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To cite this article: Ahmed Alduais, Mohammed Ali Al-Khulaidi, Silvia Allegretta & Mona
Mohammed Abdulkhalek (2023) Forensic linguistics: A scientometric review, Cogent Arts &
Humanities, 10:1, 2214387, DOI: 10.1080/23311983.2023.2214387
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
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linguistic rights, and legal linguistics. Our scientometric analysis allowed us to group
the 6,460 documents in forensic linguistics into various clusters based on research
patterns in the field, such as the role of forensic linguists in legal contexts, legal
translation, legal composition, forensic voice comparison, authorship attribution,
and human language technologies. Other clusters included the use of forensic
linguistics in police interview settings, public service and courtroom settings, lin
guistic rights, as well as online debate. The study has implications for researchers,
writers, public speakers, YouTubers, and all social media users, TV reporters, news
reporters, and media professionals. In contemporary society, there is a rapid pro
liferation of ignorance concerning copyrights and the rights of others. Therefore, it is
crucial to raise awareness among the general public about these rights.
Subjects: Legal, Ethical & Social Aspects of IT; Data Protection; Language & Linguistics
Keywords: Forensic linguistics; legal linguistics; language and law; courtroom language;
courtroom translation; authorship analysis; plagiarism; language detection; scientometric
review
1. Introduction
The birth of forensic linguistics as a branch of modern applied linguistics firmly grounded on
close, evident interdependence and relationship between language and law (Udina, 2017) has
a relatively long controversial history (Hunyadi, 2003) surrounded by uncertainty among scholars,
since the eighteenth century, over authorship issues of famous texts, sacred books and
Shakespeare’s plays (Olsson & Luchjenbroers, 2014). The advent of writing induced the production
of written legal and religious codes and hence the field of language and law was born (Butters,
2011b), igniting increased interest among scholars in various non-legal fields to use linguistic
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expertise in solving legal issues including, for example, speaker or writer identification and person’s
rationality among other factors (Tiersma & Curtis, 2008).
The foundations of forensic linguistics can be traced back to the period of early significant work
on language and the law, starting with (Bryant, 1930) compendium on function words in legal
language, followed by Wetter (1960) on style of written appellate decisions in legal context (as
cited in McMenamin, 2002). The most important development in the language of the law was
initiated by (Melinkoff, 1963) The Language of the Law. In this book, the author began his
influential clear, brief language campaign carried on by the author and others through the next
three decades. It was not until the year 1968 where the earliest attested usage of the term
“forensic linguistics” was introduced with the publication of (Svarvik’s, 1968) The Evan Statements:
A Case for Forensic Linguistics, providing an analysis of four statements purportedly made to the
police by Timothy Evans in which he confessed to strangling his wife and baby daughter in 1949
(Blackwell, 2012), marking the birth of a new area of forensic expertise (Coulthard & Johnson,
2007).
Initially, the growth of forensic linguistics was slow, involving just isolated articles where
distinguished linguists analyzed legal criminal-related documents and commented on their likely
authenticity (Coulthard & Johnson, 2007). This period in the development of forensic linguistics
extending up to the late 1980s was characterized by diversity of disciplines, scarcity of research
limited to articles or book chapters and a lack of institutionalized forensic linguistics, too early to
regard it as an academic discipline or a methodology, where “the work was undertaken as an
intellectual challenge and almost required the creation, rather than the application, of a method of
analysis” (Coulthard, 1995, p. 1).
