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SURVEYING & GEOMATICS Module 3
SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 3 (3.1)-

Sullabus 3.1- TRAVERSE SURVEYING – Methods of traversing, Checks in closed
traverse, Traverse computations, Balancing the traverse – Bowditch’s rule, Transit rule,
Graphical method based on bowditch rule, Gales teaverse table, Omitted measirements (a
line and an angle only)
TRAVERSE SURVEYING
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines from the
framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of an
angle (or direction) measuring instrument and a tape (or chain) respectively. When the lines from
a circuit which ends at starting point, it is known as a closed traverse. If the circuit ends
elsewhere, it is said to be an open traverse. The closed traverse is suitable for locating the
boundaries of lakes, woods etc., and for the survey of large areas. The open traverse is suitable
for surveying a long narrow strip of land as required for a road or canal or the coast line.
METHODS OF TRAVERSING
There are several methods of traversing, depending on the instruments used in

determining the relative directions of the traverse lines. The following are the principal methods
I. Chain methods
II. Chain and compass traversing (loose needle method)
III. Transit tape traversing
a) By fast needle method
b) By measurement of angles between the lines
IV. Plane-table traversing
Traverse survey differs from chain surveying in that arrangement of the survey lines is
not limited to any particular geometrical figure as in chain surveying, where a system of
connected triangles forms the fundamental basis of the skeleton. Also check lines etc. are not
necessary in traversing as the traverse lines may be arranged near the details. The details etc. are
directly located with respect to the survey lines either by offsetting (as in chain survey) or by any
other method.
I. CHAIN TRAVERSING
In this method, the whole of the work is done with the chain and tape. No angle
measuring instrument is used and the directions of the lines are fixed entirely by liner
measurements. Angles fixed by linear or tie measurements are known as chain angles.
Fig. (a) Shows a closed chain traverse. At A, the directions AB and AD are fixed by internal
measurements Aa1, Ad1 and a1d1. However, the direction may also be fixed by external
measurements such as at station B. fig. (b) Shows an open chain traverse. The method is
unsuitable for accurate work and is generally not used if an angle measuring instrument such as a
compass, sextant or theodolite is available.
Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

c2
b2 B c1 C
b1
A
(a)
C
C2
B c1
b2
b1
(b)
II.CHAIN AND COMPASS TRAVERSING (FREE OR LOOSE NEEDLE METHOD)
In chain and compass traversing, the magnetic bearings of the survey lines are measured
by a compass and the lengths of the lines are measured either with a chain or with a tape. The
direction of magnetic meridian is established at each traverse station independently. The method
is also known as free or loose needle method. A theodolite fitted with a compass may also be
used for measuring the magnetic bearings of the traverse line. However, the method is not so
accurate as that of transit tape traversing. The methods of taking the details are almost the same
as for chain surveying.

III.TRANSIT TAPE TRAVERSING
(a): By Fast Needle Method
In this method also, the magnetic bearings of traverse lines are measured by a theodolite
fitted with a compass. However, the direction of the magnetic meridian is not established at each
station but instead, the magnetic bearings of the lines are measured with reference so the
direction of magnetic meridian established at the first station. The method is therefore more
accurate than the loose needle method. The lengths of the lines are measured with a 20 m or 30
m steel tape. There are three methods of observing the bearing of lines by fast needle method.
i. Direct method with transiting
ii. Direct method without transiting
iii. Back bearing method
(i) Direct method with transiting
 Set the theodolite at P and level it. Set the vernier A exactly to zero reading. Loose the
clamp of the magnetic needle. Using lower clamp and tangent screw, point the telescope
to magnetic meridian.
 Loose the upper clamp and rotate the telescope clockwise to sight Q. bisect Q accurately
by using upper tangent screw. Read vernier A which gives magnetic bearing of the line
PQ.
P R
 With both the clamps clamped, move the instrument and set up at Q. using lower clamp
and tangent screw, take a book sight on P. See that the reading on the vernier A is still the
same as the bearing of PQ.
 Transit the telescope. The line of sight will now be in the direction of PQ while the
instrument reads bearing of PQ. The instrument is therefore oriented.
 Using the upper clamp and tangent screw, taken a foresight on R. Read vernier A which
gives the magnetic bearing of QR.

 Continue the process at other stations. It is to be noted here that the telescope will be
normal at one station and inverted at the next station. The method is therefore suitable
only if instrument is in adjustment.
(ii) Direct method without transiting
 Set the instrument at P and orient the line of sight in magnetic meridian.
 Using upper clamp and tangent screw tale a foresight on Q. the reading on vernier A
gives the magnetic bearing of PQ.
P R
 With both plates clamped, move the instrument and set it at Q. Take a backsight on P.
check the reading on vernier A which should the same as before. The line of sight is out
of orientation by 1800.
 Loosen the upper clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to take a foresight on R.
Read vernier. Since the orientation at Q is 1800 out, a correction of 1800 is to be applied
to the vernier reading to get the correct bearing of QR. Add 1800 if the reading on the
vernier is less than 1800 and subtract 1800 if it is more than 1800.
 Shift the instrument of R and take backsight on Q. The orientation at R will be out by
1800 with respect to that at Q and 3600 with respect to that at P. Thus, after taking a
foresight on the next station, the vernier reading will directly give magnetic bearing of
the line, without applying any correction of 1800.
The application of 1800 correction is therefore necessary only at 2nd, 4th, 6th station occupied.
Instead of applying correction at even station, opposite vernier may be read alternatively, i.e.,
vernier A at P, vernier B at Q, vernier A at R, etc. However, it is always convenient to read one
vernier throughout and apply the correction at alternate stations.

(iii) Back bearing method
 Set instrument at P and measure the magnetic bearing of PQ as before.

 Shift instrument and set at Q. Taking backsight on P, set vernier A to read back bearing
of PQ, and fix the upper clamp.
 Using lower clamp and tangent screw, take a backsight on P. The instrument is now
oriented since the line of sight is along QP when the instrument is reading the bearing of
QP (or back bearing of PQ).
 Loose upper clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to take a foresight on R. The
reading on vernier A gives directly the bearing on QR.
 The process is repeated at other stations.
Of the three methods of fast needle, the second method is the most satisfactory.
(b): Traversing By Direct Observation Of Angles
In this method, the angles between the lines are directly measured by a theodolite. The
method is therefore most accurate in comparison to the previous three methods. The magnetic
bearing of any line can also be measured (if required) and the magnetic bearing of other lines can
be calculated. The angles measured at different stations may be either (a) included angles or (b)
deflection angles.
(i) Traversing by included angle
An included angle at a station is either of the two angles formed by the two survey lines
meeting there. The method consists simply in measuring each angle directly from a backsight on
the preceding station. The angles may also be measured by repetition, if so desired. Both face
observations must be taken and both the vernier should be read. Included angles can be measured
either clockwise or counter-clockwise but it is better to measure all angles clockwise, since the
graduations of the theodolite circle increase in this direction. The angles measured clockwise
from the back station may be interior or exterior depending upon the direction of progress round
the survey. Thus, in Fig (a), direction of progress is counter-clockwise and hence the angles
measured clockwise are directly the interior angles. In Fig (b), the direction of progress around
the survey is clockwise and hence angles measured clockwise are exterior angles.
Q R Q R
P S P S
(a) (b)

(ii) Traversing by deflection angles
A deflection angle is the angle which a survey line makes with the prolongation of the
preceding line. It is designed as right (R) or left (L) according as it is measured clockwise or
anti-clockwise from the prolongation of the previous line.
This method of traversing is more suitable for survey of roads, railways, pipe-lines etc.
where the survey lines make small deflection angles. Great care must be taken in recording and
plotting whether it is right deflection angle or left deflection angle. However, except for
specialized work in which deflection angles are required, it is preferable to read the included
angles by reading clockwise from the back station. Lengths of lines are measured precisely using
a steel tape.
IV.PLANE TABLE TRAVERSING
Plane table traverse involves the same principles s a transit traverse. At each
successive station the table is set, a foresight is taken to the following station and its location is
plotted by measuring the distance between the two stations as in the radiation method described
earlier. Hence, traversing is not much different from radiation as far as working principles are
concerned --- the only difference is that in the case of radiation the observations are taken to
those points which are to be detailed or mapped while in the case of traversing the observations
are made to those points which will subsequently be used as instrument stations. The method is
widely used to lay down survey lines between the instrument stations of a closed or unclosed
traverse.
PROCEDURE
 Set the table at . Use plumbing fork for transferring on to the sheet. Draw the
direction of magnetic meridian with the help of trough compass.
 With the alidade pivoted about a, sight it to and draw the ray. Measure and
scale off to some scale. Similarly, draw ray towards measure and plot .
 Shift the table to and set it. Orient the table accurately by back-sighting . clamp
the table.
 Pivoting the alidade about , sight to . measure and plot it on the drawn ray to
the same scale. Similarly, the table can be set at other stations and the traverse is
completed.
It is to be noted here that the orientation is to be done by back-sighting. If there are n

stations in a closed traverse, the table will have to be set on at least (n---1) stations to know the
error of closure though the traverse may be closed even by setting it on (n—2) stations. At any
station a portion of the traverse may be checked if two or more of the preceding stations are
visible and are not in the same straight line with the station occupied.

