cockney and the Queen”.
Experimental Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which deals with research
work carried out with the help of different technical devices for measurements
and for instrumental analysis.
Expiratory, or chest pulse theory – it defines the syllable as a sound or a group
of sounds that are pronounced in one chest pulse, accompanied by increases in
air pressure. According to this definition, there are as many syllables in a word
as there are chest pulses (expirations) made during the utterance of the word.
Explosion – noise made by the air, when it is suddenly released through a
complete obstruction. The sounds /p, t, k/ are pronounced with a plosion, or
explosion.
Fall – lowering of the voice pitch within a stressed syllable.

Familiar style – see Conversational style.
Feature – a component of a sound that may itself be composed of other features
or may be a terminal feature. Each terminal feature specifies a limited set of
discrete phonetic possibilities with specific phonetic properties.Features of the
Fixed stress – this type of stress which is characterized by the fixed position.
Flap – a very brief speech sound in which the tongue tip is drawn back, then
flicked forward against the alveolar ridge.
Forelingual consonants are articulated by the blade of the tongue, the blade
with the tip or by the tip against the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge. For
example: /t, d, n/ are forelingual consonants.
Formally distributional method (distributional method) of phonological
analysis – it consists in grouping all the sounds pronounced by native speakers
into phonemes according to the two laws of phonemic and allophonic
distribution: 1) Allophones of different phonemes occur in the same phonetic
context. 2) Allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic
context. If more or less different sounds occur in the same phonetic context they
should be allophones of different phonemes. Their distribution is contrastive . If
more or less similar speech sounds occur in different positions and never occur
in the same phonetic context they are allophones of one and the same phoneme.
Their distribution is complement a r y. There are also free variants of a single
phoneme (e.g. калоши– галошиin Russian).
Formant – a group of overtones corresponding to a resonating frequency of the
air in the vocal tract. One of the bands or peaks of energy (the result of the vocal
tract acting as a filter) which give a vowel or vowel-like sound its characteristic
quality. Vowels are characterized by three formants: F1, F2, F3.
Fortis consonants – voiceless consonants pronounced with strong muscular
tension and strong expiratory effect.
Free variants – variants of a single phoneme which occur in a language but the
speakers are inconsistent in the way they use them, as for example in the case of
the Russian words “галоши/калоши”.
Free vowel – a weak vowel followed by a weak (lenis) voiced consonant or by
no consonant at all.
Free word-stress – the type of stress which is characterized by the free
accidence of the word stress.
Frequency – a number of vibrations per second; in acoustics, the measure of
how many times per second a pattern of vibration is repeated. See also pitch.
Fricative – constrictive noise consonants articulated when the air escapes with
friction through the narrowing formed by speech organs. Fricative consonants
are made by obstructing the flow of air enough to create a hissing noise at a
particular place in the vocal tract. Narrowing of the distance between two
articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and a turbulent airflow is
produced, as in English [z] in zoo.
Front vowels – vowels in the production of which the body of the tongue is in
the front part of the mouth cavity and the front of the tongue is raised. The
vowels /i:, ɪ, e, æ/ and the nuclei of the diphthongs /eɪ, ɛə/ are front.
Front-retracted vowels – vowels produced with the body of the tongue in the
front but retracted position in the mouth cavity.
Functional Phonetics – the branch of phonetics which studies the purely
linguistic aspect of speech sounds. See Phonology.
“Functional” view of the phoneme – it regards the phoneme as the minimal
sound unit by which meanings may be differentiated without much regard to
actually pronounced speech sounds. Meaning differentiation is taken to be a
defining characteristic of phonemes. The functional approach extracts non-
distinctive features from the phonemes thus divorcing the phoneme from
actually pronounced speech sounds.
Functions of the phoneme – in speech a phoneme performs three functions:
distinctive, constitutive and identificatory (recognitive); they are inseparable. 1)
The phoneme performs the constitutive function because in their material form
they constitute morphemes, words, all of which are meaningful. 2) The phoneme
performs the distinctive function because phonemes distinguish one word from
another. 3) On account of the fact that native speakers identify definite
combinations of phonemes as meaningful linguistic units (words, word
combinations, or phrases), linguists distinguish a third function of the phoneme
– identificatory ( or recognitive) function of the phoneme.
Functions of prosody – the prosody of the utterance performs a number of
functions, the basic of which are constitutive, distinctive and identificatory. 1)
The constitutive function is to form utterances as communicative units. Prosody
unifies words into utterances, thus giving the latter the final form without which
they cannot exist. A succession of words arranged syntactically
is not a communicative unit until a certain prosodic pattern is attached to it. 2)
The distinctive function of prosody manifests itself in several particular
functions, depending on the meaning which is differentiated. These are
communicative-distinctive, modal-distinctive, culminative (“theme –rheme”)
distinctive, syntactical-distinctive and stylistic-distinctive functions. 3) The
identificatory function of prosody is to provide a basis for the hearer’s
identification of the communicative and modal type of an utterance, its semantic
and syntactical structure with the situation of the discourse.
Functions of the syllable – as a phonological unit the syllable performs several
functions, that may be combined into the main three: constitutive, distinctive
and identificatory: 1) The constitutive function of the syllable manifests itself in
the fact that the syllable forms higher level units – words, accentual or rhythmic
groups, utterances. 2) The distinctive function of the syllable is to differentiate
words and word combinations. 3) The identificatory function of the
syllable is conditioned by the hearer’s perception of syllables as entire phonetic
units with their concrete allophones and syllable boundaries.
Functions of word stress – 1) Words stress has a constitutive function, as it
molds syllables into a word by forming its stress pattern. Without a definite
stress pattern a word ceases to be a word and becomes a sequence of syllables.
2) Word stress has a distinctive function in English, because there exist different
words in English with analogous sound structure which are differentiated in
speech only by their stress patterns (e.g., insult, abstract, accent). 3) Word stress
has an identificatory function because the stress patterns of words enable people
to identify definite combinations of sounds as meaningful linguistic units. A
distortion of the stress patterns may hamper understanding or produce a strange
accent.
Fundamental frequency – the lowest frequency that can be found in a periodic
wave form. In speech, this is almost always the frequency of vibration of the
vocal folds. See also pitch.
Geminate – adjacent segments that are the same, such as the two consonants in
the middle of English penknife [nn].
General American – the national standard of the English language spoken in
the USA.
General Phonetics – a branch of phonetics that studies all the sound-producing
possibilities of the human speech apparatus and the ways they are used for
purposes of human communication by means of language. General phonetics
studies the complex nature of phonetic phenomena and
formulates phonetic laws and principles.
Glide – the second weak element of English diphthongs. For example: /ɪ/ and /ə/
in /aɪ, eɪ,ɪə, ɛə/ are glides.
Glottal – the place of articulation of consonants produced with the vocal folds
in the larynx; an articulation involving the glottis, as [ʔ] button [bʌʔn]; sounds
articulated in the glottis.
Glottal stop – a sound heard when the glottis opens suddenly and produces an
explosion resembling a short cough.
Glottis – the opening between the vocal cords, through which the air passes.
Hard palate – the bony structure that forms the roof of the front part of the
mouth.
Head (Scale) – part of the intonation-group, contains stressed syllables
preceding the nucleus with the intervening unstressed syllables. The functions of
the head are to express relations between its constituent units – rhythmic groups
and to convey modal-stylistic meanings.
Height of the tongue – the height to which the bulk of the tongue is raised and
which determines the level of the raised bulk of the tongue: high, mid, or low.
Hesitation pause – silent or filled pause mainly used in spontaneous speech to
gain time to think over what to say next.
Historical assimilation – assimilation which took place at an earlier stage in the
history of the language (sound changes which are the result of the historical
development of the language).
Historical phonetics – a branch of phonetics, which studies phonetic
components on the diachronic level; it is a part of the history of language, which
studies the history of the development of the phonetic laws.
I
Idiolect – individual speech of members of the same language community.

Idiolectal variation of the phonemes – variation which embraces the individual
peculiarities of articulating sounds, which are caused by the shape and form of
the speaker’s speech organs and by his/her articulatory habits.
Indicate,verb/ˈɪndɪkeɪt/ - to show, point, or make clear in another way
Informational style – a style of speech used by radio and television announcers
conveying information or in various official situations.
Instrumental methods – methods of phonetic investigation based upon
registering or computing machines and technical devices.
Intensity – a property of a sound produced by the amplitude of vibrations.
Intensity is the amount of acoustic energy in a sound; often used informally as
synonymous with amplitude, to which it is closely related.
Interdental – sounds articulated with the tip of the tongue projected between
the teeth: /ɵ,ð/.
Intermediate assimilation – the process when the assimilated consonant
changes into a different sound, but does not coincide with the articulating
consonant. Living assimilation – assimilation which occurs in everyday speech
in the present day pronunciation.
International Phonetic Alphabet – a set of symbols adopted by the
International Phonetic Association as a universal system for the transcription of
speech sounds.
Intonation is a component of the phonetic structure which is viewed in the
narrow meaning as pitch variations, or speech melody.
Intonation group – an actualized syntagm; the part of an utterance over which a
particular intonation pattern extends. Structurally the intonation group has some
obligatory formal characteristics. These are the nuclear stress, on the
semantically most important word and the terminal tone (i.e. pitch variations on
the nucleus and the tail if any). The boundaries between intonation groups are
marked by tonal junctures and pauses. All these features shape the intonation
group, delimit one intonation group from another and show its relative semantic
importance. The
intonation group is a meaningful unit. The most general meanings expressed by
the intonation group are, for instance, those of completeness, finality versus
incompleteness, non-finality.
Intonation pattern – pitch movements together with__loudness and the tempo
of speech extending over an intonation group.
Intonation style – a complex of interrelated intonational means which is used in
a social situation and serves a definite aim of communication.
Intonogramme – the picture of the sound wave of a syllable, word or an
utterance received with the help of intonograph.
Intonograph – a technical device which gives pictures of sound waves of
syllables, words and utterances.
Invariant of the phoneme – allophones of each phoneme possess a bundle of
distinctive features, that make this phoneme functionally different from all other
phonemes of the language concerned. This functionally relevant bundle of
articulatory features is called the invariant of the phoneme.
Isochronous – a property of rhythm which identifies it as being composed of
equal intervals of time.
Juncture – the place, where two sounds or words are joined together.
Juncture phoneme – the syllabic boundary at the junction of words or
morphemes that can be characterized by distinctive difference, e.g. a name – an
aim. Open or plus juncture is marked by /+/: a + name, an + aim.
Kinetic – relating to motion.

