CEPSI Conference 2010, Taipei.

Area II: Power Generation & Distributed Energy

Item 9 : Life assessments, failure analysis and chemistry

FAILURE ANALYSIS OF POWER UT IL ITY BOILER TUBES

G. P. Ng, TNB Research Sdn. Bhd., Phone : +6019-3587206, email: guatpeng@tnbr.com.my
Norlia B, TNB Research Sdn. Bhd., Phone : +6019-2827604, email: norlia.berahim@tnbr.com.my

Overvi ew:
Boiler tube failures are the leading cause of forced outages of fossil-fired power plants. Power utility
boiler tubes are subjected to various failure mechanisms driven by temperature, stress and
environmental hazard, depending on their designs and functions. Superheater tubes, reheater tubes &
furnace waterwall tubes always experi enced high temperature ductile failures such as stress-rupture
failure, initiated by creep process or sudden overheating due to steam starvation or flue gas disruption.
Furnace tubes, evaporator tubes and economizer tubes are sensitive to corrosion or erosion damage
which normally associated with an upset in boiler water chemistry or inadequate preservation during
lay up; for example, the presence of corrosive fluid at highly stressed parts such as an elbow or a weld
may have caused a thick wall, brittle type failures such as stress corrosion cracking. Suspended tubes
with a lack of support or exposed to vibration / cyclic loading would bear a risk of mechani cal fatigue.
This paper will provide a knowledge-sharing through several cas e studies on boiler tube failures in the
country.

Methods:
Visual examination with unaided eyes or magnifying lenses is applied during the preliminary
assessment at site or in the laboratory to examine the macro charact eristics and record the physical
evidence, via photographic method. The tube samples will be subsequently cut cross section
(perpendicular to the fracture plane) to examine the micro characteristics, for example, the grain
structure, second phase precipitation, oxide morphology, secondary cracking etc for signs of plastic
deformation, embrittlement, phases transformation or intergranul ar / transgranular fractures.
Fractographi c study in scanning electron microscope (SEM) would provide topographic features; the
useful features include cleavage facets to indicate brittle fracture, dimpled appearance to prove ductile
fracture or striation lines to confirm fatigue failure. Further, energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) technique
was employed to detect chemical compound in waterside or fireside deposits.

Results:
Case 1: A reheater tube, made of austenitic stainless steel, had undergone a severe metal wastage from
OD surface. The fireside scale contained a cryst al-like phases, likely to be re-solidified molten slag.
This was supported by detection of substances such as vanadium, sodium and sulphur in the fireside
scale. These formed low melting point compound in the fire-side ash deposits.

Case 2: A cool spacer tube of a superheater assembly, made of CrMo ferritic steel had undergone a
wide open ‘fish-mouth’ type failure with plastic deformation, typical of ductile failure caused by
overheating. The fracture was longitudinal, perpendicular to the principal hoop stress. The presence of
ferrite/bainite microstructure at the rupture part, as opposed to the virgin ferrite/pearlite microstructure,
suggested a peak temperature in the proximity of 8100 C, as compared to design metal temperature of
5400 C, at the instant of failure.

Case 3: An evaporator tube, made of plain carbon steel had undergone a circum ferential cracking at the
bend intrados. Fractographic examination at crack tips in SEM revealed striation lines, typical
characteristics of vibration fatigue. Microscopic examination showed extensive secondary cracking
with intergranular and branching characteristics, a clear indication of stress corrosion cracking. The
initial mechanism could not be determined, due to loss of evidence by steam erosion on the primary
fracture surfaces. The cracks propagated by both fatigue and stress corrosion cracking modes.

Conclusions:
The reheater tube in case 1 had failed due to molten slag corrosion, a type of fireside corrosion. The
cool spacer tube at superheater in case 2 had experi enced a short term overheating due to steam
starvation/restriction. The evaporator tube in case 3 had been subjected to mechanical vibration
damage and stress corrosion cracking, aggravated by the presence of material residue stress and
waterside corrosive medium. The diagnosis of the failure modes is essential for continuous
enhancement in the operation, inspection & maintenance strategy of a power utility boiler with respect
to putting up an efficient monitoring system and refurbishment program.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Statistic shows that boiler tube failures are the leading cause of forced outages of fossil-fired power
plants. Power utility boiler tubes are subjected to various failure mechanisms driven by temperature,
stress and environmental hazard, depending on their designs and functions. Superheater tubes, reheater
tubes & furnace waterwall membrane tubes always experienced high temperature ductile failures such
as stress-rupture failure, initiated by creep process or sudden overheating due to steam starvation or
flue gas disruption. Furnace tubes, evaporator tubes and economizer tubes are susceptible to corrosion
or erosion damage which normally associated with an upset in boiler water chemistry or inadequate
preservation during lay up. The corrosive medium, if co-exists with excessive applied stress or
forming / welding residue stress, may have arisen to thick wall, brittle type failures such as stress
corrosion cracking. Mechanical vibration which leads to fatigue failures shows symptoms of
insuffi cient support or misalignment.

This paper will demonstrate a root cause analysis and employment of a step-by-step engineering
approach to identify the failures modes and deduce the possible scenarios of the boiler incidents in
several case studies.