d
c d
c
e e
b b
a a
check D C
check
E
e
e
b b
a a
A B
LOCATION DETAILS WITH TRANSIT AND TAPE
Following are some of methods of locating the details in theodolite traversing;
(1) Locating by angle and distance from one transit station
A point can be located from a transit station by taking an angle to the point and measuring
the corresponding distance from the station to the point. Any numbers of points can thus be
located. The angles are usually taken from the same backsight, as shown in Fig. The method is
suitable specially when the details are near the transit station.

To C
(2) Locating by angles from two transit stations
If the point or points are away from the transit stations or if linear measurements cannot
be made, the point can be located by measuring angles to the point from at least two stations.
This method is also known as method of intersection. For good intersection, the angle to point
should not be less than 200.
A B
To C
(3) Locating by distances from two stations
Fig. illustrates the method of locating a point by measuring angle at one station and
distance from the other. The method is suitable when point is inaccessible from station at which
angle is measured.
distance
A B
(4) Location by distances from two points on traverse line
If the point is near a transit line but is away from the transit station, it can located by
measuring its distance from two points on traverse line. The method is more suitable if such

reference points (such as x and y in Fig.) are full chain points so that can be staked when the
traverse line is being chained.
Distance Distance
From A x y To B
(5) Locating by offsets from the traverse line
If points to be detailed are more and are near to traverse line, they can be located by
taking offsets to the points as explained in chain surveying. The offsets may be oblique or may
be perpendicular.
CHECKS IN CLOSED TRAVERSE
The errors involved in traversing are two kinds: linear and angular. For important work
the most satisfactory method of checking the linear measurements consists in chaining each
survey line a second time, preferably in reverse direction on different dates and by different
parties. The following are the checks for the angular work:
(i) Traverse by included angles
a) sum of measured interior angles should be equal to (2N---4) right angles, where
N=numbers of sides of the traverse.
b) If the exterior angles are measured, their sum should be equal to (2N + 4) right angles.
(ii) Traverse by deflection angles
The algebraic sum of deflection angles should equal to 3600, taking the right-hand deflection
angles as positive and left-hand angles as negative.
(iii) Traverse by direct observation of bearings
The fore bearing of the last line should be equal to its back bearing ± 1800 measured at the
initial station.
CHECKS IN OPEN TRAVERSE:
No direct check of angular measurement is available. However, indirect checks can be

made, as illustrated in Fig.

D E E
P. D
C F
A C Q
A B G
(a) (b)
As illustrated in Fig. (a), in addition to the observation of bearing of at station ,

bearing of can also be measured, if possible. Similarly at bearing of can be measured
and check applied. If the two bearings differ by 1800, the work (upto D) may be accepted as
correct. If there is small discrepancy, it can be adjusted before proceeding further.
Another method, which furnishes a check when the work is plotted is as shown in Fig (b), and
consists in reading the bearing to any prominent point P from each of the consecutive stations.
The check in plotting consists in laying off the lines etc. and noting whether the lines
pass through one point. In the case of long and precise traverse, the angular errors can be
determined by astronomical observations for bearing at regular intervals during the progress of
the traverse.
TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS
CONSECUTIVE CO-ORDINATES: LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE
The latitude of a survey line may be defined as its co-ordinate length measured
parallel to an assumed meridian direction (i.e. true north or magnetic north or any other reference
direction). The departure of survey line may be defined as its co-ordinate length measured at
right angles to the meridian direction. The latitude (L) of the line is positive when measured
northward (or upward) and is termed as northing; the latitude is negative when measured
southward (or downward) and is termed as southing. Similarly, the departure (D) of the line is
positive when measured eastward and is termed as easting, the departure is negative when
measured westward and is termed as westing.
D=l sin
B
IV I
(+, -) l (+, +)
L=l cos
III II
(-, -) (-, +)

Thus in Fig. the latitude and departure of the line AB of length 1 and reduced bearing are
given by
L = + 1 cos
D = + 1 sin
To calculate the latitudes and departure of the traverse lines, therefore, it is first essential to
reduce the bearing in the quadrantal system. The sign of latitudes and departures will depend
upon the reduced bearing of a line. The following table gives signs of latitudes and departures.
W.C.B R.B. and Quadrant Sign of Latitude Sign of Departure

0 0
0 to 90 N E: I + +
900 to 1800 S E: II - +
1800 to 2700 S W: III - -
2700 to 3600 N W: IV + -
Thus, latitude and departure co-ordinates of any point with reference to the preceding point
are equal to the latitude and departure of the line joining the preceding point to the point under
consideration. Such co-ordinates are also known as consecutive co-ordinates or dependent co-
ordinates.
Problem 1: Calculate latitude and departure of the following traverse

Line Length (m) WCD
AB 232 320 12`
BC 148 1380 36`
CD 417 2020 24`
DE 372 2920
Line Length (l) WCB RB ( ) L = l cos D = l sin

N S E W
AB 232 32012` N 32012` E 196.32 123.63
BC 148 138036` S 41024` E 111.02 97.87
CD 417 202024` S 22024` W 385.54 158.91
DE 372 2920 N 680 W 139.35 344.91
INDEPENDENT CO-ORDINATE
The co-ordinates of traverse stations can be calculated with respect to a common origin.
The total latitude and departure of any point with respect to a common origin are known as
independent co-ordinates or total co-ordinates of the point. The two reference axes in this case
may be chosen to pass through any of the traverse station but generally a most westerly station is
chosen for this purpose. The independent co-ordinates of any point may be obtained by adding
algebraically the latitudes and the departure of the lines between that point and the origin.

Thus, total latitude (or departure) of end point of a traverse = total latitudes (or departures).
The axes are so chosen that the whole of the survey lines lie in the north east quadrant with
respect to the origin so that the co-ordinates of all the points are positive. To achieve this,
arbitrary values of co-ordinates are assigned to the starting point and co-ordinates of other points
are calculated.
Problem 2: Calculate total coordinate of the following traverse

Line Length WCD
(m)
AB 232 320 12`
BC 148 1380 36`
CD 417 2020 24`
DE 372 2920
Dependent co-ordinates Total co-

Stn Line Length WCB RB ordinates
L = cos D= sin L D
N S E W N E
A 600 700
AB 232 32012` N 32012` E
B 196.32 123.63 796.32 823.63
BC 148 138036` S 41024` E
C 111.02 97.87 685.3 921.5
CD 417 202024` S 22024`W
D 385.54 158.91 299.76 762.59
DE 372 2920 N 680W

E 139.35 344.91 439.11 417.68

CLOSING ERROR
If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end point of the
traverse will coincide exactly with the starting point, owing to the errors in the field
measurements of angles and distances. Such error is known as closing error.
C D
B
Closing error A`
In a closed traverse, algebraic sum of the latitudes (i.e. ) should be zero and the
algebraic sum of the departures (i.e. ) should be zero. The error of closure for such traverse
may ascertained by finding and , both of these being the components of error parallel
and perpendicular to the meridian.
Closing error = AA' =
The direction of closing error is given by
tan =
The sign of and will thus define the quadrant in which the closing error lies. The
relative error of closure is
= = = ⁄