Kinetic tone – a tone of varying pitch which is produced by varying the tension
of the vocal cords. Kinetic tones are generally classified according to the
following criteria: 1) direction of the pitch change; 2) width of the pitch change,
or its interval; 3) relative position of the pitch change within the speaker’s voice
range. Besides giving prominence to a word, kinetic tones perform a number of
other functions pertaining to the overall communicative meaning of an
utterance. They
1) indicate the communicative type of an utterance; 2) express the speaker’s
attitude towards the subject-matter, the listener and the situation; 3) single out
the centre of new information in an utterance or the point of greater semantic
importance as viewed by the speaker.
Labial – an articulation involving one or both lips, such as [f, v, m]; sounds
articulated by the lips.
Labial velar (labiovelar) – an articulation involving simultaneous action of the
back of the tongue forming a velar closure and the lips forming a bilabial
closure.
Labialization – a secondary articulation in which lip rounding is added to a
sound, as in English /ʃ/.
Labiodental – an articulation involving the lower lip and the upper front teeth,
such as in English /f, v/; sounds articulated with the lower lip against the edge of
the upper teeth.
Laminal – an articulation made with the blade of the tongue.
Laryngeal – the region of the vocal tract at the glottis.
Laryngealization – another name for creaky voice, a type of phonation in
which the arytenoid cartilages hold the posterior end of the vocal folds together
so that they can vibrate only at the other end.
Laryngoscope – a special device which helps to observe the vocal cords,
epiglottis and the glottis.
Larynx – part of the vocal tract containing the vocal cords.
Lateral – an articulation in which the airstream flows over the sides of the
tongue, as in the English approximant [l] in leaf; sounds produced when the
sides of the tongue are active.
Lateral plosion – sudden release of air which escapes along the sides of the
tongue; the release of a plosive by lowering the sides of the tongue, as at the end
of the word saddle.
Lax – historically short vowels in the articulation of which muscular tension of
speech organs is weak. In English, the lax vowels are those that occur in
monosyllables closed by [ŋ] such as sing, length, hang, long, hung.
Lenis consonants – voiced consonants pronounced with weak muscular tension:
/b, d, z, g, v, ð, ʒ, ʤ/
Level tone – the tone neutral in its communicative function, which is used
mostly in poetry.
Linguistic phonetics – See phonology.
Lip rounding – a position of the lips when their corners a brought toward one
another so that the mouth opening is reduced.
Liquid – a cover term for laterals and various forms of r-sounds.
Locus – the apparent point of origin of the formants for each place of
articulation.
Long vowels – in English they are /i:, ɑ:, ɔ:, ɜ:, u:/
Loose transition – articulation of two neighbouring sounds when the final stage
of the first sound is not affected
Loudness – the intensity of sound is produced by the amplitude of vibrations;
the auditory property of a sound that enables a listener to place it on a scale
going from soft to loud without considering the acoustic properties, such as the
intensity of the sound.
Loudness theory – It was created by N. Zhinkin. According to this theory on
the perception level the syllable is defined as an arc of actual loudness.
Manner of articulation – one of the principles of consonant classifications

which is connected with the type of obstruction to the air stream.
Maximum onsets principle – this principle states that where two syllables are
to be divided, any consonants between them should be attached to the right-hand
syllable, not the left, as far as possible within the restrictions governing syllable
onsets and codas.
Melody – changes in the voice pitch in the process of speech.
Medio-lingual – sounds produced with the front part of the tongue raised high
to the hard palate. English /j/ is medio-lingual.
“Mentalistic” (“psychological”) view of the phoneme – the “mentalistic” or
“psychological” view regards the phoneme as an ideal “mental image” or a
target at which the speaker aims. Actually pronounced speech sounds are
imperfect realizations of the phoneme existing in the mind but not in the reality.
Allophones of the same phoneme cannot be alike because of the influence of the
phonetic context.
Method of distinctive oppositions enables to prove whether the phonetic
difference is relevant or not.
Method of minimal pairs – the discovery of as many pairs of words as
possible, that differ in one phoneme. It is based on the substitution of one sound
for another, commutation.
Minimal pair – a pair of words or morphemes which are differentiated by one
sound only in the same position. The pair pill – bill is minimal, because its
members are differentiated due to /p – b/ phonemes, their fortis /p/ lenis /b/
distinctions.
Model of a phonetic style – the set of stylistically marked modifications of all
the prosodic features represents the model of a particular phonetic style.
Modifications of sounds – positional and combinatory changes of sounds in
connected speech.
Monophthong – a pure (unchanging) vowel sound. In its pronunciation the
organs of speech do not perceptibly change their position throughout the
duration of the vowel. English monophthongs are /ɪ, e, ӕ, ɑ:, ɒ, ʊ, ʌ, ɜ:, ə/.
Monotone – equal tone, lacking the necessary variations in the voice pitch.
Morphonology (Morphophonemics) – the branch of phonetics which studies
the
relationship between phonemes and morphemes. It is concerned with the way in
which sounds can alternate as different realization of one and the same
morpheme.
Motor theory of speech perception – the notion that listeners perceive some
aspects of an utterance by reference to their own activities, considering what
they would have to do in order to make similar sounds.
Mouth cavity – the cavity between the teeth and the pharynx.
Mutual assimilation – bilateral assimilation, when two assimilating sounds
equally influence each other. For example, bilateral assimilation of /s/ + /j/
results in /ʃ/: issue /ˈɪsju: - ˈɪʃʃu: - ˈɪʃu:/.
Narrow transcription – also Phonetic transcription, provides special symbols

for all the allophones of the same phoneme. It shows phonetic details (such as,
in English, aspiration, length, etc.) by using a wide variety of symbols and, in
many cases, diacritics.
Narrow variations – a subclass of the vertical positions of the tongue which in
this case is raised slightly higher in the mouth cavity.
Nasal consonants are produced with the soft palate lowered while the air-
passage through the mouth is blocked. As a result, the air escapes through the
nasal cavity.
Nasal cavity – the cavity inside the nose which is separated from the mouth
cavity with the soft palate and the uvula.
Nasalization – modification of a speech sound (usually a vowel) resulting in
some of the flow of air being allowed to escape through the nose, as in the
vowel [æ] between nasals in English man.
Nasal plosion – sudden release of air by lowering the soft palate so that the air
escapes through the nose, as at the end of the word hidden. It takes place in the
combinations like /tn, dn/.
Nasal stop – a complete stoppage of the oral cavity so that the airstream passes
only through the nose. Usually nasal stops are simply called nasals.
Nasal vowel – a vowel in which part of the airstream passes out through the
nose.
National variant – the language of a nation, the standard of its form, the
language of its nation’s literature.
Nucleus of an intonation group – the last stressed syllable of a sense group.
Neutral vowel – a mid central vowel /ə/, also schwa.
Neutralization – the loss of qualitative and quantitative characteristics of
vowels in unstressed positions.
Noise consonants are those in the production of which noise prevails over tone.
Non-distinctive (irrelevant, redundant) features – the articulatory features
which do not serve to distinguish meaning; for instance, it is impossible in
English to oppose an aspirated [p] to a non-aspirated one in the same phonetic
context to distinguish meanings. That is why aspiration is a non-distinctive
feature of English consonants.
Normative Phonetics – see Practical Phonetics.
Notation – another term for Transcription.
Nuclear tone – a significant change of pitch direction on the last strongly
accented syllable in an intonation pattern.
Nucleus – 1) the last strongly accented syllable in an intonation pattern; 2) the
most prominent part of a diphthong; 3) the centre of a syllable, usually a vowel.
Obstructer mechanism – a group of speech organs which form obstructions