2.0 METHODOLOGY

Visual examination with unaided eyes or magnifying lenses was applied during the preliminary
assessment at site for signs of corrosion, erosion, deform ation etc. Important evidence was recorded
via photographic method. Fractured samples and repres entative specimens were cut for laboratory
examination. As an initial scanning, the fracture / cracking charact eristics were scanned using
stereomicros cope under low magni fication, up to 30x magnifications. The specimens were
subsequently cut transversely or longitudinally to examine the micro characteristics, for example, the
grain structure, second phase precipitation, oxide morphology, secondary cracking, embrittlement,
phases trans formation or intergranul ar / transgranular fractures, up to 1000x magnifications. In
supplement to the analysis, micro indentations were made on the specimens for hardness properties.
Fractographi c study in scanning electron microscope (SEM) would provide topographic features; the
useful features include cleavage facets to indicate brittle fracture, dimpled appearance to prove ductile
fracture or striation lines to confirm fatigue failure. Further, arc spark spectrometer was used to check
the conformity of material speci fications and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) technique was employed
to detect chemical compound in waterside or fireside deposits. In occasions where metal loss or plastic
deformation was dominant, dimensions such as tube diameter and thickness were measured using
calipers to determine the extent of degradation.

3.0 CASE STUDIES

3.1 Molten slag corrosion on a reheater tube

3.1.1 Background

A horizontally laid reheater tube of a 120 MW fired boiler had ruptured in 2004. This conventional
boiler had undergone rehabilitation in 1994 to modify to dual-fi ring mode of MFO and Lean gas. The
materials were upgraded to austenitic stainless steel grade 304 H. This boiler was on peak-load
operation.

3.1.2 Materials & Design Specifications

Description Specifications
Material: SA 213 TP 304 H (austenitic stainless steel)
Design thickness: 3.6 mm
Design OD: 54 mm
Maximum metal temperature: 691o C
Actual hot reheat steam temperature: 540 0C
Actual hot reheat steam pressure : 30.64 bar

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3.1.3 Visual Examination

The rupture was an open burst, ductile in appearance, with one side of the rupture edges drawn to a
sharp and near-kni fe-edge condition (9 o’clock position ). The violence of the rupture had broken the
tube and it is likely that some met al pieces had been blown out. ( fig 1.1a & fig 1.1b ). The external
surface had undergone severe metal wast age, especi ally at 9 o’clock position ( fig 1.2, fig 1.3 & fig 1.4
). The metal loss was not very apparent at internal wall.

The external surface of the tube was covered with darkish fi reside scale with a jagged appearance. The
internal surface of the tube disclosed a smooth, thin, tightly-adhered magnetite scale (fig. 1.2). No
significant bulging / swelling were observed at the rupture opening or other locations.

3.1.4 Dimensional Measurement

Most of the thickness readings obtained at rupture site and other locations ( A1 to A10 in table 1.1)
were below the design thickness of 3.6 mm. The minimum thickness was 0.9 mm near rupture edge at
9 o’clock position ( table 1.2 ), representing about 75 % reduction in wall thickness. Measurement
from 6 o’clock to 10 o’clock positions had given most of the readings in the range below 2.0 mm.

The measurement showed that all the OD results were lower than the design OD of 54.0 mm. The data
ranged from 49.8 mm to 52.0 mm. ( table 1.1 ) The ID measurement dat a were fairly consistent,
ranged from 45.5 mm to 46.6 mm. ( table 1.1 ).

3.1.5 Metallographic Examination

(a) Preview

All specimens, whether from thin-edges, thick-edges, longitudinal planes, transverse planes, ruptured
location or remote locations, gave a similar microstructure and precipitation morphology.

The rupture tip from longitudinal plane had undergone a shear deformation, characterizing a ductile
failure ( fig 1.5 ).

(b) Fireside / Steam side Scale

The micrographs revealed a discontinuous fireside scale, indicating that exfoliation had occurred. The
cross section view showed that the underlying metal had an undulating appearance ( fig 1.6a ).

It was also observed that a cluster of shining, elongated plates in the shape of cryst als was embedded in
the darkish fireside scale. ( fig 1.6a & fig 1.6b )

The steam side of the metal disclosed a tenacious and continuous film of magnetite, with the depth
about 100 µm.

(c ) Base Metal

Near the fire-side (Fig. 1.7), a coars e and continuous network of carbides had precipitated at the grain
boundaries and fine carbide particles, within grains. Numerous cavities were also seen at the grain
boundaries, which may have been due to creep.

Near the steam -side, besides the carbides, other phases, possibly sigma phases were present at the grain
boundaries, which had been removed during the etching process (Fig. 1.8).

(d) Virgin tube material

The microstructure was fully austenitic without any precipitates.

3.1.6 Chemical Analysis via Energy Dispersive X-Ray ( EDX )

The chemical analysis was conducted on the fire-side and steam-side scales, at the following locations:
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(i) fire-side scale which was close to the metal.
(ii) fire-side scale which was about 100µm away from the metal.
(iii) steam-side scale which was close to the metal.
(iv) steam-side scale which was about 50µm away from the metal.