Adjustment of the angular error
Before calculating latitudes and departures, the traverse angles should be adjusted to
satisfy geometric conditions. In a closed traverse, the sum of interior angles should be equal to
(2N – 4) right angles (or the algebraic sum of deflection angles should be 3600). If the angles are
measured with the same degree of precision, the error in the sum of angles may be distributed
equally to each angle of the traverse. If the angular error is small, it may be arbitrarily distributed
among two or three angles.
Adjustment of bearings
in a closed traverse in which bearings are observed, the closing error in bearing may be
determined by comparing the two bearings of the last line as observed at the first and last stations
of traverse. Let be the closing error in bearing of last line of a closed traverse having N sides.
We get
Correction for first line =

Correction for second line =
Correction for third line =
Correction for last line = =e
BALANCING THE TRAVERSE
The term ‘balancing’ is generally applied to the operation of applying corrections to

latitudes and departures so that = 0 and = 0. This applies only when the survey forms a
closed polygon.
The following are common methods of adjusting a traverse:
1. Bowditch’s method
2. Transit method
3. Graphical method
4. Axis method
1.Bowditch’s method
The basis of this method is on the assumptions that the errors in linear measurements are
proportional to and that the errors in angular measurements are inversely proportional to
where l is the length of a line. The Bowditch’s rule, also termed as the compass rule, is mostly
used to balance a traverse where linear and angular measurements are of equal precision. The
total error in latitude and in the departure is distributed in proportion to the lengths of the sides.
The Bowditich Rule is:

Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side
= Total error in latitude (or departure) x

Thus if,
CL = correction to latitude of any side
CD = correction of departure of any side
= total error in latitude
= total error in departure
= length of the perimeter
l = length of any side
We have, CL = x and CD = x
2.Transit method
The transit rule may be employed where angular measurements are more precise than the
linear measurements. According to this rule, the total error in latitudes and in departures is
distributed in proportion to the latitudes and departures of the sides. It is claimed that the angles
are less affected by corrections applied by transit method than by those by Bowditich’s method.
The transit rule is

Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side =
x
Thus if,
L = latitude of any line
D = departure of any line
L1 = arithmetic sum of latitudes
D1 = arithmetic sum of departure
We have, CL = x and CD = x
3.Graphical method
For rough survey, such as a compass traverse, the Bowditch rule may be applied
graphically without doing theoretical calculations. Thus, according to the graphical method, it is
not necessary to calculate latitude and departures etc. however, before plotting traverse directly
from the field notes the angles or bearings may be adjusted to satisfy geometric conditions of the
traverse.
D` C`
E` D C
E
a
d e
B` b c
A`
A B A` B` C` D` E` A`
(a) (b)

Thus, in Fig. (a), polygon represents an unbalanced traverse having a closing

error equal to since the first point A and he last point are not coinciding. The total closing
error is distributed linearly to all the sides in proportion to their length by a graphical
construction shown in Fig. (b). In Fig. (b), etc. represent length of sides of the
traverse either to the same scale as that of Fig. (a) or to a reduced scale. The ordinate is made
equal to the closing error (of Fig. (a)) by constructing similar triangles, the corresponding
errors , are found. In Fig. (a), lines are drawn parallel to the
closing error and made equal to respectively. The polygon ABCDE so
obtained represents the adjusted traverse. It should be remembered that the ordinates
of Fig. (b) represent the corresponding errors in magnitude only but not in
direction.
GALES TRAVERSE TABLE
Traverse computations are usually done in a tabular form, a more common form being
Gales traverse table. For complete traverse computations, the following steps are usually
necessary:
 right angles and exterior angles (2N + 4) right in the case of a compass traverse, the
bearings are adjusted for local attraction, if any.
 Starting with observed bearings of one line, calculate the bearings of all other lines.
Reduce all bearings to quadrantal system.
 Calculate the consecutive co-ordinates (i.e latitudes and departures).
 Calculate and
 Apply necessary corrections to the latitudes and departures of the lines so that =0
and = 0. The corrections may be applied either by transit rule or by compass rule
depending upon the type of traverse.
 Using the corrected consecutive co-ordinates, calculate the independent co-ordinates to
the points so that they are all positive, the whole of the traverse thus lying in the North
east quadrant.
Problem 3: The length and bearing of a closed traverse ABCD, as observed with transit
theodolite, are given below. Prepare a Gale’s traverse table.
Line Length (m) Included Angle WCB

AB 250 < A = 950 24` 860 42`
BC 123 < B = 880 42`
CD 256 < C = 880 12`
DA 108 <D = 880 06`

Geometric check:
Sum of interior angle = (2N – 4)900
LHS = < A + < B + < C + < D = 360024`0``
RHS = (2N – 4)900 = (2 x 4 – 4)900
N=4 = 3600
error = 360024` – 3600 = 24`
correction = -24`
Correction to each angle = = -6`
Reduced bearing from induced angle:
Bearing of any line = [bearing of previous line + measured clockwise angle] ± 1800
: FB of AD = [FB of BA + < A] ± 1800
= [(FB of AB ± 1800) + corrected < A] ± 1800
= [(86042` + 1800) + 95018`] -1800
= 3620 – 1820 = 1820
: FB of DC = [FB of AD + < D] ± 1800
= [1820 + 880] – 1800
= 900
: FB of CB = [FB of DC + < C] ± 1800
= [900 + 88006`] +1800
= 35806`
: FB of BA = [FB of CB + < B] ± 1800
= [35806` + 88036`] -1800
= 266042`

WCB:
FAB = FBA ± 1800 = 266042` – 1800 = 86042`
Hence check is ok
FBC = FCB ± 1800 = 35806` – 1800 = 17806`
FCD = FDC ± 1800 = 900 + 1800 = 2700
FDA = FAD ± 1800 = 1820 – 1800 = 20
RB:
AB – N 86042` E
BC – S 1054È
CD – S 900 W
DA – N 20 E
CL = x
(CL)AB = = 0.036
(CL)BC = = 0.306
(CL)CD = =0
(CL)DA = = 0.268
CD = x
(CD)AB = = 0.7
(CD)BC = = 0.011
(CD)CD = = 0.718
(CD)DA = = 0.011

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9E 10 11 12 13
Statio Line Included Corrected RB Consecutive coordinates Correction Corrected consecutive coordinates Independent
n And angle included coordinates
length angle
L= cos D= sin L D L D L D
N S E W N S E W N S E W N E
SURVEYING & GEOMATICS
A 950241 950181 107.93 3.77 +0.268 -0.011 108.198 3.76 300 400
assumption
AB N860421E
250
B 880421 880361 14.39 249.59 +0.036 -0.7 14.43 248.89 300 + 14.43
=
314.43
BC S10541E
123
C 880121 88061 122.93 4.08 -0.306 -0.011 122.62 4.07
CD N900W
256
D 880061 880 0 256 +0 +0.718 0 256.72
DA N20E
108
Sum 122.32 122.93 257.44 256

= -0.61 = 1.44
Module 3
Problem 4: The length and bearing of a closed traverse ABCDE, as observed with transit
theodolite, are given below. Prepare a Gale’s traverse table.
Line Length (m) Included angle WCB

AB 69.90 960 53` 15`` 2870 54` 10``
BC 81.0 750 3` 17``
CD 42.9 1590 5` 15``
DE 37.65 1280 33` 43``
EA 114.60 800 25` 18``

Angle Corrected W.C Reduced Quadrant Line Consecutive co-ordinates Corrections
Closing error =
angles bearing bearing
Latitude Departure
point
Correction
Inst station
Northing Southing Westing Easting Northing Southing Westing Easting
A 9605311511 -ve 960531311 A 112.500 21.9000 +0.3219 +0.1093

1211
+
28705411011 7205115011 N.W.1V AB
SURVEYING & GEOMATICS
69.90
m
B 750311711 1211 75031511 B 21.183 66.540 +0.1963 -0.0666
18205711511 205711511 S.W.111 BC

81.0
m
C 1590511511 1211 159051311 C 80.910 4.143 -0.2274 -0.0772
The reduced bearing ( ) of the closing error tan-1

= 1.027 m
1620211811 1705714211 S.E.11 CD
42.9
m
D 128033143 1211 1280331311 D 40.800 13.233 -0.1205 +0.0409

11 1
11003514911 6902411111 S.E.11 DE

37.65
m
E 8002513011 1211 8002511811 E 13.245 35.220 -0.1057 +0.0374
Perimeter = 346.05 m. the closing error is expressed as the fraction =