during articulation of consonants, it includes tongue, lips, hard and soft palate
and teeth.
Occlusive – sounds produced when a complete obstruction to the air stream is
formed,the air-passage in the mouth cavity is blocked. Occlusive consonants are
1) /p, b, t, d, k, g/ – stop or plosives and 2) sonorants /m, n, ŋ/ – nasals.
Occlusive-constrictive – consonants in the production of which the obstruction
is complete at the beginning of production, then it becomes incomplete. Also:
affricates.
Onset – sounds that precede the nucleus of a syllable. Also: the first stressed
syllable in a tone-group (intonation group).
Open syllable – a syllable which ends in a vowel; a syllable without a
consonant at the end – CV-type, as the first syllables in English layman, seagull.
Open vowels – vowels produced when the tongue is in the low part of the
mouth cavity, e.g. [ɑ:]; cf. close vowels. Open or low vowels in English are: /ӕ,
ʌ, ɒ, a(ɪ, ʊ), ɑ:/.
Oral consonants are produced when the soft palate is raised and the air escapes
through the mouth.
Oral stop – complete stoppage of both the oral and nasal cavities, as in [b, d, g].
Oratorical style – the type of speech with which orators address large
audiences. It is characterized by slow rate, eloquent and moving traits.
Organs of speech are divided into movable and fixed. The movable speech
organs take an active part in the articulation of speech sounds and are called
active organs of speech. The fixed speech organs with which the active organs
form obstruction are called passive organs of speech. They serve as points of
articulation. The organs of speech together with biological functions, such as
breathing, feeding, smelling and tasting serve to carry out intercommunication
through the elaborate work of the four mechanisms: the power, the vibrator, the
resonator, the obstructor.
Orthoepic norm of a language – the standard pronunciation adopted by native
speakers as the right and proper way of speaking. It comprises the variants of
pronunciation of vocabulary units and prosodic patterns which reflect the main
tendencies in pronunciation that exist in the language. It is used by the most
educated part of the population.
Orthoepy – the correct pronunciation of the words of a language. The
interpretation of the rules of reading cannot be done without a good command of
phonetics. This fact makes grammar and lexicology dependent on phonetics.
Palatal – an articulation involving the front of the tongue and the hard palate, as
in English [j] in you; sounds produced with the front part of the tongue raised
high to the hard palate.
Palatalization – softening of consonants due to the raised position of the middle
part of the tongue towards the hard palate; a secondary articulation in which the
front of the tongue is raised toward the hard palate, as in the so-called “soft
sounds” in Russian.
Palate – also known as the “hard palate” or the “roof of the mouth”; the upper
surface of the mouth where there is bone beneath the skin: cf. soft palate.
Palato-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip and blade of the tongue
against the alveolar ridge or the back part of the alveolar ridge, while the front of
the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate. , thus having two places
of articulation (two foci). Palato-alveolarconsonants are /ʃ, ʒ/.
Paralinguistic feature – a type of feature that forms part of prosody; generally
considered to be outside the set of phonological contrasts of a language.
Pause – a short period of time when sound stops before starting again. Pauses
are nonobligatory between sense-groups (intonation-groups) and obligatory
between sentences. It is the main function of a pause to segment connected
speech into utterances and intonation groups to delimit one utterance or
intonation group from another.
Pauses of perception – they are not a stop in phonation as there is no period of
silence. The effect of a pause is produced by a sharp change of pitch direction,
or by variation in duration, or both.
Peaks of prominence – the points of maximal acoustic activity of tone.
Perceptual Phonetics – see Auditory Phonetics.
Periodic – in acoustics, a pattern of vibration which repeats itself at regular
intervals; typical of vowels.
Periodicity – the quality or fact of recurring at constant intervals.
Pharyngeal – the place of articulation of a consonant formed by constricting the
pharynx. An articulation involving the root of the tongue and the back wall of
the pharynx.
Pharyngealization – a secondary articulation in which the root of the tongue is
drawn back so that the pharynx is narrowed.
Pharynx – the part of the throat which connects the larynx to the upper part of
the vocal tract.
Phonation – voicing, the vibration of the vocal cords.
Phone – a sound realized in speech and which bears some individual, stylistic
and social characteristics of the speaker.
Phoneme – a minimal abstract linguistic unit realized in speech in the form of
speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish
the meaning of morphemes and words. According to this definition the phoneme
is a unity of three aspects: material, abstract and functional.
Phonemic transcription – a type of transcription which is based on the
principle “one symbol per phoneme”. A phoneme is reflected in this
transcription as an abstraction and generalization. The symbols of a phonemic
transcription are placed within two slanting lines / /.
Phonology – the science that deals with phonemes and their sequences. It is
functional phonetics since it investigates the functional side of phonemes,
accent, syllable, and intonation.
Phonemic – see transcription, phonology. The study of the distinctive sound
units of a language, the patterns they form, and the rules which regulate their
use.
Phonemic component: this component of the phonetic structure manifests itself
in the system of separate phonemes and their allophones. Phonemic
neutralization – the loss of one or more distinctive features of a phoneme in the
weak position.
Phonemic transcription – see broad transcription.
Phonetic mistakes – if an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by another
allophone of the phoneme the mistake is called phonetic. It happens when the
invariant of the phoneme is not modified and consequently the meaning of the
word is not affected
Phonetic oppositions – comparison of sounds, words and morphemes in order
to single out their minimal distinctive features.
Phonetic styles (styles of pronunciation) – different ways of pronunciation,
caused by extralinguistic factors and characterized by definite phonetic features.
Phonetic style-forming means – each phonetic style is characterized by a
specific combination of certain segmental and prosodic features. Segmental
style-forming means are: the degree of assimilation, reduction, elision. Prosodic
style-forming means are: departure from a norm of loudness, tonal variation,
variations of pitch levels, departure from a normal tempo, pauses.
Phonetic system – a systemic combination of five components of the language,
i.e. the system of segmental phonemes, the phonemic component, the syllabic
component, the accentual component (relating to accent – stress and pitch
combined), intonation.
Phonetic transcription – see narrow transcription.
Phonetics – a branch of linguistics which is concerned with human noises by
which the thought is actualized. Phonetics analyses the nature of these noises,
their combinations and their functions in relation to the meaning.
Phonological analysis – analysis whose aim is to determine which differences
of sounds are phonemic / non-phonemic and to find the inventory of the
phonemes of this or that language.
Phonological mistakes – mistakes connected with the alteration of the meaning
of words, which prevent communication. If an allophone of some phoneme is
replaced by an allophone of a different phoneme the mistake is called
phonological, because the meaning is inevitably affected. It happens when one
ore more relevant features of the phoneme are not realized. For example,
mispronunciation of /ɵ/ may lead to the confusion of thought – fought, think –
sink, mouth – mouse, etc.
Phonological opposition – a pair of words in which any one phoneme is usually
opposed to any other phoneme in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or
subminimal pair, e. g. /t – d/, /k – g/ in ten – den, coat – goat.
Phonology (Functional Phonetics, Linguistic Phonetics) – the branch of
phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and vowel sounds,
syllabic structure, word accent and prosodic features, such as pitch, loudness and
tempo; the branch of phonetics that is concerned with the social functions of
different phonetic phenomena; the description of the system and patterns of
sounds that occur in a language.
Phonosemantics – a branch of psycholinguistics that studies the relations
between the sound structure of a word and its meaning.
Phonostylistics – a branch of phonetics that studies the way phonetic means of
the language function in various oral realizations of the language. It is concerned
with the identification of the style-forming means, i.e. the phonetic features that
enable the native speaker to distinguish intuitively between different styles of
pronunciation.
Phonotactics – the study of the possible phoneme combinations of a language.
Phrase ,noun |freɪz|– is a small group of words that adds meaning to a sentence.
A phrase is not a sentence because it is not a complete idea with a subject, verb
and a predicate.
“Physical” view of the phoneme – it regards the phoneme as a “family” of
related sounds satisfying certain conditions: 1) The various members of the
“family” must show phonetic similarity to one another, in other words be related
in character. 2) No member of the “family” may occur in the same phonetic
context as any other.
Physiological Phonetics – see Articulatory Phonetics.
Pitch – the auditory characteristic of a sound, it corresponds to the fundamental
frequency (the rate of vibrations of the vocal cords). The pitch component of
intonation, or speech melody, is commonly referred to as variations in the height
of the voice during speech, and is generally described in terms of pitch-changes
and levels.
Pitch-accent – a distinctive pitch level or pitch movement which makes a
syllable seem strongly stressed.
Pitch level – a particular height of pitch.
Pitch range – the interval between two pitch levels or two differently pitched
syllables or parts of a syllable. According to circumstances the speaker changes
his/her voice range. It may be widened or narrowed to express emphasis or the
speaker’s attitudes and emotions.
Place of articulation – part of the standard way of classifying consonants, this
refers to the place in the vocal tract where the air stream is obstructed.
According to this principle the English consonants are classed into: 1) labial; 2)
lingual; 3) glottal.
Plosion – short burst of noise produced by the escape of compressed air when
the closure of a plosive consonant is released
Plosive consonants (stops)– consonants produced when the air stream is
completely stopped for a short time,also stops. Plosive consonants are /p, b, t, d,
k, g, m, n, ŋ/.
Positional allophones – variants of a phoneme which are used in definite
positions due to the tradition of a language pronunciation, e.g. dark and light /l/.
Post-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the
back part of the alveolar ridge.
Power mechanism – a group of speech organs which supplies energy for sound
production, it includes lungs, diaphragm, windpipe, bronchi.
Practical Phonetics (applied phonetics) – all the practical applications of
phonetics; a branch of phonetics which teaches how to pronounce sounds
correctly and what intonation to use to convey this or that meaning or emotion.
It is called Normative Phonetics because it teaches the “norm” of English
pronunciation.
Pragmalinguistics – a branch of linguistics that studies what linguistic means
and ways of influence on a hearer to choose in order to bring about certain
effects in the process of communication.
Pragmaphonetics – a branch of Pragmalinguistics whose domain is to analyse
the functioning and speech effects of the sound system of a language.
Pragmatic function of intonation – it consists in the use of intonation with
specific purpose. In other words, when used in discourse, intonation serves to
actualize the speaker’s pragmatic aim.
Pre-head – the unstressed syllables which precede the first stressed syllable of
the head. The pre-head is normally pronounced on the low or mid pitch level. If
it is pronounced on a pitch somewhat higher than the normal pitch (High
Irregular Prehead) or somewhat low (Low Irregular Pre-head) the utterance
acquires emphasis and emotional connotations. Pause – a short period of time
when sound stops before starting again.
Primary stress – the stress which is the strongest compared with the other
stresses used in a word.
Principal allophone – that variant of a phoneme which is considered to be free
from the influence of the neighboring sounds.
Proclitic – unstressed words or syllables which refer to the following stressed
word or syllable; a monosyllabic word or particle with no accent of his own,
which is pronounced with the following pre-tonic (having secondary stress) or
accented syllable as one phonetic unit.
Progressive assimilation – the process when the first of the two neighbouring
sounds influences the second and makes it similar to itself. For example, the
pronunciation of the suffix –ed of regular verbs is based on progressive voicing
and devoicing: it is pronounced /t/ after voiceless consonants, /d/ after vowels
and voiced consonants, /ɪd/ after /t/, /d/: dropped /drɒpt/, remained /rɪˈmeɪnd/,
extended /ɪksˈtendɪd/.
Prominence – singling out acoustically, which produces the effect of greater
loudness; the extent to which a sound stands out from others because of its
sonority, length, stress, and pitch.
Prosodic norm – there is a prosodic norm in every language which comprises
wellestablished prosodic patterns, used in educated speech, and their stylistic
variants, current in particular styles of pronunciation.
Prosody – a complex unity formed by significant variations of pitch, tempo,
loudness and timbre; non-segmental phenomena regarded as the modifications
of fundamental frequency (the frequency of the vibrations of the vocal cords
over their whole length), intensity and duration at the level of their acoustic
properties. The notion of prosody is broader than the notion of intonation,
whereas prosody of the utterance and intonation are equivalent notions. Prosody
and intonation are characterized by such distinct qualities as stress and pitch
prominence at the level of perception.
Psycholinguistics – a branch of linguistics which covers an extremely broad
area, from acoustic phonetics to language pathology, and includes such
problems as acquisition of language by children, memory, attention, speech
perception, second-language acquisition and so on.
Publicistic style – a style of speech used in public discussions on political,
judicial or economic topics, sermons, parliamentary debates.
Pulmonic – an airstream created by the action of the lungs.
Qualitative – connected with spectral characteristics of a sound.

Quantitative – referring to the length of a sound.
Realization – the physical event of producing a phoneme as audible sound.