The results from spot (a) and (b) showed the presence of corrosive elem ents such as sodium (Na),
Vanadium (V) and Sulfur (S), (fig 1.9). These elements were not detected on spot (c) and (d).

3.1.7 Discussions

(a) Failure Characteristics

The open burst with signi ficant met al thinning and the pres ence of sheared deformation at rupture tip
under optical microscope examination suggested that it was a ductile failure. The absence of met al
bulging / swelling showed that hoop stress may not have been the principal stress causing failure.

Significant wall thinning had been pres ent before failure, ext ending from the 6 o’clock to 10 o’clock
position for a distance of about 200 cm.

The great reduction in tube OD and lack of reduction in tube ID indicated that the external wall of this
reheater tube had been progressively wasted. The ratio of wall loss to steam side oxide thickness was
about 9:1 ( taking average measured thickness of 2.5 mm and magnetic thickness of about 0.1 mm).

The extensive carbide precipitation and the possible sigma phase trans formation showed that this tube
had been thermally degraded at a temperature in excess of 5000 C for a long time. In comparison, the
virgin tube which was solution-annealed had a totally carbide-free austenitic grain boundaries.

The shining, elongated crystals embedded in the fi reside scal e were very likely caus ed by the re-
solidification of molten slag. The fire-side scale was also found to contain corrosive elements such as
Sodium ( Na ), Vanadium (V ) and Sulfur (S), which are the dominant speci es in fuel oil causing
molten slag failure.

(b) Failure Mechanism

The metal wastage was very likely caused by fire-side corrosion in the medium of oil-ash. Studies
have shown that vanadium, sodium and sulfur in the oil ash deposits can form a low melting point slag,
which attacks the m etal very rapidly, even aust enite stainless steels. This form of attack is also known
as molten slag corrosion. The worst wastage was from 6 o’clock to 10 o’clock position, suggesting that
these regions were expos ed to high heat flux.

The tube ruptured in a ductile manner when the tube wall became too thin to withstand the stresses.

3.1.8 Conclusions

The reheater tube had undergone a severe metal wastage at fire-side surfaces, caused by molten slag
corrosion.

The tube eventually ruptured when the remaining metal became too thin to sustain the applied stress.

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A7 A8 A9 A10

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6
Rupture Rupture
Header side (Header) (Bend)
Bend side

Identification Description of locations

A1 100 cm downstream of rupture
A2 50 cm downstream of rupture ( cutting edge at header side )
A3 50 cm downstream of rupture ( cutting edge at tube bend side )
A4 50 cm upstream of rupture ( cutting edge at header side )
A5 50 cm upstream of rupture ( cutting edge at tube bend side )
A6 100 cm upstream of rupture
A7 20 cm downstream of rupture ( cutting edge at header side )
A8 20 cm downstream of rupture ( cutting edge at tube bend side )
A9 5 cm upstream of rupture ( cutting edge at header side )
A10 5 cm upstream of rupture ( cutting edge at tube bend side )

12 OD 1
o’clock
11 1 o’clock OD 4 ID 1 OD 3
o’clock
ID 4 ID 3
10 2 o’clock
o’clock

9 o’clock 3 o’clock OD 2
ID 2

8 o’clock 4 o’clock

7 o’clock 5 o’clock
6 o’clock

* The ‘ clock’ and ‘OD & ID’ position is facing the Bend from Header

Figure 1.1: Locations of Thickness Measurement

Table 1.1 : OD & ID Measurement Results Of Reheater Tube

LOCATION OD 1 OD 2 OD 3 OD 4 ID 1 ID 2 ID 3 ID 4
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
A1 50.5 51.4 50.8 50.4 46.1 46.1 46.1 46.1
A2 50.3 51.4 50.1 50.5 46.1 46.3 46.3 46.2
A3 51.0 51.2 50.0 50.3 46.0 46.2 46.2 46.0
A4 50.9 51.0 50.1 51.8 46.2 45.9 46.2 46.1
A5 51.2 50.8 50.2 50.6 46.0 46.3 46.0 46.2
A6 52.1 52.0 51.0 51.8 46.0 46.0 45.8 45.9
NEW TUBE 54.1 54.0 54.0 54.1 45.8 45.5 45.5 45.7
A7 51.5 50.0 49.9 50.6 46.5 46.4 46.4 46.5
A8 51.5 50.0 49.9 50.6 46.6 46.5 46.5 46.5
A9 49.8 50.9 50.8 50.4 46.2 46.3 46.2 46.4
A10 49.8 50.9 50.8 50.4 46.2 46.3 46.2 46.4
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Table 1.2 : Thickness Measurement Results Of Reheater Tube

Test 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Location o’clock o’clock o’clock o’clock o’clock o’clock o’clock o’clock o’clock o’clock o’clock o’clock
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
A1 2.6 2.8 2.6 1.9 1.9 2.5 2.7 1.8 1.5 2.2 2.5 2.9
A2 2.8 3.1 2.9 2.6 2.0 2.4 2.5 1.5 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.2
A3 2.8 3.1 2.8 2.6 2.0 2.4 2.5 1.6 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.2
A4 2.9 3.3 3.7 3.4 3.1 2.8 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.2 2.0 2.7
A5 2.9 3.3 3.7 3.4 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.1 2.0 2.7
A6 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.3 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.5 2.6 3.1 3.3
Rupture 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.9
3.3 3.2 2.5 2.0 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.9
(Header)
Rupture 1.6 1.9 1.9 1.3 1.0 1.3
2.5 3.2 3.2 2.6 2.2 2.4
(Bend)