The early 1990s marks the maturity of forensic linguistics as a distinct multi and cross-
interdisciplinary field in its development stage, all the way down to the third millennium, with
a series of early gatherings and seminars, culminating in the establishment of the International
Association of Forensic Linguists (IAFL) (IAFLL, n.d.), the International Association for Forensic
Phonetics (IAFPA) (IAFPA, n.d.), and the journal Forensic Linguistics: The International Journal of
Speech, Language and the Law (IJSLL) (IJSLL, n.d.) (Blackwell, published by Routledge, to serve as
the official organ of both the IAFP and the IAFL playing “a pivotal role in further developing,
refining and testing . . . methodologies, in disseminating the results of research and in making
available experience from case studies” (French & Coulthard, 2013, p. viii). Forensic linguistics,
during this period, was enriched with bigger, up-to-date research proportions form a wide range of
disciplines including linguistics, law, psychology, anthropology and sociology, under diverse topics
like handwriting analysis, forensic phonetics, linguist expert role in court, covering work in US, UK,
Australia, Europe, North America and Germany among other countries (Coulthard & Johnson,
2007). Except for O’Barr (1982), the period from the 1990s onward witnessed the production of
more book-length studies with the word “forensic” in their title, by many proponents of the field in
key areas, such as forensic phonetics (Baldwin & French, 1990; Rose, 2002), forensic stylistics and
author identification (McMenamin, 1993; McMenamin, 2002), forensic linguistics (Gibbons, 2003;
Olsson, 2008), legal language (Solan & Tiersma, 2005), courtroom interaction (Archer, 2005;
Matosian, 1993), language and power (Cotterill, 2003) and the linguist as expert in court (Shuy,
2006; Berk-Seligson, 2002), police, law enforcement and interrogation language (Shuy, 2005),
psychological (Gudjonsson, 2002a) and conversational analytic (Heydon, 2005) perspective
(Heydon, 2005).
In the course of its rapid development towards the close of the twentieth century and the
beginning of the third millennium, forensic linguistics has taken a more well-organized active
presence, with a more developing methodology and a growing number of linguists as experts
(Coulthard & Johnson, 2007) owing to a series of seminars taking place in various countries, giving
birth to the International Association of Forensic Linguists (IAFL) in 1993, the International
Association for Forensic Phonetics (IAFP) in 1991, and the Journal Forensic Linguistics in 1994,
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later renamed as The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law in 2003 (P. French &
Coulthard, 2013). Of the earliest organized gatherings on forensic linguistics held in Germany were
a two-day conference in FL by Bundeskriminalamt (BKA, Federal Criminal Police Office) in 1988,
a number of conferences at Mannheim University organized by the late Lothar Michel on forensic
handwriting analysis in 1989, and sessions on forensic linguistics held by the German Applied
Linguistics Association (GAL) 1990 to 1992, stirring a significant pioneering interest that influenced
forensic speaker identification practices in several EU countries including Germany, Austria,
Sweden, the Netherlands, and Spain (Broeders, 2001).
In the UK, seminars on forensic linguistics took place at the University of Birmingham on the
initiative of Malcolm Coulthard in 1992 with a growing number of linguists and lawyers from
several countries including Brazil, Australia, Germany, Greece, Ireland, the Netherlands, and
Ukraine, consolidating a consensus for the need of an international association (Blackwell,
2012), culminating in the most remarkable advance in the study of forensic linguistics in 1994
with the Birmingham University launch of Forensic Linguistics: The International Journal of Speech,
Language and the Law, with Malcolm Coulthard and Peter French as editors, and the founding of
the International Association of Forensic Linguistics (IAFL) (McMenamin, 2002).
The years following the founding of the IAFL, forensic linguistics internationality became visible
on several academic conferences which took place in Bonn, Germany in 1993, Amsterdam in 1993
chaired by Professor Hannes Kniffka, in Australia in 1995 and the USA in 1997. The 4th IAFL
Conference in 1999, unlike the previous ones, was larger and constituted a turning point in which
the IAFL Web site was created by Jess Shapero (http://www.iafl.org), a pioneering effort, enabling
potential participants around the world to remain informed about changes to the program without
having to rely on the postal system (Blackwell, 2012). Moreover, first MA course in forensic
linguistics introduced at Cardiff University in 1999 and the Centre for Forensic Linguistics was
established at Birmingham’s Aston University to cope with the increasing demand for forensic
linguistic skills in 2008 (Gao, 2010).