Received Pronunciation (RP) – the national standard of the English language
spoken in Great Britain; a name given to the accent used as a standard for
describing British Englishpronunciation for most of the 20th century and still in
use: cf. BBC accent.
Recessive stress – stress that falls on the first syllable or the root of the word if
it is preceded by a prefix that has lost its meaning, e.g. ˋimport, beˋfore.
Recessive tendency – the tendency which consists in gradual shifting of word
accent to the first syllable (which is usually the root of the word).
Reciprocal assimilation – bilateral assimilation, when the neighbouring sounds
are equally affected by assimilation. For example, in the word twice /t/ is
labialized under the influence of /w/, and /w/ in its turn is devoiced under the
influence of /t/.
Reduced vowel – a weakened vowel; a vowel that is pronounced with a
noncontrasting centralized quality, although in the underlying form of a word it
is part of a full set of contrasts. The second vowel in emphasis is a reduced form
of the vowel /ӕ/, as in emphatic.
Reduction – weakening (either qualitative or quantitative) of vowels in
unstressed positions.
Regressive assimilation – the process when the second of the neighbouring
sounds influences the first and makes it similar to it. For example, in the
combination in the /n/ is regressively assimilated by /ð/ and becomes dental and
is pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth (its free variant
is pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the teethridge).
Relative sonority theory, or the prominence theory – It was created by O.
Jespersen. It considers that sounds tend to group themselves according to their
sonority. Pronounced with uniform force, length and pitch, speech sounds differ
in sonority (prominence, audibility or carrying power). The most sonorous
sounds are vowels, less sonorous are sonorants /w, j, r, m, n, ŋ/ and the least
sonorous are noise consonants.
Retentive tendency – this tendency is characterized by the retention of accent in
the derivative on the same syllable on which it falls in the parent word, e.g.
ˈsimilar, asˈsimilate.
Retroflex – an articulation involving the tip of the tongue and the back part of
the alveolar ridge. Speakers of American English have retroflex approximants in
rye and err. This term is traditionally said to refer to a place of articulation of
consonants, but refers, in fact, to the curling backwards of the tip of the tongue,
something which can happen in vowels as well as consonants.
Rhotic – a form of English in which /r/ can occur after a vowel and within a
syllable in words such as car, bird, early. Most forms of Midwestern American
English are rhotic, whereas most forms of English spoken in the southern part of
England are non-rhotic.
Rhythm,noun /ˈrɪðəm/– generally means a "movement marked by the regulated
succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions" ,
recurrence of stressed syllables at more or less equal intervals of time in speech.
Rhythmic (accentual) group – a unit of the rhythmic organization of an
utterance; a speech segment which contains a stressed syllable and a number of
unstressed ones. The most frequent type of an English rhythmic group includes
two-four syllables, one of which is stressed.
Rhythmic tendency – the tendency to alternate stressed and unstressed
syllables. This tendency gave rise to the origin of the secondary stress,
especially in four-syllable words of foreign origin. For example, explanation
/ˌekspləˈneɪʃən/, conversation /ˌkɒnvəˈseɪʃən/.
Rounded vowels are produced when the lips are more or less rounded and
slightly protruded.
Scale – the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables of a syntactic

whole.
Scale of sonority – the arrangement of phonemes according to their degree of
loudness.According to this scale the most sonorous are front low vowels, then
go sonants and voiced consonants. Voiceless consonants are characterized by
minimal sonority.
Schwa – see Neutral vowel.
Scientific style – see Academic style.
Secondary allophones – allophones which undergo some predictable changes
in different phonetic context, also Subsidiary allophones; variants of phonemes
that appear under the influence of neighbouring speech sounds (variants of some
other phonemes) with which they are in complementary distribution. They are
subdivided into combinatory and positional ones.
Secondary articulation – an articulation made by two of the organs of speech
that are not involved in the primary articulation.
Secondary stress – a less strong stress than a primary one, usually precedes the
primary stress in a word. This type of stress which appears in words of five or
more syllables. It falls on the second pretonic syllable.
Segment – in phonetics it is the shortest part of speech continuum – a sound or a
phoneme.
Segmental phoneme – the shortest part of speech continuum that is capable of
differentiating words.
Segmental Phonetics – a division of phonetics which is concerned with
individual sounds (“segments” of speech).
Segmentation – division of speech into phrases and intonation groups.
Semantic center – see Communicative centre.
Semantically distributional method (semantic method) of phonological
analysis – It is based on a phonemic rule, that phonemes can distinguish words
and morphemes when opposed to one another. The semantic method attracts
great significance to meaning. It consists of the systematic substitution of the
sound for another in order to ascertain in which cases where the
phonetic context remains the same such substitution leads to a change of
meaning. This process is called the communication test. It consists in finding
minimal pairs of words and their grammatical form.
Semantic function: in phonetics the term is used in connection with the
distinctive function (semantic role) of phonetic means.
Sentence stress (Utterance stress) – the greater degree of prominence given to
certain words in an utterance. These words are usually nouns, adjectives,
notional verbs and adverbs, interjections, numerals, demonstrative, possessive,
emphasizing pronouns, interrogative words and two-syllable prepositions. The
distribution of sentence stress is determined by the semantic factor.
Short vowels – the vowels having a relatively smaller length, or quantity in
comparison with the long vowels (other conditions remaining the same). Short
English /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ differ from the long /i:/ and /u:/ also in quality.
Sibilant – a speech sound in which there is high-pitched, turbulent noise, as in
English [s] and [ʃ] in sip and ship. In English sibilants are /s, z, ʒ/.
Silent pause – a stop in the phonation (a stop of the work of the vocal cord,
which results in the cessation of sound).
Silent stop – the medial stage in /p, t, k/ articulation that is characterized by the
“loss of plosion” in cases like: past perfect, blackboard, eight days.
Simple tune – an intonation-group corresponding to a grammatical sentence and
marked by specific characteristics of tone, stress and duration, serving to express
semantic completeness and independence – the relevant features of an utterance.
Sociolinguistics – a branch of linguistics that studies aspects of the language
(phonetics, lexis, grammar) with reference to their social functions in the
society. So sociolinguistics explains the language phenomena in connection with
factors outside the language itself in terms of largescale social structure and in
terms of how people use language in communication.
Soft palate – the back, soft part of the hard palate. Another name for the soft
palate is velum.
Sonorants – consonants in the production of which tone prevails over noise
(compare with Noise consonants). Sonorants in English are /m, n, ŋ, l, j, w, r/.
Sonority – a degree of loudness relative to that of other sounds with the same
length, stress and pitch.
Sound – a material unit, produced by speech organs. A sound can be viewed
from the articulatory, acoustic, auditory and functional points of view.
Source – in speech acoustics, sound energy generated by an obstruction to the
flow of air, such as the vibrating vocal folds, which is then modified by the
vocal tract acting as a filter.
Special Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which is concerned with the study of
the phonetic structure of a particular language.
Spectral analysis – the process of mathematically breaking down the complex
waveform of speech sounds into energy at different frequencies to allow detailed
analysis.
Spectrogram – a picture of the spectrum of sounds, their frequency, intensity
and time.
Spectrograph – a device which carries out the spectral analysis of speech.
Speech melody – the variations in the pitch of the voice in connected speech.
Static tone – a tone of unvarying pitch which is produced by keeping the vocal
cords at a constant tension.
Statistical method – a method which helps to establish frequency, probability
and predictability of occurrence of phonemes and their allophones in different
positions.
Staves – two parallel lines for intonation recording (by means of special
symbols).
Stops – see plosives.
Stress – a greater degree of prominence which is caused by loudness, pitch, the
length of a syllable and the vowel quality.
Stressed-timed – a type of speech rhythm which is seen in the regularity in the
intervals between stressed syllables.
Stressed-timed languages – in these languages stressed syllables tend to occur
at relatively regular intervals irrespectively of the number of unstressed syllables
separating them.
Stress pattern of the word (the accentual structure of a word) – the
correlation of degrees of prominence of the syllable in a word forms the stressed
pattern of the word.
Strong form – the form in which a word is pronounced when it is stressed. This
term is usually applied only to words that normally occur unstressed and with a
weak form, such as to and a.
Stress-groups – groups of syllables unified by a stressed syllable. Each stress-
group is a semantic unit.
Strong vowel – the full form of a vowel in the stressed position.
Stylistic modifications – sound changes which happen under the influence of
extralinguistic factors.
Subsidiary allophones – variants of phonemes that appear under the influence
of the neighboring phonemes with which they are in complementary
distribution. They are subdivided into combinatory and positional.
Substitution method – the method of replacing of one speech sound by another
in the same position to see whether it results in a minimal pair, e.g. pen, ten, den.
Supra-segmental phonetics is concerned with the larger units of connected
speech, i.e. syllables, words, phrases, texts.
Supraphaphrasal unity – a totality of intonation groups or utterances, united
by the general subtopic and common intonation key.
Suprasegmental Phonetics – a division of phonetics whose domain is larger
units of connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts.
Syllabic – capable of forming a syllable. Syllabic sounds – sounds that can form
the peaks of prominence.
Syllable – a sound sequence, consisting of a centre which has little or no
obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after
this centre there will be greater obstruction to airflow and less loud sound. A
syllable is a phonological unit consisting of a vowel and any consonants which
form its beginning or end. Syllables seem to be necessary units in the mental
organization and production of utterances.
Syllable pattern – the type of syllable most common for language. English is
characterized by (C)VC syllable pattern and Russian by CV pattern.
Syllable-timed languages – in these languages all syllables, whether stressed or
unstressed, tend to occur at regular time-intervals and the time between stressed
will be shorter or longer depending on the number of unstressed syllables
separating them.
Syntagm is a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complete.
Systematic phonetic transcription – a transcription that shows all the phonetic
details that are part of the language and can be stated in terms of phonological
rules. Also called “narrow” transcription as opposed to “broad”. See
transcription, phonemic.
Tail – unstressed or partially stressed syllables (or syllable) that follow the
nucleus of the intonation group.
Tap – a very brief speech sound in which the tongue is flicked up against the
roof of the mouth, interrupting the flow of air. Cf. flap.
Target position – an idealized articulatory position that can be used as a
reference point in describing how a speaker produces utterances.
TEFL – Teaching English as a Foreign Language,-where learners are neither
nativespeakers, nor immigrants.
Tempo – the rate of the utterance and pausation, it is often measured in syllables
per second or average syllable length in milliseconds (ms).
Temporal component of intonation: it consists of pauses, duration, rhythm.
Tense vowels are produced when the organs of speech are tense. Historically
long vowels in the articulation of which muscular tension of speech organs is
great: /i:, ɑ:, ɔ:, u:, ɜ:/. In English, the tense vowels are those that can occur in
stressed open syllables such as [ɔ:] in bore.
Terminal tone – the nucleus and the tail of the utterance; a change of pitch at
the junction (the joining of two sounds or words) of two sense-groups.
Tertiary stress – a less strong stress than the primary one, usually follows the
primary stress in a word.
TESL – Teaching English as a Second Language,- where learners addressed are
oftenimmigrants to an English-speaking culture.
TESOL – Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages,-which is slightly
moreneutral term encompassing both TESL and TEFL, but avoiding the labels
such as 'second'or 'foreign' (mainly used in American English).
Theoretical Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which is mainly concerned with
the functioning of phonetic units in the language. It discusses the problems of
phonetics in academic terms and gives a scientific approach to the phonetic
theory.
Theory of muscular tension (or the articulatory effort theory) – according to
this theory a syllable is characterized by variations in muscular tension. The
energy of articulation increases at the beginning of a syllable, reaches its
maximum with the vowel (or a sonant) and decreases towards the end of the
syllable. So, the syllable is an arc of muscular tension.
Timbre – the quality of a musical sound, depending on what overtones are
present and their respective amplitudes.
Tone, noun |təʊn| - is the most significant pitch change that takes place at the
end of sense groups and at the end of the sentence.distinguished from tone by
the fact that tone is usually a property of individual words, while
intonation patterns are more frequently properties of longer stretches of speech,
such as a clause or a sentence. 2) a complex unity of speech melody, sentence
stress, tempo, rhythm and voice timbre, which enables the speaker to express his
thoughts, emotions and attitudes towards the contents of the utterance and the
hearer. Acoustically, intonation is a complex combination of varying
fundamental frequency, intensity and duration. See also prosody.
Tone languages – the meaning of words in these languages depends on the
variations of voice pitch in relation to neighbouring syllables.
Toneme – the toneme of a sentence or of a sense-group is a separate
phonological unit, because it performs the distinctive function, e.g. “not ˋonce –
“never”, “not ˊonce – “many times”.
Tongue – the most movable and flexible speech organ.
Tonic syllable – the syllable within a tone group that stands out because it
carries the major pitch change, also called nucleus.
Tonogram – graphic representation of intonation.
Trachea – the “wind pipe” passing up from the lungs to the vocal tract
beginning with the larynx.
Transcription – the system of signs in which sounds are symbolized.
Transcription represents sounding speech.
Trill – a speech sound in which an articulator such as the uvula, tongue-tip, or
lips vibrates in the airstream. In some forms of Scottish English, [r] in rip is
trilled.
Tune – the term which is used to refer to the pitch pattern of the whole
intonation-group.
Twang – a sharp nasal quality of a vowel sound.
Unchecked vowels are those which are pronounced with lessening the force of
utterance towards their end. Therefore, they have a weak end.
Undertone – a low tone of the voice.
Unicentral consonants – consonants pronounced with a single articulatory
obstruction (complete or incomplete); e.g. /t, d, k, g, p, b, s, s, z, f, v, ŋ, h/.
Unilateral – the lateral sonant /l/ pronounced with only one side of the tongue
lowered(usually it is the left side of the tongue).
Unrounded –an articulation in which the lips are in a spread or neutral position.
Unrounded vowels – vowels in the articulation of which the lips are not
rounded /ɑ:; e; i:;ӕ/.
Unstressed – bearing no stress.
Utterance – a spoken sentence or a phrase; it is the main communicative unit. It
is characterized by semantic entity which is expressed by all the language
means: lexical, grammatical and prosodic.
Utterance stress – See Sentence stress. Utterance stress is a prosodic
phenomenon of speech with a linguistic function of indicating the relative
importance of various elements in an utterance.
Uvula – the end of the soft palate, which hangs down above the back of the
tongue near the pharynx.
Variations (“in stylistic variations”) – variations in the pronunciation of