A7 2.9 2.9 2.5 2.0 1.7 2.2 2.4 1.3 2.7

1.0 1.5 1.9
A8 2.9 2.9 2.4 2.0 1.7 2.2 2.3 1.3 1.0 1.5 1.9 2.6
A9 1.6 2.3 2.8 2.8 2.5 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.3 0.9 1.0 1.2
A10 1.5 2.3 2.8 2.8 2.5 1.9 1.7 1.7 2.3 1.0 0.9 1.2

Remarks:
Design thickness is 3.6 mm. Thickness below 2.0 mm is highlighted in bold & italic.

12 o’clock

Cross section view in the direction of steam flow

9 o’clock 3 o’clock

Header Side 6 o’clock Steam Bend Side

Fig 1.1a:
General arrangement of the ruptured reheater tubes that were sent for laboratory examination.
Circumferential locations according to clock reference were identifi ed and marked, viewed in the
direction of steam flow.

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12 o’clock

3 o’clock

9 o’clock

9 o’clock

Fig 1.1b:
Closed-up view of the rupture opening. It was noted that thin-edge rupture was in the plane
of 9 o’clock position, while thick-edge rupture was along 3 o’clock position.

12 o’clock

9 o’clock
9 o’clock
3 o’clock

6 o’clock

Fig 1.3:
6 o’clock Cross section view at a distance of 50 cm
from rupture site at header side.
Fig 1.2: Significant wall thinning from 6 o’clock
Cross section view of the rupture opening at to 9 o’clock position.
header side. Thin-edge appearance was observed
from 5 o’clock to 9 o’clock. Internal surface
disclosed a smooth and adhesive magnetite while
external wall was darkish with a jagged
appearance.

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Fig 1.4:
Cross section view to compare metal
thickness between a new tube and
the ruptured tube. Metal had
thinned down from external surface
( fire-side ).

M aterial
flow
Stains direction

Fig 1.5:
Longitudinal plane at rupture lip. The rupture tip was sheared with evidence of material flow and slight
deformation, indicative of ductile fracture. Dots at the left side (fireside) are stains from cavities.
( Etched with aqua regia, Mag. 200x )

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Fire Side
Parent

Fig 1.6b:
Fig 1.6a: The close-up view of the circled region in fig 2.3a.
The shiny, needle-like crystals embedded in the ( polished, Mag. 500x )
darkish fireside scale suggested the pres ence of
molten slag. ( polished, Mag. 200x )

Fig 1.7:
Longitudinal plane, at fire-side, showing a coarse carbide network at the grain boundaries
and fine carbide precipitates within grains (whitish). Dark spots at the grain boundaries are
cavities, very likely due to creep. (Etched with aqua regia. Mag. 1000x )

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Fig 1.8:
Longitudinal section, near steam-side, showing intragranular precipitates, which are probably carbides
and darkish areas at the grain boundaries. These darkish areas previously contained a second phas e,
which had been removed during etching. ( Etched with aqua regia, Mag. 1000x )

Fig 1.9:
EDX results of the deposit analysis at the inner layer of the fireside scale. Corrosive
substances such as sodium ( Na), Vanadium ( V ), and Sulfur (S) were detected.

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3.2 Stress rupture failure of a superheater cooled spacer tube

3.2.1 Background

A superheater cooled spacer tube from a 700 MW coal-fired boiler had burst in 2005.

3.2.2 Material speci fications

Description Specifications
Material: SA 213 M T2 ( ½ Cr ½ Mo ferritic steel)
Design thickness: 6.1 mm
Design OD: 54 mm
Water temperature in drum: ~ 340 0C
Drum pressure : ~ 140 bar

3.2.3 Terminology & Abbreviations

(a) Ferrite & Pearlite : : Microstructure of steel formed by slow cooling during annealing
or normalizing.
(b) Ferrite & Bainite : : Microstructure of steel formed by faster cooling aft er being
heated up to temperatures in excess of 7230 C.
(e) A1 : Lower critical trans formation temperature in iron-iron carbides
phase equilibrium diagram.

3.2.4 Visual examination

The rupture was a longitudinal fish-mouth burst (fig 2.1). The fracture edges had reduced to about 4
mm, from the original thickness of 6.1 mm. (fig 2.2). The tube had undergone some gross distortion
and deformation ( fig 2.1 & fig 2.2).

Cracks had branched out and propagated from the tips of the longitudinal split at both upstream and
downstream parts (fig 2.1 & fig 2.2). A weld was present at the immediate downstream part of the
rupture. The branching cracks had propagated across the weld ( fig 2.1).

Upstream part, about 200 mm from the rupture mouth did not appear to contain any cracks, blisters or
fissures; but it had also swelled visibly.