11011711 11011711 N.E.1 EA
114.60
m
Total 540011011 11 540001011 Total 133.983 134.955 70.353 70.683 5.5182 0.4536 0.1876 0.1438

= 18045 = S. 18045` W
Total 346.05 m -0.972 0.330 Total 0.9718 0.3314
0.972 0.331
Module 3
OMITTED MEASUREMENTS
CONSECUTIVE CO-ORDINATES: LATITUDE AND DEPATURE
There are two principal methods of plotting a traverse survey: (1) the angle and distance
method, and (2) the co-ordinate method. If the length and bearing of a survey line are known, it
can be representation on plan by two rectangular co-ordinates. The axes of the co-ordinates are
the north & south line, and the east & west line. The latitude of survey line may be defined as its
co-ordinate length measured parallel to the meridian direction. The departure of the survey line
may be defined as its co-ordinate length measured at right angles to the meridian direction. The
latitude (L) of the line is positive when measured northward (or upward) and is termed as
northing. The latitude is negative when measured southward (or downward) and is termed as
southing. Similarly, the departure (D) of the line is positive when measured eastward and is
termed as easting. The departure is negative when measured westward and is termed as westing.
N
D1(+)
A
D4(-) l1 L1(+)
D
L4(+) l4
W O E
L3(-)
l3
C D3(-) l2 L2(-)
B
D2(+)
Fig. : Latitude and departure
Thus, in Fig., the latitude and departure of the line OA of length l1 and reduced bearing is
given by

L1 = + l1 cos 1
&
D1 = + l1 sin
To calculate the latitudes and departures of the traverse lines, therefore, it is first essential to
reduce the bearing in the quadrantal system. The sign of latitude and departures will depend upon
the reduced bearing of line.
The following table gives the signs of latitudes and departures.
W.C.B R.B & Quadrant Sign of

Latitude departure
00 to 900 N E; I + +
900 to 1800 S E; II - +
1800 to 2700 S W; III - -
2700 to 3600 N W; IV + -
Thus, latitude and departure co-ordinates of any point with reference to the preceding point are
equal to the latitude and departure of the line joining the preceding point to the point under
consideration. Such co-ordinates are also known as consecutive co-ordinates or dependent co-
ordinates.
Independent co-ordinates
The co-ordinates of traverse station can be calculated with respect to a common origin. The
total latitude and departure of any point with respect to a common origin are known as
independent co-ordinates or total co-ordinates of the point. The two reference axes in this case
may be chosen to pass through any of the traverse stations but generally a most westerly station
is chosen for this purpose. The independent co-ordinates of any point may be obtained by adding
algebraically the latitudes and the departure of the lies between the point and the origin.
Thus, total latitude (or departure) of end point of a traverse = total latitudes (or departures)
of first point of traverse plus the algebraic sum of all the latitudes (or departures).
OMITTED MEASUREMENTS
In order to have a check on field work and in order to balance a traverse, the length and
direction of each line is generally measured in the field. There are times, however, when it is not
possible to take all measurements due to obstacles or because of some over-sight. Such omitted
measurements or missing quantities can be calculated by latitudes and departures provided the
quantities required are not more than two. In such cases, there can be no check on the field work
nor can the survey be balanced. All errors propagated throughout the survey are thrown into the
computed values of the missing quantities.

Since for a closed traverse, and are zero, we have
= l1 cos + l2 cos + l3 cos + …….. = 0

&
= l1 sin + l2 sin + l3 sin + …….. = 0
Where l1, l2, l3……etc, are the lengths of the lines and , , , …..etc. their reduced
bearings. With the help of the above two equations, the two missing quantities can be calculated.
Table 8.2 below gives the trigonometric relations of a line with its latitude and departure, and
may be used for the computation of omitted measurements.
Given Required Formula

l, L L = l cos
l, D D = l sin
L, D tan tan = D/L
L, L l = L sec
D, L l = D cosec
L, l cos cos = L/l
D, l sin sin = D/l
L, D L l=
There are four general cases of omitted measurements;
I. (a) when the bearing of one side is omitted.

(b) when the length of one side is omitted.
(c) when the bearing and length of one side is omitted.
II. When the length of one side and the bearing of another side are omitted.
III. When the lengths of two sides are omitted.
IV. When the bearings of two sides are omitted.
In case (I), only one side is affected. In case II, III and IV two sides are affected both of
which may either be adjacent or may be away.
CASE I: BEARING, OR LENGTH, OR BEARING AND LENGTH OF ONE SIDE

OMITTED
In Fig. 8.2, let it be required to calculate either bearing or length or both bearing and length
of the line . Calculate and of the four known sides and .

4 3
E C
5 2
A 1 B
Then
= Latitude of EA + =0
Or
Latitude of EA = -
Similarly, = Departure of EA + =0
Or
Departure EA = -
Knowing latitude and departure of EA, its length and bearing can be calculated by proper
trigonometrical relations.
CASE II: LENGTH OF ONE SIDE AND BEARING OF ANOTHER SIDE OMITTED
In Fig. 8.3, let the length of and bearing of be omitted. Join which becomes
the closing line of the traverse in which all the quantities are known. Thus the length and
bearing of can be calculated as in case I.
D
3
4 C
E closing line
5 2
A 1 B
In the length of sides and are known, and angle ( ) is known. The
angle and the length can be calculated as under.

Sin = sin
= 1800 – ( – )
DE = EA = DA
Knowing , the bearing of can be calculated.
Example 5 : The table below gives the lengths and bearings of the lines of a traverse
the length and bearing of EA having been omitted. Calculated the length and bearing of the line
.
Line Length (m) Bearing

AB 204.0 870 30`
BC 226.0 200 20`
CD 187.0 2800 0`
DE 192.0 2100 3`
EA ? ?
Solution. Fig. 8.2 shows the traverse in which is the closing line of the polygon.
Knowing the length and bearing of the lines and , their latitudes and departures
can be calculated and tabulated as under:
Line Latitude Departure

+ - + -
AB 8.90 203.80
BC 211.92 78.52
CD 32.48 184.16
DE 165.44 97.44
Sum 253.30 165.44 282.32 281.60
= +87.86 = +0.72
Latitude of EA = - = -87.86 m and departure EA = - = -0.72 m. since the latitude of

EA is negative and departure is also negative it lies in the SW quadrant. The reduced bearing ( )
of EA is given by
tan = = or = 00 28`
Bearing of EA = S 00 28` W = 1800 28`
Also Length of EA = = = 87.85

Example 6: A closed traverse was conducted round an obstacle and the following observations
were made. Work out the missing quantities:
Side Length (m) Azimuth

AB 500 980 30`
BC 620 300 20`
CD 468 2980 30`
DE ? 2300 0`
EA ? 1500 10`
Solution. The affected sides are adjacent. Fig. 8.3 shows the traverse in which is
closing line of the polygon . The latitude and departure of the closing line can be
calculated. The calculations are shown in the tabular form below:
Line Latitude Departure

+ - + -
AB 73.91 494.50
BC 535.11 313.11
CD 223.45 411.29
Sum 758.56 73.91 807.61 411.29
= +684.55 = +396.32
Latitude of DA = - = -684.55 and departure DA = - = -396.32.

Since both latitude and departure are negative, the line DA is in third (i.e. SW) quadrant, the
reduced bearing ( ) of DA is given by
tan = = = 300 4`
Bearing of DA = S 300 4` W = 2100 4`

Length of DA = l = L sec = 684.55 sec 300 4` = 791.01 m
From Fig. 8.3, < ADE = = 2300 0` - 2100 4` = 190 56`
<DEA = = 1500 10` - (2300 – 1800) = 1000 10`
< DAE = = 2100 4` - 1500 10` = 590 54`
(Check: + + = 190 56` + 1000 10` + 590 54` = 1800)

SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 3 (3.2)-
Sullabus3.2- THEORY OF ERRORS- Types, theory of least squares, Weighting of

observations, Most probable value, Computation of indirectly observed quantities- method
of normal equations.
THEORY OF ERRORS
TYPES OF ERRORS
Errors of measurement are of three kinds: (i) mistakes (ii) systematic errors, and (iii) accidental
error.
(i) Mistakes
Mistakes are errors that arise from inattention, in experience, carelessness and poor
judgement or confusion in the mind of the observer.
(ii) Systematic Error

A systematic error is an error that under the same conditions, will always be of the same size
and sign. Such errors are of constant character and are regarded as positive or negative
according as they make the result too great or too small. Their effect is therefore, cumulative.
(iii) Accidental Error

Accidental errors are those which remain after mistakes and systematic errors have been
eliminated and are caused by a combination of reasons beyond the ability of the observer to
control. They tend sometimes in one direction and sometimes in other, i.e., they are equally
likely to make the apparent results too large or too small.
DEFINITIONS
Independent Quantity. An observed quantity may be classified as (i)independent and (ii)

conditioned. An independent quantity is the one whose value is independent of the values of
other quantities. It bears no relation with any other quantity and hence change in the other
quantities does not affect the value of this quantity.
Example: reclined levels of several bench marks.
Conditioned Quantity. A conditioned quantity is the one whose value is dependent upon the
values of one or more quantities. Its value bears a rigid relationship to some other quantity or
quantities. It is also called a dependent quantity . For example, in a triangle ABC, <A + < B+ <C
= 1800. In this conditioned equation any two angles may be regarded as independent and the
third as dependent or conditioned.