speech sounds,words and sentences peculiar to different styles of speech.
Velaric airstream mechanism – movement of mouth air by action of the
tongue. Clicks are produced with a velaric airstream mechanism.
Velarization – a secondary articulation in which the back of the tongue is raised
toward the soft palate. In many forms of English, syllable final [l] as in hill is
strongly velarized. In Russian the so-called ‘hard consonants’ are velarized and
contrasted with the ‘soft consonants’ which are palatalized.
Vibrator mechanism – a group of speech organs which vibrate while the air
passes through, thus producing voice, it includes larynx, vocal cords, glottis.
Vocal cords (folds) – two soft folds in the larynx which can be brought together
and apart,thus producing voice.
Vocal tract – the air passages above the vocal folds which form the system used
to produce speech. This starts at the larynx and includes the pharynx, the mouth,
and the nasal cavity.
Vocoid – a sound with no obstruction in the centre of the mouth. Vowels and
semivowels are vocoids.
Voice quality – timbre.
Voiced consonants – sounds produced when the vocal cords are brought
together and vibrate.
Voiced pauses – they have usually the quality of the central vowel [ɜ:(ə)] with
or without nasalization [ə(m)]. They are used to signal hesitation or doubt and
therefore are called hesitation pauses.
Voiceless consonants – sounds produced when the vocal cords are apart and
don’t vibrate, as in English [s] in sea.
Voice quality – one of the suprasegmental features of speech that can be
controlled by speakers.
Voicing – the vibration of the vocal folds which accompanies many speech
sounds,particularly vowels.
Vowel – is a voiced sound produced in the mouth with no obstruction to the air
stream. The air stream is weak. The tongue and the vocal cords are tense; the
muscular tension is distributed more or less evenly throughout the mouth cavity
and the pharynx. The criteria for classificatory description of vowels are: 1)
stability of articulation; 2) tongue position; 3) lip position; 4) character of the
vowel end; 5) length; 6) tenseness.
Waveform – in speech acoustics, the most basic way of representing the pattern
of vibration of a speech sound.
Weak form – the unstressed form of any word, such as but or as, that does not
maintain its full form when it occurs in conversational speech.
Weak vowels – the vowels which are shorter and less distinct, sometimes they
are reduced to the neutral vowel /ə/.
Widening the range – one of the emphatic means which consists in deliberate
widening the pitch levels of sense-groups.
Windpipe – trachea or air passage.
Word stress – a singling out of one or more syllables in a word by giving them
a greater degree of prominence as compared with the other syllable or syllables
in the same word.
https://studopedia.su/2_72778_GLOSSARY.html
ENGLISH –KAZAKH - RUSSIAN PHONETIC VOCABULARY
accent ['æksənt] - екпін , акцент-ударение, акцент

accommodation [əˌkɒmə'deɪʃn] - бейімделу -аккомодация,
приспособление
acoustic [ə'kuːstɪk] – акустикалық, дыбыстық –акустический, звуковой
acoustically[ə'kuːstɪkәlɪ] - акустикалық (дыбысталуы) - акустический
active organs of speech ['æktɪv 'ɔ:ɡəns əv spi:ʧ ]-aктив сөйлеу мүшелері
–активные органы речи
adaptation [ˌædæp'teɪʃn]– адаптация, бейімделу- адаптация
affricate ['æfrɪkət] - аффрикат (үзілмелі –сүзілмелі дыбыс) - аффриката
air-passage[eə `pӕsɪʤ]-ауа өтетін жол -проход для воздуха
air-stream-ауа толқыны -поток воздуха
allophone[ˈӕləfəʊn] -аллофон (фонеманың шартты позизиялық реңкі) -
аллофон
alphabet [ˈӕlfəbet]- әліпби - алфабит
alternation [ˌɔːltə'neɪʃn] – өзгеру, өзгеріс,кезектесу, алмасу-чередование
alveolar [ˌælvɪ'əʊlə] -альвеолалық - альвеолярный
alveolar ridge-альвеолярдың жотасы -альвеолярный отросток
analysis [ə'næləsɪs] – талдау, зерттеу- анализ, изучение, исследование
apical ['æpɪkl] -апикальды (тіл алды жасалатын дыбыс) -апикальный
archiphoneme[ɑːɪkɪ'fəʊniːm] – архифонема -архифонема, совокупность
дифференциальных признаков, общих для двух членов
нейтрализуемого фонологического противопоставления
articulate[ɑː'tɪkjuleɪt]- артикуляциялау ( дыбыс шығарудағы дыбыс
мүшелерінің қызметі, дыбыс шығару) - артикулировать
articulation [ɑːˌtɪkju'leɪʃn] - артикуляция ( дыбыс шығаруда сөйлеу
мүшелерінің әрекеті) - артикуляция
articulatory [ɑːˈtɪkjuleɪtərɪ] - артикуляциялық - артикуляционный
ascending scale [ə'sendɪŋ] - жоғарылайтын меже (шкала) -восходящая
шкала
aspirate[ˌæspə'reɪt]-күшпен айту -произносить с придыханием
aspirated [ˌæspə'reɪtɪd]- күшпен тыныс алып айтылатын-
аспирированный
aspiration[ˌæspə'reɪʃn] – дем алу, демді ішке тарту-аспирация,
придыхание
assimilate [ə'sɪməleɪt] ]- ықпал ету, бір дыбыстың екінші дыбысқа
ықпал етуі-ассимилировать, уподоблять
assimilation [əˌsɪmə'leɪʃn]-ықпал, бір дыбыстың екінші дыбысқа
ықпалы-ассимиляция, уподобление
audible ['ɔːdəbl] -естілетін (шу туралы)-слышимый (о шуме)
auditory ['ɔːdətrɪ] -есту қабілеті - слуховой
B
backlingual ['bӕk'lɪŋɡwəl] – тіл арты - заднеязычный