No signs of corrosion, erosion or substantial deposits / debris were evident. No unusual scale /deposits
were found in the vicinity area of the weld. The weld root profile was fairly smooth and clean.

3.2.5 Dimensional Measurements

The circumferential positions of the tubes were marked in accordance to the clock face reference in the
direction of water flow. The center line of the longitudinal split was marked as 12 o’clock position.

Near the edges of the longitudinal split, the metal had thinned down to a minimum of 4 mm (table 2.1).
The metal deformation had caused a wall reduction of about 34%, if compared to design value of 6.1
mm. However, the plane opposite to the longitudinal rupture had a thicker remaining wall, ranging
from 4.9 mm to 5.7 mm (table 2.1).

The OD and thickness profiles showed that bulging and wall thinning had ext ended to about 300 mm
downstream, and 800 mm upstream of the rupture (table 2.1). This suggests that the tube beyond these
locations may also have been similarly affected.

3.2.6 Metallographic Examination

(a) Microstructure was examined at the following locations:

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Location Plane Direction
Rupture Rupture lip Transverse
Opposite plane (1800 from the Transverse
center of longitudinal split)

600 mm downstream Along rupture plane Transverse &

longitudinal
Opposite plane Transverse &
longitudinal

800 mm upstream Along rupture plane Transverse

Opposite plane Transverse

Virgin tube - Transverse

(b) Rupture location

The microstructure at the rupture lip consisted of about 50% ferrite and 50% bainite, with the grains
elongated in the transverse direction ( fig 2.4a & 2.4b ). The elongation had been caused by yielding
prior to the rupture.

The opposite plane also showed a similar microstructure as above.

(c) 600 mm downstream

The microstructure of all specimens also consisted of ferrite and bainite, but the bainite proportion was
only about 20%. The grains were not elongated. (fig 2.5a & 2.5b)

The water side of the metal contained a tenacious and continuous film of magnetite, with a thickness of
about 70 µm. ( fig 2.5a ).

(d) 800 mm upstream

Features here were basically similar to those in Section (c).

(e) Virgin tube material

1. The virgin microstructure was composed of equiaxed ferrite and pearlite (fig 2.6a and 2.6b).

3.2.7 Hardness Measurement

The hardness obtained from micro-specimens of rupture lip ranged from 223 HV to 260 HV (table 2.2).

The downstream specimens with lower proportions of bainite gave hardness readings in the range of
187 HV to 199 HV. (table 2.2)

3.2.8 Discussions

(a) Failure Characteristics

The wide-open fish-mouth burst with plastic deformation/distortion and significant wall reduction
showed that it was a ductile failure. The longitudinal fracture and elongat ed grains in the transverse
direction at fracture edges show that the hoop stress was the principal stress causing failure.

The tube had undergone signi ficant OD expansion and wall reduction over a length of 300 mm
downstream and 800 mm upstream from the rupture. The tube length affected is likely to be more than
1.5 m, but the centre of overheating was at the ruptured location.

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Since the original virgin microstructure only contained ferrite and pearlite, the presence of the bainite
phase shows that the m etal had been heated to above the A1 trans form ation temperature. The relative
amount of bainite at the fracture edge suggested that the peak temperature at this location was in the
neighborhood of 8100 C at the instant of failure.

The smaller amounts of bainite upstream and downstream of the rupture indicated a peak temperature
of only about 7600 C. This shows that the centre of overheating was in the vicinity of the ruptured
location.

The thin and tenacious magnetite film indicated that the metal had not been subjected to long term
overheating.

The harder microstructure at the fracture edge compared to the remote upstream and downstream
regions was mainly due to the higher bainite content.

(b) Failure Mechanism

The greatly deformed, ductile burst and lack of excessive water-side oxidation at the metal are typical
characteristics of short-term overheating failure. The center point of the longitudinal split had most
likely received the highest heat input from the flames.

The yield strength of ferritic/pearlitic steels progressively reduces with temperature. When the metal
temperature of the tube becam e suffi ciently high, its strength was not suffici ent to sustain the internal
pressure (said to be 140 bar); consequently, it yielded, bulged, thinned down and finally ruptured in a
ductile manner.

The overheating could have been caus ed by flue gas channeling or some form of water shortage or flow
disturbance.

3.2.9 Conclusions

The cooled spacer tube had undergone a short term overheating failure. The ruptured location had
attained metal temperatures in the region of 8100 C.

The overheating could have been caus ed by flue gas channeling or some form of water shortage or flow
disturbance.

Water Flow

Fig 2.1:
Fish mouth rupture of the tube.

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Fig 2.2:
Side view of the fish mouth
rupture. Cracks had
propagated across the weld
from the ruptured tip
downstream.

1 2

LENGTH : 660 mm
7

17 16 3 4
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
Fig 2.3a:
Ruptured part and 660 mm downstream was marked to indicate test locations for dimensional measurement
and hardness measurement.

LENGTH : 800 mm

-5
-4 -3 -2 -1

Fig 2.3b:
800 mm upstream was marked to indicate test locations for dimensional measurement and hardness
measurem ent.

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Table 2.1 : Test results f or dimensional measurement and hardness measurement.