Direct Observation. An observation is the numerical value of a measured quantity, and may be
either direct or indirect. A direct observation is the one made directly on the quantity being
determined, e.g., the measurement of a base, the single measurement of an angle etc.
Indirect Observation. An indirect observation is one in which the observed value is deducted
from the measurement of some related quantities, e.g., the measurement of angle by repetition (a
multiple of the angle being measured).
Weight of an Observation. The weight of an observation is a number giving an indication of its

precision and trustworthiness when making a comparison between several quantities of different
worth. Thus, if a certain observation is of weight 4, it means that it is four times a much reliable
as an observation of weight 1. When two quantities or observations are assumed to be equally
reliable, the observed values are said to be of equal weight or of unit weight. Observations are
called weighted when different weights are assigned to them. Observations are required to be
weighted when they are made with unequal care and under dissimilar conditions. Weights are
assigned to the observations or quantities observed in direct proportion to the number of
observations.
Observed Value of a Quantity. An observed value of a quantity is the value obtained when it is
corrected for all the known errors.
True Value of Quantity. The true value of a quantity is the value which is absolutely free from
all the errors. The true value of a quantity is indeterminate since the true error is never known.
Most Probable Value. The most probable value of a quantity is the one which has more chances
of being true than has any other. It is deduced from the several measurements on which it is
based.
True Error. A true error is the difference between the true value of a quantity and its observed
value.
Most Probable Error. The most probable error is defined as that quantity which added to, and
subtracted from, the most probable value fixes the limits within which it is an even chance the
true value of the measured quantity must lie.
Residual Error. A residual error is the difference between the most probable value of a quantity
and its observed value.
Observation Equation. An observation equation is the relation between the observed quantity
and its numerical value.
Conditioned Equation. A conditioned equation is the equation expressing the relation existing
between the several dependent quantities.
Normal Equation. A normal equation is the one which is formed by multiplying each equation
by the co-efficient of the unknown whose normal equation is to be found and by adding the

equations thus formed. As the number of normal equations is the same as the number of
unknowns. the most probable values of the unknown can be found from these equations.
THE LAWS OF ACCIDENTAL ERRORS
Investigations of observations of various types show that accidental errors follow a definite law,
the law of probability. This law defines the occurrence of errors and can be expressed in the form
of equation which is used to compute the probable value or the probable precision of a quantity.
The most important features of accidental errors which usually occur are :
1. Small errors tend to be more frequent than the large ones; that is they are the most
probable.
2. Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency; that is, they
are equally probable.
3. Large errors occurs infrequently and are impossible.
Probability Curve. The theory of probability describes these features by stating that the relative
frequencies of errors of different extents can be represented by a curve as shown in figure.
Probability Curve
This curve, called the curve of error or probability curve, forms the basis for the mathematical
derivation of theory of errors.
The formula for probable error is difficult to derive. It is stated here categorically:
Probable error of a single measurement is given by
Es =  0.6745
v 2
n 1
where Es = Probable error of single observation.
v = Difference between any single observation and the mean (or average) of the series.
n = Number of observations in the series.

Probable Error of an Average. Since the average of n measurements is the sum of the
n
measurements divided by n, the probable error of the average of n measurements is times the
n
probable error of one measurement. Thus, probable error of an average or mean is given by
Em = 
n
0.6745
 v = 0.6745  v = Es
2 2
n n 1 n(n  1) n
where Em = probable error of the mean.
Probable Error of a Sum. When a measurement is the result of the sums and differences of
several (n) observations having different probable errors E1, E2, E3….En, the probable error of
the measurement is the square root of the sum of the squares of the probable errors of the several
observations. Thus,
E E E  .......... E n
2 2 2 2
Probable error of measurement = 1 2 3
Most Probable Value. As defined earlier the most probable value of a quantity is the one which
has more chances of being true than any other. It can be proved from the theory of errors that:
i. The most probable value of a quantity is equal to the arithmetic mean if the observations
are of equal weight.
ii. The most probable value of a quantity is equal to the weighted arithmetic mean in case
of observations of unequal weights.
Average Error. An error in a series of observation of equal weight is defined as the arithmetical
mean of separate errors, taken all with the same sign, either plus or minus.
Mean Square Error (m.s.e.). The mean square error is equal to the square root of the arithmetic
mean of the squares of the individual errors.
2
v1 v2 v3 ......... v
2 2 2
Thus, m.s.e. =  
n
n
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LEAST SQUARES
According to the principle of least squares, the most probable value of an observed quantity
available from a given set of observations is the one for which the sum of the squares of the
residual errors is a minimum.
The arithmetic mean is the true value where the number of observed value is very large.
Hence the sum of the residuals equals zero and the sum of plus residual equals the sum of the
minus residuals.
The sum of the squares of the residuals found by the use of the arithmetic mean is a minimum.
This is thus, the fundamental law of least squares.

LAWS OF WEIGHTS
From the method of least squares the following laws of weights are established:
(1) The weight of the arithmetic mean of the measurements of unit weight is equal to
the number of observations.
For example, let an angle A be measured six times, the following being the values:
<A Weight <A Weight
300 20’ 8” 1 300 20’10” 1
300 20’10” 1 300 20’ 9” 1
300 20’7” 1 300 20’ 10” 1
1
Arithmetic mean = 300 20’ + (8” + 10” + 7” + 10” + 9” + 10”) = 300 20’ 9”
6
Weight of arithmetic mean = number of observations = 6
(2) The weight of the weighted arithmetic mean is equal to the sum of the individual
weights.
<A Weight <A Weight
300 20’ 8” 2 300 20’ 10” 3
300 20’ 10” 3 300 20’ 9” 4
300 20’ 6” 2 300 20’ 10” 2

Sum of individual weights = 2 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 2 = 16
1
Weighted arithmetic mean = 300 20’ + (8”x 2) + (10” x 3) + (6” x 2) + (10” x 3) + (9” x
16
4) + (10” x 2) = 300 20’ 9”
Weight of the weighted arithmetic mean = 16
(3) The weight of algebraic sum of two or more quantities is equal to the reciprocal of
the sum of reciprocals of individual weights.
For example let α = 420 10’ 20”, weight 4

β = 300 40’ 10”, weight 2
1 1 3
Sum of reciprocals of individual weights =  
4 2 4

1 1 4
 Weight of α + β (=720 50’ 30”) =  
1 1 3 3

4 2 4
1 1 4
Weight of α - β (=110 30’ 10”) =  
1 1 3 3

4 2 4
(4) If a quantity of given weight is multiplied by a factor, the weight of the result obtained
by dividing its given weight by the square of the factor.
For example , let α = 420 10’ 20”, weight 6.

6 6 2
Then, weight of 3α (=1260 31’) = 2
 
(3) 9 3
(5) If a quantity of given weight is divided by a factor, the weight of the result is
obtained multiplying its given weight by the square of the factor.
For example , let α = 420 10’ 30”, weight 4.


Then weight of (=140 3’ 30”) = 4(3)2 = 36.
3
(6) If an equation is multiplied by its own weight, the weight of the resulting equation is
equal to the reciprocal of the weight of the equation.
3
For example , let A+ B = 980 20’ 30”, weight .
5
3 1 5
Then, weight of (A+ B) = [ 590 0’ 18”] is equal to or .
5 3 3
5
(7) The weight of an equation remains unchanged, if all the signs of the equation are
changed or if the equation is added to or subtracted from a constant.
For example , let A+ B = 800 20’ , weight 3.