back of the tongue– тілдің артқы бөлігі- задняя часть языка
backvowel ['bӕk 'vaʊəl]- тіл арты дауыстысы - гласный заднего ряда
bilabial [ˌbaɪ'leɪbɪəl] – ерін– ерін -билабиальный, губно-губный,
двугубный
bilaternal – екі жақты - двусторонний, билатеральный
blade [bleɪd] – тілдің алдыңғы бөлігі -передняя часть языка
binary [`baɪnərɪ]– екі жақты-бинарный, состоящий из двух частей
blade of the tongue [`bleɪdəvðə 'tʌŋ]– тілдің алдыңғы жағы- передняя
часть языка
broken descending scale – бөлінген,бұзылған төменгі меже (шкала) –
ослабленная нисходящая шкала
bronchi ['brɒŋkaɪ] – бронх - бронхи
bulk of the tongue ['bʌlk əv ðə 'tʌŋ] – тіл массасы -масса языка
cacuminal [kæ'kjuːmɪnəl] - какуминальды - какуминальный

central vowel ['sentrəl] – тіл ортасы дауыстылар-гласный среднего ряда
checked [ʧekt] –қысқартылған (дауысты)-усеченный (гласный)
classify – топтастыру, жүйелеу-классифицировать
clause [klɔːz] – сөйлем, күрделі сөйлемнің бөлігі - предложение (часть
сложного предложения)
closevowel– қысаң дауысты-закрытый гласный, гласный высокого
подъема части языка
closedsyllable– жабық буын-закрытый слог
cluster ['klʌstə]– дауыссыз немесе дауысты фонемалардың үйлесуі -
сочетание гласных или согласных фонем
сoda –сөз соңында келетін дауыссыз немесе дауыссыздар тіркесі -
согласный или сочетание согласных, стоящих в конце слова
cognate – ұқсас (дыбыс)-похожий
colloquial [kə'ləʊkwiəl] - ауызша - разговорный
communication –хабар, қатынас, сөйлесу, араласу- общение
communicative centre -коммуникативтік орталық- коммуникативный
центр
communicative type – коммуникативті ( қатынас) түрі ( сөйлем
туралы)-коммуникативный тип
comparative [kəm'pærətɪv]- салыстырмалы - сравнительный
complementation – толықтыру -комплементация, дополнительная
дистрибуция
complete assimilation [kəm'pliːt] – толық ықпал (ассимиляция)-полная
ассимиляция
complex tone – күрделі тон (үн, дыбыс)-сложный тон
component – бөлігі, құрамы-компонент
compound ['kɒmpaʊnd] -күрделі кешен; күрделі сөз -составной
сложный; сложное слово
consonant ['kɒnsənənt] – дауыссыз -согласный
constitutive function [kən'stɪtjutɪv] –сөз тудырушы қызмет -
конститутивная, словоформирующая, словообразовательная функция
constrictive [kən'strɪktɪv] – ызың, жуысыңқы-щелевой
contact – жанасу,шектесу-контактный
contextual assimilation [kən'teksʧuəl] - мәтінмәндік (ассимил)меңгеру -
контекстуальная ассимиляция
contracted – қысқарған-сокращенный
сontrast – элементтердің қарама-қарсылылығы -противоположение
элементов
сontrastive – ажырататын-контрастирующий, дифференциальный,
различительный
correlation [ˌkɒrə'leɪʃn] – өзара байланыс - взаимосвязь,
взаимоотношение counterpart – сәйкестік,үйлесімділік -совпадение,
совместимость
covered syllable -жабық буын -прикрытый слог
curve – қисық (сызық) –кривая (линия)
dark –қатты дауыссыз- темный, твердый согласный, низкий по звуку

define [dɪ'faɪn] – анықтау, анықтама беру-определять, давать
определение
definition [ˌdefɪ'nɪʃən] – анықтама-определение
dental ['dentl] – тіс ( дыбысы) - дентальный, зубной
derivative [dɪ'rɪvətɪv] - туынды сөз - производное слово
descending scale [dɪ'sendɪŋ] – бәсеңдейтін шкала ( меже, белгі) -
нисходящая шкала
determined –анықтайтын, айқындайтын -определяемый, зависимый
determined feature – анықталған белгі –определенный признак
determining feature – анықтайтын белгі -инвариантный,
определяющий, детерминативный признак
devoice [ˌdi:'vɔɪs] – ұяңдату- оглушать
devoiced [ˌdi:'vɔɪst] – ұяңданған - оглушенный
devoicing – ұяңдану-оглушение
dialect ['daɪəlekt] - диалект -диалект
diaphragm ['daɪəfræm]- диафрагма -диафрагма
digraph ['daɪɡrɑːf] -диграф -диграф
differentiate – ажырату, айыру (сөзді)- отличать, различать
diphthong ['dɪfθɒŋ] - қос дауысты -дифтонг
diphthongoid -дифтонгоид -дифтонгоид
direct observation - тікелей байқау - прямое наблюдение
distinctive – анықтағыш, ажыратқыш-различительный,
дифференциальный
distinctive feature [dɪ'stɪŋktɪv] – анықтаушы, айыру белгісі
(фонологиялық) -смыслоразличительный, дистинктивный признак
distinctive function – анықтаушы қызмет - различительная функция
distribution [ˌdɪstrɪ'bjuːʃn] – тарату,барлық орталар жиынтығы
(контекст), бөлу-дистрибуция, распределение
disyllabic [ˌdaɪsɪ'læbɪk, ˌdɪ-] – екі буынды -двусложный
dorsal ['dɔːsl] – дорсалдық-дорсальный
double opposition -қос оппозиция - двойная оппозиция
duration [dju'reɪʃn] – ұзақтық, созылыңқылық– длительность,
продолжительность
dynamic stress [daɪ'næmɪk]-динамикалық (күшті) екпін-динамическое
(силовое) ударение
E
ear – training – есту қабілетін дамыту -ухо - обучение
elision [ɪ'lɪʒn] – дыбыстың түсіп қалуы -элизия, выпадение (звука)

emphasize – ерекше көңіл аудару (сөзде) -подчеркивать
emphatic [ɪm'fætɪk] –эмпатикалық,мәнерлі, батыл- эмфатический,
выразительный
environment –қоршаған орта- окружение
equipollent – балама , тең -эквиполентный, равноценный
established assimilation – мақұлданған ассимиляция-установленая
ассимиляции
exhalation [ˌekshə'leɪʃn]– дем шығару-выдыхание
expiratory [ɪk'spɪrətərɪ] –тыныс шығарушы-экспираторный,
выдыхательный
fall – бәсең үн- нисходящий тон

falling ['fɔːlɪŋ] – бәсең,төмендейтін тон (үн)-нисходящий (о тоне)
fall – rise – төменнен жоғарылайтын,көтерілетін тон (үн)-нисходяще-
восходящий тон
final – соңғы ( сөздің соңында келетін)-окончательный
fixed – тұрақты-фиксированный
fixed stress [fɪkst] – тұрақты екпін -фиксированное ударение
flat – тегіс, жазық-ровный, плоский
flat narrowing – тегіc саңылау-плоское сужение
forelingual ['fɔː'lɪŋɡwəl] – тіл алды- переднеязычный
fortis [´fɔ:tɪs] – дыбыстағанда қарқынмен, күшпен дыбысталатын
фонема – сильный звук, характеризуемый большой силой выдоха и
сильной напряженностью в артикуляции
free stress - еркін екпін – свободное ударение
free variation- еркін өзгеріс -свободная вариация
fricative– ызың -щелевой
friction ['frɪkʃn] -үйкелістің шуы- шум трения
frequency ['friːkwənsɪ] – жиілік - частота
front of the tongue – тілдің ортаңғы бөлігі -передняя часть языка
front-retracted vowel [rɪ'træktɪd] – алдынан артқа қарай икемделген
дауысты дыбыс -гласный передне-отодвинутого назад ряда
front vowel ['frʌnt 'vaʊəl]– тіл алды дауысты – переднеязычный
гласный
fullstyle-толық стиль - полныйстиль
glide [ɡlaɪd] - жылжу , қосымша дыбыс -скольжение

glottal ['ɡlɒtl] – көмей дыбысы –гортанный звук
glottal stop ['ɡlɒtl 'stɒp] – көмей үзілмелі дыбыс-гортанный взрывной
звук
glottis – дауыc қуысы -голосовая щель
gradual – бірте-бірте - градуальный, ступенчатый скольжение, призвук
hard palate ['hɑːd 'pælɪt] – қатты таңдай-твёрдое нёбо

head – синтагманың бірінші екпінді буыны -первый ударный слог
синтагмы
head of the scale – бірінші екпінді буын – первый ударный слог
high – broad – тілдің жоғары көтерілуіндегі кең түрі -высокая -
широкая
high – narrow – тілдің жоғары көтерілуіндегі тар түрі-высокий - узкий
high – narrow fall – тар диапазонда көтеріңкі бәсеңдейтін үн -высоко -
узкое падение
high – narrow rise – тар диапазонда көтеріңкі жоғарылайтын үн -
высокий - узкий подъем
hightone – басым үн -высокий тон
historicalassimilation – тарихи ассимиляция-историческая ассимиляция
high vowel ['haɪ 'vaʊəl] - жоғары дауысты дауысты дыбыс- гласный
высокого подъема
homograph ['hɒməɡrɑːf] -омограф - омограф
homonym ['hɒmənɪm] -омоним - омоним
homonymous [hə'mɒnɪməs] -омоним - омонимический, омонимичный
idiolect -жеке тіл, тіл –идиолект, индивидуальный говор, язык

initial initial [ɪ'nɪʃl] – бастапқы, алғашқы–начальный, первоначальный
intensify [ɪn'tensɪfaɪ] -қарқындату -усиливать
intensity [ɪn'tensətɪ] – қарқындылық, дыбыстау қарқындылығы, күш
дәрежесі және дыбысты қабылдау - интенсивность, степень силы
произнесения (ударения) и восприятия звука
interdental [ˌɪntə'dentl] – тіс аралық -межзубной
interlude –сөздің ортасында тұрған дауыссыз дыбыстар тобы- группа
согласных, стоящих в серединной позиции в слове
intermediate – аралық -промежуточный
intermediate assimilation [ˌɪntə'miːdiət] – аралық ассимиляция (ықпал)-
промежуточная ассимиляция
interpenetration ['ɪntə ˌpenɪ'treɪʃn] -толтырылу -взаимопроникновение
intervocalic [ˌɪntəvəʊ'kælɪk] – дауысты аралық -
интервокальный(находящийся между гласными)
intonation[ˌɪntə'neɪʃn] (prosody) – дауыс ырғағы– интонация, просодия
intonation group [ˌɪntə'neɪʃn 'ɡruːp] – интонациялық топ -интонационная
группа
jaw[ʤɔː] – жақ -челюсть