Location Position USTM (mm) OD (mm)

1 12 o’ clock 4.1 NA

2 12 o’ clock 4.2 NA

3 12 o’ clock 4.6 NA

4 12 o’ clock 4.0 NA

5 9 o’ clock 4.9 NA

6 6 o’ clock 5.7 NA

7 3 o’ clock 5.6 NA

12 o’ clock 5.10 60.70

8 3 o’ clock 5.60
6 o’ clock 6.30
62.20
9 o’ clock 5.50
12 o’ clock 5.30 60.80
9 3 o’ clock 5.80
6 o’ clock 6.20
61.40
9 o’ clock 5.90
12 o’ clock 5.30 60.10
3 o’ clock 5.70
10
6 o’ clock 6.20
60.20
9 o’ clock 5.90
12 o’ clock 5.70 58.70
3 o’ clock 5.90
11
6 o’ clock 6.30
58.90
9 o’ clock 6.10
12 o’ clock 5.70 57.80
12 3 o’ clock 6.00
6 o’ clock 6.40
58.00
9 o’ clock 6.20
12 o’ clock 6.00 56.80
13 3 o’ clock 6.00
6 o’ clock 6.40
58.80
9 o’ clock 6.20
12 o’ clock 6.00 55.80
14 3 o’ clock 6.40
6 o’ clock 6.40
56.00
9 o’ clock 6.50
12 o’ clock 6.20 55.20
15 3 o’ clock 6.50
6 o’ clock 6.60
54.60
9 o’ clock 6.50
12 o’ clock 6.40 54.30
16 3 o’ clock 6.40
6 o’ clock 6.60
54.20
9 o’ clock 6.60
17 12 o’ clock 6.40 55.20
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Location Position USTM (mm) OD (mm)

3 o’ clock 6.20
6 o’ clock 6.60
55.50
9 o’ clock 6.30
-1 12 o’ clock 4.50 56.10
3 o’ clock 4.70
(upstream
6 o’ clock 4.70
200 mm) 56.20
9 o’ clock 4.60
-2 12 o’ clock 4.50 55.60
(upstream 3 o’ clock 4.70
6 o’ clock 4.60
400 mm) 55.20
9 o’ clock 4.60
-3 12 o’ clock 4.50 57.00
(upstream 3 o’ clock 4.20
6 o’ clock 4.50
600 mm) 57.60
9 o’ clock 4.50
-4 12 o’ clock 4.40 58.70
(upstream 3 o’ clock 4.00
6 o’ clock 3.70
800 mm) 59.20
9 o’ clock 4.20
12 o’ clock 4.40 57.50
-5 3 o’ clock 4.60
(upstream 6 o’ clock 3.90
58.10
1000 mm) 9 o’ clock 4.20

Table 2.2 : Test results f or micro-vicker hardness measurement (load 300 kgf )

Sample Hardness, Hv
Reading 1 Reading 2 Reading 3
Rupture lip 260 224 223
600 mm downstream 197 187 199

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Fig. 2.4a.
The microstructure of transverse section from the fracture lip. Note that the
microstructure was a mixture of ferrite and bainite. (Mag. 50x)

Fig 2.4b:
Close-up view of the ferrite and bainite microstructure. The grains were slightly
elongated. (Mag. 500x)

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Fig 2.5a:
The microstructure of transverse section about 600 mm away downstream of the rupture
was also a mixture of ferrite and bainite, but the bainite was much lesser than ferrite,
indicating a lower peak temperature. The magnetic scale was approximately 70 µm in
depth. (Mag 200 x)

Fig 2.5b:
Magnifi ed view of fig 2.5a. ( Mag 500 x )

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Fig 2.6a:
The transverse microstructure from a virgin tube showed a normal microstructure
of ferrite and pearlite. (Mag 200 x)

Fig 2.6b:
Magnifi ed view of fig 2.5a. (Mag 500 x )

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3.3 Stress corrosion cracking of a LP evaporator tube

3.3.1 Background

A LP evaporator U-bend tube had leaked in 2009. The affected part was a bare tube, non-finned and it
was not located in heat exchanger / flue gas path.

3.3.2 Design speci fications

Material speci fication : SA 178 Grade A, ERW

Dimension
Design temperature
Design pressure
Operating temperature
Operating pressure
: OD 31.8 mm x t 2.5 mm
: 371.2 0 C
: 7.5 bar
: 162 0C (LP drum)
: 6.2 bar (LP drum); 7 bar (pump booster discharge)

3.3.3 Visual Examination

A crack with a length of approximately 30 mm was observed at the intrados of the U-tube, with the
following charact eristics (figure 3.1 & figure 3.2):

(a) Circumferential & straight (figure 3.2)

(b) The middle part at the intrados had opened up (figure 1.3); this part was identified as the point
of initial cracking.
(c) The crack had extended to both side surfaces, designated as side X & side Y, between the
intrados & extrados. (figure 3.2)
(d) The crack tips at both ends (on side X & side Y) had branched and developed multiple cracks.
These secondary cracks were relatively tight and appeared to advance in a nearly axial
manner. (figure 3.2)

A shiny depression mark was present on the side surface (side Y) near the extrados (figure 3.1b). This
mark was a wear mark, very likely caused by vibrating mechanical contact during operation.