Then weight of 1800 - (A+B) or [990 40’] is equal to 3.
RULES OF ASSIGNING WEIGHTAGE TO THE FIELD OF OBSERVATIONS

The following rules may be employed in giving the weights to the various field observations:
(1) The weight of an angle varies directly as the number of the observations made for the
measurement of that angle.
(2) Weights vary inversely as the length of various routes in the case of lines of levels.
(3) If an angle is measured a large number of times, its weight is inversely proportional to the
square of the probable error.
(4) The corrections to be applied to various observed quantities are in inverse proportion to
their weights.

DETERMINATION OF PROBABLE ERROR
1. Direct observations of equal weight on a single unknown quantity

(a) p.e. of single observation of unit weight.
(b) p.e. of single observation of weight w.
(c) p.e. of single arithmetic mean.
2. Direct observations of unequal weight on a single unknown quantity.
(a) p.e. of single observation of unit weight.

(b) p.e. of single observation of weight w.
(c) p.e. of weighted arithmetic mean.
Case 1. Direct Observations of Equal Weight on a Single Unknown Quantity

If observations on a single quantity are made with equal weights, its most probable value will be
equal to the arithmetic mean. Knowing the most probable value, the residual error (v1, v2, v3
etc…) of each individual measurement can be found by subtracting the most probable value from
each observed value. Then:
(a) Probable error (p.e.) of single observation of unit weight
Es =  0.6745
v 2
n 1
where  v  v1  v2  v3  ....  vn ;
2 2 2 2 2
v = residual error
n = number of observations.
(b) Probable error of single observation of weight w.

= p.e. of single observation of unit weight / √weight
 E s

(c) Probable error of the arithmetic mean
Em =  0.6745 v 2
=
Es
n(n  1) n
Case 2. Direct Observations of Unequal Weights on a Single Quantity
From the principle of least squares, the most probable values of the observed quantities (of
unequal weights or precision) are those that render the sum of the weighted squares of the
residual errors a minimum.
The most probable value of the observed quantity is equal to the weighted arithmetic mean of the
observed quantities.
(a) Probable error (p.e.) of single observation of unit weight
= Es =  0.6745
 wv 2
n  1
(b) Probable error of single observation of weight w

= p.e. of single observation of unit weight / √weight
 E  0.6745
s  wv 2
w w(n  1)
(c) Probable error of weighted arithmetic mean
 0.6745
 wv 2
 w *(n  1)
Case 3. Probable Error of Computed Quantities
The probable error of computed quantities follow the following laws depending upon the relation
between the computed quantity and the observed quantity.
1. If a computed quantity is equal to sum or difference of the observed quantity plus or minus
a constant, the probable error of the computed quantity is the same as that of the observed
quantity.
Let x = observed quantity; y = computed quantity; k = a constant

y  x  k
e e
y x
where ex = probable error of the observed quantity

ey = corresponding probable error of the computed quantity

For example, let < A + < B = 900

< B = 460 30’ 20”
p.e. in observation of < B = 0”.4
then , the p.e. in observation of < A = 0”.4
Now < A = 900 - < B = < 900 – 460 30’ 20” = 430 29’ 40”
and probable value of < A = 430 29’ 40” 0”.4.
2. If a computed quantity is equal to an observed quantity multiplied by a constant, the p.e. of

computed quantity is equal to the p.e. of observed quantity multiplied by the constant.
Let x = observed quantity; y = computed quantity; k = a constant

Such that y = kx
Then ey = kex
For example, let A = 4.6 B
B = 2.2 (observed); p.e. in B = 0.02
Then A = 4.6 B = 4.6 * 2.2 = 10.12
And p.e. in observation of A = k * ( )
= 4.6 * ( 0.02) = 0.092
Hence probable value of A = 10.12 0.092
3. If a computed quantity is equal to the sum of two or more observed quantities, the p.e. of the
computed quantity is equal to the square root of the sum of the square of p.e.’s of observed
quantities.
Let x1, x2, x3…. be the observed quantities

y = computed quantity
such that y = x1+ x2+ x3….
Then ey =
ey = p.e. of the computed quantity
= p.e. of the observed quantities.
For example, let A + B + C = 1800
A = 300 30’ 12” 0”.2
B = 680 45’ 48” 0”.6
C = 800 44’ 00” 0”.4
To determine the probable error of the summation.
Now, y = A + B + C = 1800
ey = =
= = 0”.75 = p.e. of the summation.

4. If a computed quantity is a function of an observed quantity, its probable error is obtained

by multiplying the p.e. of the observed quantity with its differentiation with respect to that
quantity.
Let x = observed quantity; y = computed quantity

Such that y = f(x)
Then ey = ex
For example let A = 4.6 B
B = 2.2 (observed)
p.e. of B = 0.02
Now A = 4.6 B
= 4.6
ea = 4.6 eb = 4.6 ( 0.02) = 0.092
which is same as found by rule 2.
5. If a computed quantity is a function of two more observed quantities, its probable error is
equal to the square root of summation of the squares of the p.e. of the observed quantity
multiplied by its differentiation with respect to that quantity.
Let x1, x2, x3…. be the observed quantities

y = computed quantity
such that y = f(x1, x2, x3 etc.)
Then ey =
where ey = probable error of the computed quantity
= probable errors of observed quantities.
For example, let A = 4B x C; B = 22 0.02; C = 10 0.01
Now A = 4 BC
= 4C = 4 x 10 = 40
= 4B = 4 x 22 = 88
ea=
= = = 1.19

Example 1. The following are the observed values of an angle:

Angle Weight
0
40 20’ 20” 2
400 20’ 18” 2
0
40 20’ 19” 3
Find: (a) p.e. of single observation of unit weight
(b) p.e. of weighted arithmetic mean
(c) p.e. of single observation of weight 3.
Solution:
The computations are arranged in the tabular form below. Since the error is in seconds only, the
degrees and minutes of the quantities have not been included in the tabulation:
value Weight Value x Weight v v2 wv2

20” 2 40” +1 1 2
18” 2 36” -1 1 2
19” 3 57” 0 0 0
Weighted mean = 19
∑w = 7 ∑wv2 = 4
”
In the above table,

Weighted arithmetic mean of the seconds readings of the observed angles
= = = = 19”
v1 = 20” – 19” = 1” ; v2 = 18” – 19” = -1” ; v3 = 19” – 19” = 0
(a) p.e. of single observation of unit weight = Es
 0.6745
 wv 2
 0.6745
4
 0.95.
n 1 3 1
(b) p.e. of weighted arithmetic mean
 0.6745
 wv  0.6745
2
4
 0.36
 w(n  1) 7*2
(c) p.e. of single observation of weight 3

 E s

0.95
 0.55.
w 3
DISTRIBUTION OF ERROR OF THE FIELD MEASUREMENTS
Whenever observations are made in the field, it is always necessary to check for the closing
error, if any, the closing error should be distributed to the observed quantities. For example, the
sum of the angles measured at a central angle should be 3600; if the sum is not equal to 3600, the

error should be distributed to the observed angles after giving proper weightage to the
observations. The following rules should be applied for distribution of errors:
(1) The correction to be applied to an observation is inversely proportional to the weight of

the observation.
(2) The correction to be applied to an observation is directly proportional to the square of
the probable error.
(3) In case of line of levels, the correction to be applied is proportional to the length.
Example 2: The following are the three angles observed at a station P closing the
horizon, along with their probable errors of measurement. Determine their correct values.
780 12’ 12” 1360 48’ 30” 1440 59’ 08”
Solution:
Sum of three angles = 3590 59’ 50”

Discrepency = 10”
Hence each angle is to be increased, and the error of 10” is to be distributed in proportion to the
square of the probable error.
Let c1, c2 and c3 be the correction to be applied to the angles respectively.
c1 : c2 : c3 = (2)2 : (4)2: (5)2 = 4 : 16 : 25 ……………(1)
Also, c1+ c2+ c3 = 10” …………..(2)
Form (1) , c2 = 16/4 c1 = 4 c1 and c3 = c1
Substituting these values of c2 and c3 in (2), we get
c1 + 4c1 + c1 = 10”
or c1 (1 + 4 + ) = 10”
c1 = 10 x = 0”.89
c2 = 4 c1 = 3”.56 and c3 = c1 = 5”.55
Check: c1+ c2+ c3 = 0”.89 + 3”.56 + 5”.55 = 10”
Hence the corrected angles are
780 12’ 12” = 780 12’ 12”.
1360 48’ 30” 1360 48’ 33”
1440 59’ 08” 1440 59’ 13
Sum = 3600 00’ 00