junction['ʤʌŋkʃn] – тоғысқан (сөз туралы) , қосылған, біріккен (тіл
дыбысы туралы)- связано, объединено (о звуке речи)
juncture ['ʤʌŋkʧə] –тоғысу (сөз туралы), қосылу (тіл дыбыстары
туралы)- стык (о словах), соединение (о звуках речи), переход,
соединение
kinetic tone –жылжымалы үн - кинетический тон, скользящий тон
labial ['leɪbɪəl] – еріндік -губной

labio-dental [ˌleɪbɪə'dentl] - ерін –тіс-губно-зубной звук
larynx ['lærɪŋks] -жұтқыншақ -гортань
lateral ['lætərəl] – бүйір-боковой
lateral plosion – бүйір үзілісі-боковой взрыв
lax[læks] - қарқынсыз (күшсіз)-слабый
length [leŋθ] – ұзақтық, созылыңқылық-длительность
lenis [ˈliːnɪs] - әлсіз дыбыс– слабый звук, характеризующийся меньшей
силой выдоха и более слабой напряженностью артикуляции
lexicology [ˌleksɪ'kɒləʤɪ]- лексикология
level scale – біркелкі шкала (меже)- шкала уровня
level tone – біркелкі тон (үн) - уровень тона
lingual ['lɪŋɡwəl] – тілдік- языковой
lip – ерін -губной
lip – protrusion – ерінді алдыға жылжыту-выступ губы
lip – rounding –ерінді дөңгелету-округлениегубы
logical stress['lɒʤɪkl] – ой екпіні -логическое ударение
long vowel – созылыңқы дауысты -длинный гласный
loudness ['laʊdnəs] – дыбыстың дыбыс деңгейі, сөйлеудің дыбыстық
күші-громкость звука, воспринимаемая сила звучания речи
lower jaw – төменгі жақ -нижняя челюсть
low fall- төменнен төмендейтін үн -низкое падение
low rise – төменнен жоғарылайтын үн-голос снизу вверх
low tone – бәсең үн, дауыс -низкий тон
lungs [lʌŋ] – өкпе -легкие
manner of the production of noise – шудың пайда болуы -возникновение

шума median ['miːdɪən] – орталық, ортадағы - серединный,
занимающий срединное положение
medium tongue position – тілдің орташа көтерілуі-средняя позиция
языка
mediolingual ['mi:djə 'lɪŋɡwəl] – тіл ортасы - среднеязычный
melody – мелодия,саз,әуен– мелодия речи, движение голосового тона
в процессе речи
merging [´mɜːʤɪŋ] - қосылу, тұтасу-объединение, сливаться(о фазах
артикуляции звука)
middle of the tongue – тілдің ортаңғы бөлігі- середина языка
mid – narrow – тілдің орташа көтерілгендегі тар түрі -средний - узкий
mid-open vowel ['mɪdəʊpən 'vaʊəl] – тілді орташа көтергендегі
дауысты, тіл ортасы дауысты - средне - открытый гласный
minimal pairs – ең аз, төменгі жүп -минимальные пары
mispronounce – дұрыс дыбыстамау (айтпау)-неправильно произнести
mixed – аралас -смешанный
monophong ['mɒnəfθɒŋ] – монофтонг (таза дауысты) -монофтонг
monosyllabic [ˌmɒnəsɪ'læbɪk] – бір буынды -односложный
morpheme ['mɔːfiːm] –түбір– морфема
morphology [mɔː'fɒləʤɪ] – морфология - морфология
mother tongue – ана тілі - родной язык
mouth cavity – ауыз қуысы -полость рта
movable ['muːvəbl] – қозғалғыш , жылжымалы -подвижный
movement ['muːvmənt] – қозғалыс - движение
moving tone - өзгеріп тұратын үн (тон) -движущийся тон
multiple opposition ['mʌltɪpl] – көп қарама-қарсылық -множественная
оппозиция
multilateral – көпжақты -многосторонний
muscles – бұлшық ет-мышцы
muscular tension['mʌskjələˌ 'mʌskjulə] – бұлшық еттің қатаюы-
мышечное напряжение
musical stress ['mjuːzɪkl] мелодиялық екпін - музыкальное (тональное)
ударение
narrowing['nærəʊɪŋ] – тарылу, саңылау-сужение

nasal ['neɪzl] – мұрын – носовой, назальный признак
nasal cavity - мұрын қуысы-полость носа
nasal plosion – мұрын үзілмелі- носовой взрыв
nasal consonant – мұрын жолды дауыссызы-носовой согласный
neutral – бейтарап-нейтральный
noise – шу, шулы - шумный
noise consonant – ызың дауыссызы -шумный согласный
non-distinctive – айқын емес (дыбыс белгісі) - недистинктивный
(признак звука)
non – final – соңғы емес (синтагма )-нефинал
non-obligatory assimilation - міндетті емес тоғысу - необязательная
non – palatalized – ұяңданбаған - не - палатализованный
non – phonological – фонологиялық емес- не фонологический
notional word – атауыш сөздер - смысловое слово
nucleus ['njuːkliəs] - ядро (өзек) – ядро интонационной структуры,
последний сильно ударный слог,слог, несущий главное ударение
nuclear tone ['njuːkliə]- ядролық үн - ядерный тон
neutralization – бейтараптандыру -нейтрализация
obligatory assimilation [ə'blɪɡətrɪ] – міндетті тоғысу -обязательная

observation [ˌɒbzə'veɪʃn] бақылау, байқау - наблюдение
obstruction [əb'strʌkʃn] – бөгет,тосқауыл-препятствие, преграда
occlusive [ə'klu:siv] – шұғыл - смычный
off –glide - соңғы фаза (дыбыстың)–последная фаза (звука)
on – glide – алғашқы фаза (дыбыстың)-первоначальная фаза (звука)
onomatopoeia [ˌɒnəˌmætə'piːə] - ономатопея - ономатопея,
звукоподражание
onset– сөйлеу дыбысының қалыптасуының бастапқы кезеңі –
начальная стадия образования звука речи
open syllable – ашық буын – открытый слог
open vowel – ашық дауысты - открытый гласный
opposition [ˌɔpə'zɪʃn] – қарама-қарсылылық - оппозиция
oral ['ɔ:rəl] – ауыз қуысы - полость рта
oral ['ɔ:rəl] consonant - ауыс қуысты дауыссыз -ротовой согласный
organs of speech – сөйлеу мүшелері -органы речи
orthography [ɔː'θɒɡrəfɪ] – орфография, емле - орфография,
правописание
palatal ['pælətl] – таңдай - небный

palatalization [ˌpælətəlaɪ'zeɪʃn] – ұяңдану - смягчение
palatalize – ұяңдату - смягчать
palatalized – ұяңданған, жіңішкерген - палатализованный
palate ['pælət] – таңдай - нёбо
palato-alveolar – таңдай - альвеолдық
parenthesis – қыстырма сөз - вводное слово
partial assimilation['pɑːʃl] – жартылай ассимиляция - частичная
pattern – үлгі -модель
pause [pɔːz] – кідіріс, үзіліс - пауза
perception [pə'sepʃn] – қабылдау, түсіну, ұғыну - восприятие
pharyngal – көмей - глоточный
pharynx['færɪŋks] –жұтқыншақ - глотка,зев
phonation [fəˈneɪʃn] – сөйлеу мүшелерінің қызметі , тіл дыбыстарының
айтылуы -голосообразование, фонация
phoneme['fəʊniːm] – фонема, тіл дыбыстары– фонема
phonemic [fə'niːmɪk] фонемалық -фонематический
phonetic [fə'netɪk] – фонетикалық - фонетический
phonetics [fə'netɪks] – фонетика -фонетика
phonological [ˌfəʊnə'lɒʤɪkl)] – фонологиялық -фонологический
phonology [fə'nɒləʤɪ] – фонология -фонология
phrase – сөйлемше -фраза
pitch [pɪʧ] – деңгей, дәреже, шек – высота основного тона
pitch component – дыбыс ырғағының әуендік бөлігі - компонент
основного тона
pitch level – үннің жоғарғы деңгейі - уровень основного тона
pitch range – үннің жоғарғы көлемі, мөлшері (диапозон) - высота
диапазона
plosion['pləʊʒn] –кенеттен үзілу - взрыв
plosionless – үзілмейтін - невзрывной
plosive consonant ['pləʊsɪv] – шұғыл дауыссызы - взрывной согласный
plosives – шұғыл -взрывные
point of articulation – айтылу (дыбысталу) орны -точка артикуляции
polysyllabic [ˌpɒlɪsɪ'læbɪk] – көп буынды - многосложный
positional [pə'zɪʃənəl] – позициялық -позиционный
post – alveolar – альвеоладан ары - пост альвеолярный
prefix ['priːfɪks] – префикс-префикс, приставка
pre-head – алғашқы екпінсіз буын – предударные слоги, неударные
слоги, стоящие перед первым ударным слогом.
primary stress['praɪmərɪ] – негізгі екпін – первоначальное,
основноеударение
principal – негізгі - основной
progressive assimilation – прогрессивті ассимиляция (ілгерінді ықпал) -
прогрессивная ассимиляция
prominence ['prɒmɪnəns] –күшею, үдеу,көңіл аудару - усиление,
подчеркивание
prominent ['prɒmɪnənt] – күшейген, көңіл аударылатын - усиленный,
подчеркнутый. выделяющийся
pronounce[prə'naʊns] – айту -произносить
pronunciation [prəˌnʌnsɪ'eɪʃn] –айтылуы - произношение
prosody['prɒsədɪ] – просодия -просодия
protruded [prə'truːdɪd] – алдыға қарай созылған - вытянутые вперед (о
губах)
puff (of air, breath) – тез, қысқа дем шығару-затяжка (воздуха, дыхания
qualitative ['kwɒlɪtətɪv] – сапалық-качественный

quantitative ['kwɒntɪtətɪv] – сандық -количественный
range [reɪnʤ] – үн ауқымы -диапазон