The tube was cut for closer examination on the fracture characteristics. The initial fracture surfaces,
when opened up, were found to have a steam-eroded appearance (secondary damage). No evidence
could be obtained from these parts due to the loss of their primary charact eristics, for example, beach
marks if fatigue had occurred. (figure 3.3)

The fracture surfaces near the crack tips were also partially steam-eroded. They were subsequently
examined in scanning electron microscope to identify their crack mechanisms.

The tube wall thicknesses in the vicinity of the cracks were measured to be approximately 2.3 mm, as
compared to the design thickness of 2.5 mm. No apparent metal loss was found.

The steam-side oxide scale was tight and adhesive. There were no signs of corrosion or erosion
damage.

3.3.4 Fractography

A fracture surface near the crack tip was subjected to fractographic examination in scanning electron
microscope, after cl eaning to remove the oxides.

Some parts of the fracture surface showed striation lines, a typical characteristic of fatigue failure.
(figure 3.4)

3.3.5 Metallographic Examination

Metallographic specimens were obtained from the following locations:

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(a) Cross section of the crack tip on side X , designated as sample X

(b) Surface cracks on side Y, designated as sample Y.

Under low magnifi cation ( 25x), the following charact eristics shown by sample X were observed
(figure 3.5):

(a) The fracture profile between the inner and outer surfaces (LM) had a jagged appearance.
(b) Several secondary cracks had extended from the fracture edges, shown respectively in region
A, B & C in figure 3.5.
(c) The secondary cracks were non parallel; two cracks were inclined to the main fracture (region
A & B); whereas one crack (region C) was perpendicular to the main fracture.
(d) One crack (region D) was initiated from OD surface.
(e) Multiple cracks (region E) were initiated from ID surface; they were almost parallel to the
main fracture.

The main fracture edges and secondary cracks in identified regions were examined under higher
magnifi cations ( in the range of 200x to 500x) and the following characteristics were observed (figure
3.6 & 3.7):

(a) The base metal was composed of ferrite & lamellar pearlite microstructure.
(b) The fracture appearance and cracking characteristics were similar at all the regions.
(c) The grains at the fracture edges had been smoothened by steam erosion.
(d) The secondary cracks were inter-granul ar, oxide-filled and branching with sharp tips.

The inter-granular fracture and the branching cracks are typical characteristics of stress corrosion
cracking. The presence of lamellar pearlite showed that the tube had not undergone thermal
degradation. No sign of overheating was evident.

The microstructure characteristics shown by sample Y (figure 3.8) were as follows.

(a) Multiple, parallel cracks were found on the OD surface.

(b) The cracks were also inter-granular, oxide-filled and branching; they appeared to have been
initiated from OD surfaces.

3.3.6 Deposit Analysis

Deposit analysis was performed with Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) technique at MINT laboratory.

The objective of the analysis was to detect and measure the concentration of elements such as carbon
(C), phosphorus (P), sulphur (S) and Nitrogen (N). This is based on the consideration that stress
corrosion cracking (SCC) in ferritic carbon steel would have been caused by electrolytes that contained
carbonate, phosphate, sulphate, nitrate or hydroxide. However, hydrogen cannot be detected by EDX.

The following locations were tested:

(a) OD surface
(b) Oxide within the branching cracks (from metallographic specimens)

Note: The ID surface was not tested due to the sample size and access limitation (electron beam
cannot penetrate the convex surfaces of the samples).

The test results were summarized in table below:

No Test locations Element concentration, Wt %

C P S
1 OD surface 3.32 1.15 0.34
2. Oxide within cracks 2.94 – 3.09 0.58 – 1.17 None

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Due to the lack of reference data, the concentration levels of the electrolytes for example carbonate,
phosphate, nitrate, sulphate & hydroxide that can cause SCC in carbon steels are unknown. The above
test results are insufficient to positively identify the responsible corroding agents. High carbon
concentration can also be caused by contamination. The phosphorus was also present in boiler water
and steam leakage would have also deposited a large amount of phosphorus on OD surface of the tube.

3.3.7 Discussions

(a) Stress systems at the elbow

Axial and circum ferential tensile stresses at the intrados will arise from operational pressure and
differential expansion and contraction due to starting and stopping; these would be of a fairly steady
character.

Vibrations during operation could cause bending perpendicular to the plane of the U and result in
fluctuating tension / compression stresses at the intrados and extrados.

Residual stresses due to cold bending could be present, tensile at the intrados and compression at the
extrados. Radial stresses could also be present.

All the stresses above can operate together and can caus e fluctuating stresses or net tensile stresses in
the vicinity of the intrados, though not necessarily at the same particular locations at the same instant.

(b) Stress and environmental conditions required for fatigue cracking and stress corrosion cracking
(SCC)

Fatigue cracking requires a fluctuating stress, generally, with a positive mean component of stress.
Crack directions are perpendicul ar to the maximum principal stress. In the presence of contaminat ed
environments, crack growth rates are higher.