Example 3. An angle A was measured by different persons and the following are the values
Angle Number of measurements

0
65 30’ 10” 2
650 29’ 50” 3
650 30’ 00” 3
650 30’ 20” 4
650 30’ 10” 3
Find the most probable value of the angle.
Solution:
The most probable value of an angle is equal to its weighted arithmetic mean.
650 30’ 10” * 2 = 1310 00’ 20”
650 29’ 50” * 3 = 1960 29’ 30”
650 30’ 00” * 3 = 1960 30’ 00”
650 30’ 20” * 4 = 2620 01’ 20”
650 30’ 10” * 3 = 1960 30’ 30”
Sum = 9820 31’ 40”
Weighted arithmetic mean =

Hence most probable value of the angle =
Example 4. Adjust the following angles closing the horizon:

A = 1100 20’ 48” wt. 4
0
B = 92 30’ 12” wt. 1
0
C = 56 12’ 00” wt. 2
0
D = 100 57’ 04” wt. 3
Solution:


NORMAL EQUATIONS
A normal equation is the one which is formed by multiplying each equation by the coefficient of
the unknown whose normal equation is to be found out by adding the equation thus formed. As
the number of normal equations is the same as the number of unknowns, the most probable
values of the unknowns can be found from the equations.
If the observations are of equal weight, we derive the following rule for forming the normal
equations:
Rule 1. To form a normal equation for each of the unknowns quantities, multiply each
observation equation by the algebraic co-efficient of that unknown quantity in that
equation, and add the results.
If the observation equations are of different weights, we derive the following rule for forming the
normal equations:
Rule 2. To form the normal equation for each of the unknown quantities, multiply each
observation equation by the product of the algebraic coefficient of that unknown quantity
in that equation and the weight of that observation and add the results.

Example 5: (a) From the normal equations for x, y, z in the following equations of equal weight:
3x + 3y + z - 4 = 0 ..(1)
x + 2y + 2z - 6 = 0 ..(2)
5x + y + 4z - 21 = 0 ..(3)
(b) If the weights of the above equations are 2, 3, and 1 respectively, from the normal equations
for x, y, z.
Solutions:
(a) The normal equations of unknown quantity is formed by multiplying each equations by
the algebraic coefficient of that unknown quantity in that equation and adding the result.
Thus, in equations (1), (2), (3) the coefficients of x are 3, 1, and 5 respectively
Hence,
9x + 9y+ 3z - 12 = 0
x + 2y+ 2z - 6 = 0
25x + 5y+ 20z - 105 = 0
So Normal equation for x is 35x + 16y + 25z – 123 = 0
Similarly, the coefficients for y are 3, 2 and 1. Hence

9x + 9y+ 3z - 12 = 0
2x + 4y+ 4z - 12 = 0
5x + y+ 4z - 21 = 0
So Normal equation for y is 16x + 14y + 11z – 45 = 0
Similarly, the coefficients for z are 1, 2 and 4. Hence

3x + 3y+ z - 4 = 0
2x + 4y+ 4z - 12 = 0
20x + 4y+ 16z - 84 = 0
So Normal equation for z is 25x + 11y + 21z – 100 = 0
Hence the normal equation for x, y and z are

35x + 16y + 25z – 123 = 0
16x + 14y + 11z – 45 = 0
25x + 11y + 21z – 100 = 0
(b) The normal equations of unknown quantity is formed by multiplying each equations by
the algebraic coefficient of that quantity in that equation and weight of that equation, and
adding the result.
Thus, in equations (1), (2) and (3) the product of coefficients of x and weight of
respective equations are (3 X2), (1 x 3) and (5 x 1) respectively. Hence
18x + 18y + 6z – 24 = 0 (from 1)

3x + 6y + 6z – 18 = 0 (from 2)
25x + 5y + 20z – 105 = 0 (from 3)
So Normal equation for x is 46x + 29y + 32z – 147 = 0

Similarly, the coefficients for y and weight of each equation, in the original equations are (3
X2), (2 x 3) and (1 x 1) respectively. Hence
18x + 18y + 6z – 24 = 0 (from 1)
6x + 12y + 12z – 36 = 0 (from 2)
5x + y + 4z – 21 = 0 (from 3)
Similarly, the coefficients for y and weight of each equation, in the original equations are (1
X2), (2 x 3) and (4 x 1) respectively. Hence
6x + 6y + 2z – 8 = 0 (from 1)
6x + 12y + 12z – 36 = 0 (from 2)
20x + 4y + 16z – 84 = 0 (from 3)
Hence the normal equation for x, y and z are as follows :

46x + 29y + 32z – 147 = 0
29x + 31y + 22z – 81 = 0
32x + 22y + 30z – 128 = 0
DETERMINATION OF THE MOST PROBABLE VALUES
The most probable value of a quantity is the one which has more chances of being true than has
any other. It is deduced from several measurements on which it is based. In practice, the
following cases may arise of which the most probable value may be required to be determined:
1. Direct observations of equal weights.
2. Indirect observations of unequal weights
3. Indirectly observed quantities involving unknowns of equal weights.
4. Indirectly observed quantities involving unknowns of unequal weights.
5. Observation equations accompanied by condition equation.
Case 1. Direct Observation of Equal Weights
The most probable value of the directly observed quantity of equal weights is equal to the
arithmetic mean of the observed values.
Thus, if V1, V2, V3,…., Vn is the observed value of a quantity of equal weight, and M is the
arithmetic mean, then
M= = most probable value

Case 2. Direct Observations of Unequal Weights
The most probable value of an observed quantity of unequal weights is equal to the weighted
arithmetic mean of the observed quantities.
Thus, if V1, V2, V3,…., Vn are the observed quantities with weights w1, w2, w3,…., wn and N is
the most probable value of the quantity, we have
N=
Case 3 and 4. Indirectly Observed Quantities Involving Unknowns of Equal Weights or

Unequal Weights.
When the unknowns are independent of each other, their most probable values can be found by
forming the normal equations for each of the unknowns quantities, and treating them as
simultaneous equations to get the values of the unknowns.
Case 5. Observation Equations Accompanied by Conditioned Equation
When the observation equations are accompanied by one or more condition equations, the latter
may be reduced to an observation equation which will eliminate one of the unknowns. The
normal equation can then be formed for the remaining unknowns. There is also another method,
known as the method of correlates by which the observation equations are eliminated. However,
the former method (i.e., eliminating the condition equation) is suitable for simple cases while the
latter method is used for more complicated problems.
Example 6: Find the most probable value of the angle A from the following observation
equation:
A = 30˚28'40"
3A = 91˚25'55"
4A = 121˚54'30"
Solution:
There is only one unknown, and all the observations are of equal weight. The coefficient of A in
three equations are 1, 3 and 4. Hence multiply these equations by 1, 3 and 4 respectively and add
the resulting equations to get normal equation for A.
Thus,
A = 30˚28'40"
9A = 274˚17'45"
16A = 487˚38'00"
26A = 792˚24'25" (Normal equation in A)
A = 30˚ 28' 37.9"
Alternative solution
From first equation A = 30˚28'40" weight 1.