rate [reɪt] – жылдамдық - скорость
reciprocal assimilation [rɪ'sɪprəkl] –ортақ ықпал - взаимная ассимиляция
reduced – қысаң, көмескі - сокращенный
reduction [rɪ'dʌkʃn] – қысаңдану, көмескілену,қысқару – сокращение,
редукция, ослабление
regressive assimilation[rɪ'ɡresɪv əˌsɪmə'leɪʃn] – кейінді ықпалды
ассимиляция -регрессивная ассимиляция
release [rɪ'liːs] –кедергіні жою - размыкать, устранять преграду
resonant – мұрын жолды, сонант - сонорный, сонант
resonator ['rezəneɪtə] - резонатор- резонатор
retention [rɪ'tenʃn] stage – екінші фаза –вторая фаза
retentive tendency [rɪ'tentɪv] – ұстайтын, есте сақтайтын бейімділік -
ретентивная тенденция (словесного ударения)
retroflex ['retrəfleks] – артқа бүгілген - загнутый назад,
ретрофлексивный
rhythm ['rɪðəm] – ырғақ, ретті өлшем (ритм)– ритм, чередование слогов
(долгих – кратких, ударных – неударных, сильных – слабых, высоких
– низких)
rhythmic group ['rɪðmɪk] – ырғақтық (ритмикалық) топ – ритмическая
группа
rtythmical ['rɪðmɪkl] - ырғақтық (ритмикалық) - ритмический
rise-fall – жоғарылап - төмендейтін үн - восходяще-нисходящий тон
rise –fall – rise – жоғарылап - төмендеп – жоғарылайтын күрделі үн
(тон)- восходяще-нисходяще - восходящий сложный тон
rising ['raɪzɪŋ] – жоғарылайтын - повышенный
rolled – діріл - вибрация
root [ruːt] – түбір (сөздің) - корень (слова)
root of the tongue – тілдің түбірі-корень языка
round [raʊnd] – ерінді дөңгеленту- округлить
rounded vowel['raʊndɪd] – ерін дауыстысы -губной гласный
RP (Received Pronunciation) [ɑ:(r) pi:] - танылған, қабылданған әдеби
ағылшын тілі - общепринятое, признанное литературное английское
произношение
scale [skeɪl] – меже –шкала

secondary stress ['sekəndrɪ] – қосалқы екпін - второстепенное ударение
segment – сегмент - отрезок речи (звук, слово, морфема)
segmental phonemes [səɡ'mentl] – сегменттік фонема - сегментные
фонемы
sense – group – мағыналық топ - смысловая группа
sentence-stress – фразалық екпін - фразовое ударение
shape[ʃeɪp] – формасы, түрі - форма
shifting stress ['ʃɪftɪŋ] – жылжымалы, тұрақсыз екпін - подвижное
ударение
short vowel – қысқа дауысты - короткая гласная
sliding scale – тиянақсыз меже (шкала) - скользящая шкала
soft palate['sɒft 'pælɪt] – жұмсақ таңдай - мягкое небо
sonorant [səˈnɔːrənt] –мұрын жолды - сонант
sonority [sə'nɒrətɪ] – үнділік - звонкость
sonorous ['sɒnərəs] – үнді - звонкий
speech [spiːʧ] – сөз, сөйлеу - речь, речевая деятельность
speech melody – сөз әуені - речевая мелодия
speech organs – сөйлеу мүшелері –органы речи
speech sound – тіл дыбысы - речевой звук
spelling ['spelɪŋ] – емле, дұрыс жазу ережесі - орфография,
правописание
spirant – үнсіз дауыссыз дыбыс – щелевой согласный
spread [spred] – созу - растягивать (огубах)
staves[steɪvz] – дауыстың, үннің жоғарғы және төмен межесін
көрсететін екі қатар сызық - две параллельные линий показывающие
верхние и нижние пределы голоса, тона
static tone – біркелкі үн - статический тон, ровный тон
stem [stem] – түбір, негізі - основа
stop[stɒp] – шұғыл дауыссыз - смычный согласный
stress [stres] - екпін – ударение
stress mark - екпін белгісі – знак ударения
stressed [strest] – екпінді - ударный
strong form – күшті формасы, қарқынды түрі - сильная форма
stylistics [staiʹlɪstɪks] - стилистика - стилистика
suffix ['sʌfɪks] – жұрнақ - суффикс
supersegmental- суперсегменттік – суперсегментный,
сверхсегментный, ритмико-интонационный
subsidiary [səb'sɪdiərɪ] – қосымша - второстепенный
supersegmental phonemes[ˌsuːprəseɡ'mentl] – суперсегменттік
фонемалар -суперсегментные фонемы, просодема
syllabic[sɪ'læbɪk] – буын құрайтын - слогообразующий, слоговой
syllable ['sɪləbl] – буын - слог
syllable division – буынға бөлу - слогоделение
syllable formation – буын құрау- слогообразование
syntactic [sɪn'tæktɪk] - синтактикалық - синтаксический
tamber –әуез (тембр), дыбыстың сапасы, бояуы - тембр

teeth –ridge – альвеола-альвеола
tempo – қарқын, шапшаңдық (темп) - темп
tense – қатайған, шираған-натянутый
tenseness– қатаю, ширау - напряжение
tension (muscular)- бұлшық еттің ширауы - напряжение (мышечное)
terminal (tone) – терминалдық үн, әуезбен аяқталу (синтагманың,
сөйлемнің)-терминальный (тон)
tip of the tongue – тіл ұшы - кончик языка
tone – үн, дауыс– частотная характеристика звука
tongue – тіл - язык
transcription – транскрипция - транскрипция
transition – бір сөйлеу бөлігінен екіншісіне көшу - переход от одного
сегмента речи к другому
trilled – діріл (дыбыс) - вибрация (звукa)
tune - әуен - тон, мелодия
unrounded vowel – езулік дауысты – негубная гласная

unstressed – екпінсіз - безударный
upper lip – жоғарғы ерін – верхняя губа
upper teeth ['ʌpə 'tiːθ] – жоғарғы тіс - верхние зубы
utter ['ʌtə] – айту - произносить
utterance ['ʌtərəns] – сөз сөйлеу, сөйлеу-высказывание
uvula['juːvjələ] – тілшік– язычок, маленький язычок
variant ['veəriənt] – реңк,вариант - вариант

variation[ˌveərɪ'eɪʃn] - әртүрлілік - варьирование, различие в
воспроизведении
freevariation – еркін өзгеріс - свободное варьирование
velar ['viːlə] – таңдай арты дыбысы – задненебный, велярный
velum ['viːləm] – жұмсақ таңдай - мягкое нёбо
vibratе [vaɪ'breɪt] – дірілдеу - вибрировать
vibration [vaɪ'breɪʃn] - діріл - вибрация
vocal cords ['vəʊkl 'kɔːdz] – желбезек (дауыс шымылдығы) -голосовые
связки
vocalism ['vəʊkəˌlɪzəm] – дауысты дыбыстар жүйесі - вокализм,
система гласных
voice [vɔɪs] - дауыс – голос (голосовой тон), звук музыкального тона
voice quality – дауыс тембрі - тембр голоса
voiced consonant[vɔɪst] – ұяң дауыссыз – звонкий согласный
voiceless consonant['vɔɪsləs] – қатаң дауыссыз – глухой согласный
volume ['vɒljuːm] – көлем - объем
vowel ['vaʊəl] – дауысты дыбыс – гласная фонема
weak form - әлсіз түрі - слабая форма

weak stress – әлсіз екпін - слабое ударение
windpipe ['wɪndpaɪp] – кеңірдек -дыхательное горло, трахея
word – stress['wɜːdstres] – сөз екпіні – словесное ударение
Z
zero reduction – нөлдік қысаңдану - нулевая редукция
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ABAI KAZAKH NATIONAL PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE: THEORETICAL PHONETICS

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE

ABAI KAZAKH NATIONAL PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Dedicated to the 90thAnniversary

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE: THEORETICAL

Zh.Abuov - doctor in Philologycal Sciences, Professor, head of the chair

The goal of the textbook is the formation of content based professional

7.1. General characteristics of word stress. Types of stress.

MODULE I THE SUBJECT OF THEORETICAL PHONETICS

KEY WORDS phonetics, connection, linguistic and non- linguistic

What does phonetics

The term phonetics is derived from

The phonetic system of language

The role of phonetics in foreign language teaching

D. Abercrombie said: “I would reply that all language

Theoretical phonetics is aimed at discussing those problems of modern phonetic

A brief historical outline

- 1840 kymograph (It records qualitative variations in the

- 1877 gramophone (it analogueis also called phonograph

- 1899 cylinder phonograph (A phonograph, the first

In 1852 the first observations of the vocal cords were made.

In 1886 International Phonetic Association (IPA) was founded.

As phonetics is one of the branches of linguistics it is closely connected with its

Connection of phonetics with non-linguistic sciences

As mentioned above phonetics is connected with a number of non-linguistic

Subjective (special laboratory Objective (various

- the methods of - the linguistic

Let`s consider them separately. 1) The methods of direct observation

SEMINAR 1 Phonetics as a science

Problems to be discussed at the seminar:

Questions for discussion:

Check yourself with a «Kahoot» programme test.

1.The term “phonetics” is derived from:

STUDENTS` INDIVIDUAL WORK

1. Read the following sentences. Prove that phonetics is connected

1. Бурая, Е. А. Фонетика современного английского языка:

Summing up we can say that phonetics is very important in learning and

Articulatory phonetics studies the speech mechanisms, organs of speech,

MODULE II SOUNDS OF SPEECH AS ACOUSTIC AND

The content of the module

Articulation basis of the English language

The classification of English speech sounds according to articulatory

The study of the acoustic aspect of speech sounds

General overview of the classification of English sounds.

Speech sounds are characterized and

The classification of English Speech Sounds.

The articulatory classification of English vowels

Vowels are speech sounds based on voice which is modified in the

by the shape of the lips. The vowels

-the length of a vowel/the degree of muscular tension of the articulatory organs;

-the lip position ;.

-the tongue position;

the character of the vowel end, the force of articulation at the

According to the stability of

But according to the stability of articulation principle English vowels are

THE CHART OF THE ARTICULATORY CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENGLISH

24 English consonants can be classified

the the active

Description of the articulatory principles of English consonant

1) According to the presence/absence of voice and to the work of vocal cords

The chart of articulatory classification of English consonant sounds /

Modifications of sounds in connected speech

Assimilation- the adaptive modification of a consonant by a neighbouring

An unstressed vowel in different types of reduc