SCC requires a net tensile stress, whether applied or residual. Crack directions are also perpendicular to
the maximum principal stress. A specific corrodent must also be present; for carbon steels in boiler
usage, nitrates, phosphates and carbonates have been identified as causative agents.

From the above section, it is seen that the stress conditions necessary for fatigue cracking or stress
corrosion cracking in the vicinity of the intrados had been present. For fatigue, vibrations would be a
major cause and for stress corrosion cracking, residual stresses.

(c) Physical evidence of failure mechanisms

Vibration fatigue

(a) From scanning electron microscopy, striation lines were found on the fracture surface near the
crack tips. This confirmed the pres ence of fatigue.
(b) The shiny, dented mark near the extrados surface of the tube was very likely caused by
vibration induced force between two contact surfaces.

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)

(a) The primary crack had branching tips. (clause 3.3.3 & 3.3.5)
(b) From the metallographic examination, the cracks were inter-granular, oxide-filled, branching
and propagated in multiple directions. These are the typical characteristics of SCC.
(c) The specific corroding agent could not be positively identified at this stage.

(d) Sequence of cracking

The initial cracking mechanism, whether initiated by vibration fatigue or stress corrosion cracking,
could not to be established because the crack surfaces here had been steam-eroded and the
fractographic features, lost.

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Later crack propagation was both by fatigue and SCC.

3.3.8 Conclusions

The evaporator U-tube had failed by two mechanisms:

(a) Vibration fatigue

(b) Stress corrosion cracking

The initial mechanism could not be identified at this stage, due to inadequate evidence.

Side X Side Y

Cracks Cracks

Depression
mark

(a) (b)

Figure 3.1:
External appearance of the LP evaporator U-bend tube. Circumferential cracking was observed at the
intrados. A shiny depression was present near the extrados.

Side Y Cracks ar e
branching

Close-up view

Side X

Crack h ad
opened up
(b)
(a)

Figure 3.2:
The initial crack was circum ferential. The crack had extended from the intrados to the side bend
surfaces. The middle part of the crack had opened up. The crack tip on side Y is branching.

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Figure 3.3:
Steam-eroded fracture surface
at the center of the intrados.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.4:
(a) SEM photograph showing fracture surface of the tube. (b) Close-up view of the boxed region,
showing the presence of striation lines of fatigue fracture (arrowed).

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A ID surface

M
OD surface

Figure 3.5:
Composite micrographs from sample X, showing the initial crack LM and minor cracks at region D and E. All the crack surfaces had a jagged
appearance. Region A, B & C contained secondary cracks with similar characteristics in the proximity of the main fracture. Region A is magnified
in figures 3.6. Region D contained cracks at OD surface, whereas region E contained cracks at ID surface. Both these cracks had similar
characteristics; branching and intergranular crack paths. (Mag. 25 x)

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(b
(a) )

(c)

Figure 3.6:
(a) Close-up view of region A, showing the steam-eroded fracture surface and pres ence of multiple cracking in the proximity of the fracture. The cracks were
inter-granul ar, oxide-filled with branching characteristics. (Mag. 200x) (b) & (c) showed the enlarged microstructure of the cracks. (Mag. 500x)

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Figure 3.7:
Close-up view of region D, showing inter-granular
cracking with branching characteristics.
(Mag. 100x)

Figure 3.8:
Micrograph from sample Y taken on external cracking surface, showing multiple, parallel cracks
with branching characteristics. (Mag. 200x)

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4.0 OVERALL CONCLUSIONS

The reheater tube in case 1 had failed due to molten slag corrosion, a type of fireside corrosion. The
cool spacer tube at superheater in case 2 had experi enced a short term overheating due to steam
starvation/restriction. The evaporator tube in case 3 had been subjected to mechanical vibration
damage and stress corrosion cracking, aggravated by the presence of material residue stress and
waterside corrosive medium. The diagnosis of the failure modes and root cause analysis is essential to
identify weaknesses, inadequacies or faults in either material fabrication & processing, installation
workmanship, or operation & maintenance with the aim to strategize corrective / preventive measures
for continuous enhancem ent of power utility boiler effi ciency with respect to exercising of an effi cient
monitoring system and refurbishment program.

5.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The contribution from the working team and technical advice from Dr. Badrol Ahmad and Ir. H.C. Qua
is acknowledged. Appreciation is extended to TNB and TNBR management, especially Ir. Dr. K.H.
Cheong and power stations for the good support and assistance.

REFERENCES:

(i) Technical report, TNBR/MT/06/06/2009-R01, by G.P. Ng, 28 December 2004.

(ii) Technical report, TNBR/MT/02/11/2005-R01, by G.P. Ng, 31 January 2005.

(iii) Technical report, TNBR/FA/44/215/2009-R02, by G.P. Ng, 05 March 2010.

(iv) ASM Handbook, Volume 11, Failure Analysis & Prevention.

(v) David N. French, Metallurgical Failures in Fossil Fired Boilers, A Wiley-Interscience

Publication, John Wiley & Sons, Inc (1993).

(vi) Robert D. Port & Harvey M. Herro, The Nalco Guide To Boiler Failure Analysis, McGraw Hill,
Inc (1999).

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