From second equation A = (91˚25'55")/3
= 30˚28'38.33"

Weight = 1/ (1/3)2 = 9
From third equation A = (121˚54'30")/4 = 30˚28'37.5"
Weight = 1/ (1/4)2
Sum of weights = 1+9+16 =26
Weighted mean (A) = 30˚28' + [(40x1) +(38.33x9)+(37.5x16)]/26"
= 30˚ 28' 37.9"
Example 7: Find the most probable value of the angle A from the following observation
equations:
A = 30˚28'40" weight 2.
3A = 91˚25'55" weight 3.
Solution:
There is only one unknown, and however the observations are of unequal weight. The normal
equation can be formed by multiplying each of the two observation equation by the
corresponding weight and coefficient of A, and adding them.
2x1xA = 2A = 60˚57'20"
3x3x3A = 27A = 822˚53'15"
29A = 883˚50'35" (Normal equation in A)
A = 30˚28'38.5"
Example 8: Find the most probable value of the angles A and B from the following observations
at a station O:
A = 49˚48'36.6" weight 2.
B = 54˚37'48.3" weight 3.
A+B = 104˚26'28.5" weight 4.
Solution:
There are two unknown A and B and both are independent of each other, and there will be two
normal equations.
To find normal equation for A,
2A = 99˚37'13.2"
4A+4B = 417˚45'54"
6A+4B = 517˚23'7.2" (Normal equation for A)
To find normal equation for B,
3B = 163˚53'24.9"
4A+4B = 417˚45'54"
4A+7B = 581˚39'18.9" (Normal equation for B)
Hence normal equations are,
6A + 4B = 517˚23'7.2"
4A + 7B = 581˚39'18.9"
To solve A and B, multiply the equations by 2 and 3 respectively. Thus,
12A + 8B = 1034˚46'14.4" …(1)
12A + 21B = 1744˚57'56.7" …(2)

Subtracting the equations, we get

13B = 710˚11’42.3”
B = 54˚37’49.4”
Subtracting the value of B in (1), we get
A = 49˚48'38.3"
Example 9: The following are the mean value observed in the measurement of three angles α, β
and γ at one station:
α = 76˚42'46.2" weight 4.
α + β = 134˚36'32.6" weight 3.
β + γ = 185˚35'24.8" weight 2.
α + β + γ = 262˚18'10.4" weight 1.
Calculate the most probable value of each angle.
Solution:
To form the normal equation for the unknown, multiply each equation by the coefficient of that
unknown and also by the weight of the equation, and take the sum of resulting equations.
Thus, forming normal equations for α, we have
4α = 306˚51'4.8"
3α + 3β = 403˚49'37.8"
α + β + γ = 262˚18'10.4"
8α + 4β + γ = 972˚58'53" (normal equation for α)
Forming normal equations for β, we have
3α + 3β = 403˚49'37.8"
2β + 2γ = 371˚10'49.6"
α + β + γ = 262˚18'10.4"
4α + 6β + 3γ = 1037˚18'10.4" (normal equation for β)
Forming normal equations for γ, we have
2β + 2γ = 371˚10'49.6"
α + β + γ = 262˚18'10.4"
α + 3β + 3γ = 633˚29'00" (normal equation for γ)
Hence the three normal equations are:
8α + 4β + γ = 972˚58'53"
4α + 6β + 3γ = 1037˚18'10.4"
α + 3β + 3γ = 633˚29'00"
Solving the above three equations simultaneously for α, β and γ we get
α = 76˚ 42' 46.17"
β = 57˚ 53' 46.13"
γ = 127˚ 41' 38.26"

Example 10: The following are the observed values of A, B and C at a station. The angle being
subjected to the condition that A + B = C
A = 30 12’ 28’’.2
B = 35 48’ 12’’.6
C = 66 0’ 44’’.4
Find the most probable values of A, B and C.
Solution:
To avoid the condition equation A + B = C we can write the third observation as

A + B = 66 00’ 44’’.4
Hence the three observation equations are
A = 30 12’ 28’’.2 ………….(1)
B = 35 48’ 12’’.6 …………..(2)
A + B = 66 00’ 44’’.4 ………..(3)
Normal equation for A:
A = 30 12’ 28’’.2
A + B = 66 00’ 44’’.4
-----------------------------------
2 A + B = 96 13’ 12’’.6
Normal equation for B:
B = 35 48’ 12’’.6
A + B = 66 00’ 44’’.4
------------------------------------
A + 2B = 101 48’ 57’’.0
Hence the two normal equations are :
2 A + B = 96 13’ 12’’.6
A + 2B = 101 48’ 57’’.0
Solving these, we get:
A = 30 12’ 29’’.4
B = 35 48’ 13’’.8
C = A + B = 66 0’ 43’’.2

Example 11: Find the most probable values of angles A, B and C of triangle ABC from the
following observation equations
A = 68 12’ 36’’
B = 53 46’ 12’’
C = 58 01’ 16’’
Solution:
The condition equation is

A + B + C = 180
From which C = 180 – (A + B)
Thus the third unknown C can be eliminated with one more observation equation;
C = 180 – (A + B) = 58 01’ 16’’
A + B = 180 - 58 01’ 16’’ = 121 58’ 44’’
Hence the new observation equations are:
A = 68 12’ 36’’
B = 53 46’ 12’’
A +B = 121 58’ 44’’
Normal equation for A:
A = 68 12’ 36’’
A +B = 121 58’ 44’
----------------------------
2 A + B = 190 11’ 20’’
Normal equation for B:
B = 53 46’ 12’’
A +B = 121 58’ 44’’
----------------------------------
A + 2B = 175 44’ 56’’
Hence the normal equations are:
2 A + B = 190 11’ 20’’
A + 2B = 175 44’ 56’’
Solving these, we get:
A = 68 12’ 34’’.7
B = 53 46’ 10’’.6
C = 180 – (A + B) = 180 – (68 12’ 34’’.7 + 53 46’ 10’’.6) = 58 1’14’’.7
Alternate solution
A = 68 12’ 36’’
B = 53 46’ 12’’
C = 58 01’ 16’’
A + B + C = 180 0’ 04’’
total correction is - 4’’

Since the weight of the observation is equal, the corrections will be equally divided.

Hence corrected A (most probable value of A)

= 68 12’ 36’’ – 1’’.33 = 68 12’ 34’’.67
B = 53 46’ 12’’ – 1’’.33 = 53 46’ 10’’.67
C = 58 01’ 16’’ – 1’’.33 = 58 01’ 14’’.67
Example 12: The angles of a triangle ABC were recorded as follows:
A = 770 14’ 20” wt. 4

B = 490 40’ 35” wt. 3
C = 530 04’ 52” wt. 2
Give the corrected values of the angles.

C = 1800 – (A + B) = 1800 – (770 14’ 23” + 490 40’ 39”) = 530 4’ 58”


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SURVEYING & GEOMATICS Module 3

SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 3 (3.1)-

There are several methods of traversing, depending on the instruments used in

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II.CHAIN AND COMPASS TRAVERSING (FREE OR LOOSE NEEDLE METHOD)

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III.TRANSIT TAPE TRAVERSING

(a): By Fast Needle Method

(i) Direct method with transiting

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(ii) Direct method without transiting

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(iii) Back bearing method

 Set instrument at P and measure the magnetic bearing of PQ as before.

(b): Traversing By Direct Observation Of Angles

(i) Traversing by included angle

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(ii) Traversing by deflection angles

IV.PLANE TABLE TRAVERSING

It is to be noted here that the orientation is to be done by back-sighting. If there are n

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LOCATION DETAILS WITH TRANSIT AND TAPE

Following are some of methods of locating the details in theodolite traversing;

(1) Locating by angle and distance from one transit station

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(2) Locating by angles from two transit stations

(4) Location by distances from two points on traverse line

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(5) Locating by offsets from the traverse line

CHECKS IN CLOSED TRAVERSE

(i) Traverse by included angles

(ii) Traverse by deflection angles

(iii) Traverse by direct observation of bearings

CHECKS IN OPEN TRAVERSE:

No direct check of angular measurement is available. However, indirect checks can be

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As illustrated in Fig. (a), in addition to the observation of bearing of at station ,

CONSECUTIVE CO-ORDINATES: LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE

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W.C.B R.B. and Quadrant Sign of Latitude Sign of Departure

Problem 1: Calculate latitude and departure of the following traverse

Line Length (l) WCB RB ( ) L = l cos D = l sin

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Problem 2: Calculate total coordinate of the following traverse

Dependent co-ordinates Total co-

DE 372 2920 N 680W

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Closing error = AA' =

The direction of closing error is given by

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Adjustment of the angular error

Correction for first line =

BALANCING THE TRAVERSE

The term ‘balancing’ is generally applied to the operation of applying corrections to

The Bowditich Rule is:

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The transit rule is

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Thus, in Fig. (a), polygon represents an unbalanced traverse having a closing

GALES TRAVERSE TABLE

Line Length (m) Included Angle WCB

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LHS = < A + < B + < C + < D = 360024`0``