The growth of forensic linguistics continued steadily towards the end of the twentieth century,
with the provision of forensic linguistics courses and study modules taught at undergraduate and
postgraduate programs at emerging universities in the USA, England, Wales, Australia, China,
Hong Kong, Finland, Germany, Japan, and South Africa (Blackwell, 2012). From the year 2000
onwards, there has been a marked shift away from the Anglo-centric, common-law bias dominat
ing the field of forensic linguistics in the previous decade; the IAFL biennial conferences subse
quently were no longer the only means to the exchange of ideas in the field, initiating several
gatherings such as Łódz event in 2005, followed by the 2nd IAFL European Conference on Forensic
Linguistics/Language and the Law in Barcelona in 2006, and by annual conferences at Adam
Mickiewicz University, Poznan from 2006, all the way down to 2008 with the launch of the
Centre for Forensic Linguistics at Aston University, which has hosted the FL Summer School, now
an annual event, since 2006 and where Malcolm Coulthard now holds the world’s first professorial
chair in forensic linguistics (Blackwell, 2012).
This period in the development of forensic linguistics is characterized by bringing new challenges
to the discipline owing to new speech and text technologies as opposed to traditional means
(Hunyadi, 2003), firmly asserting that forensic linguistics, as a new branch of applied linguistics, is
at the center of two parallel increasing trends both aiming at: utilizing technology to assist in the
analysis of text and (ii) scrutinizing digital data through the lens of traditional linguistic and
discursive analytical methods of speech (MacLeod & Wright, 2020).
Forensic linguistics is now largely recognized as its own distinct field; it has spread around the
world, broadening in scope and becoming recognized and utilized in a variety of jurisdictions and
contexts (Perkins, 2021). Today forensic linguistics is a widely recognized field. The International
Association of Forensic Linguists “aims to bring together those working on any aspects of language
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and the law” (http://www.iafl.org/) and works to promote research into the practice, improvement,
and ethics of expert testimony and the presentation of linguistic evidence, as well as legal
interpreting and translation” and is working to create a standard for forensic linguistic experts.
The key journal in this area is The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law formerly
titled Forensic Linguistics (Perkins & Grant, 2013).
Forensic linguistics is truly inter- and cross-disciplinary in composition, overlapping with several
disciplines such as communication, criminology, law, linguistics, sociology, and translation studies
(Johnson & Coulthard, 2010). The scope of forensic linguistics is difficult to define as it covers
aspects of language from the level of phonetics to discourse analysis in the stages of investigation,
trial and interpretation. However, the areas covered under forensic linguistics, based on
(McMenamin, 2002) and (Umiyati, 2020) are listed, not exhaustively, as follows:
The three key elements of forensic linguistics as a distinct discipline comprise the following : (i) the
(written) language of the law, (ii) the language of (spoken) legal processes, and (iii) language
analysis as evidence or as an investigative tool (MacLeod & Wright, 2020), serving as the interface
between language and law where legal remedies are sought (Olsson, 2009). Within the area of
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investigative language and evidence provision, forensic linguists perform various tasks in the scope
of comparative authorship analysis, sociolinguistic profiling, interactional meaning, determining
meaning, and trademark disputes and copyright infringement (Perkins, 2021). Forensic linguists’
core business is to examine documents of anonymous or disguised origin, such as bomb threats,
ransom or suicide notes, or other messages associated with crime (Jordan, 2002) to determine
their authentic authorship or decide if the documents have been altered or tampered with in any
way (Varney, 1997), including new emerging technological forms of texts such as phone SMS
messages, tweets and forums (Bhatia & Ritchie, 2012). While forensic linguists can only give
professional opinion on authorship authenticity of documents or recordings under question and
not on the psychology or social setting of suspects without police help (Blackwell, 2012), utilizing
forensic linguistic awareness among lawyers and police officers contributes to a better delivery of
justice, emphasizing that forensic linguistics is a collaborative work of interrelated fields in inves
tigative settings (Perkins, 2021).
It can be inferred that the intersections between forensic linguistics and other areas of applied
linguistics (mainly sociolinguistics, pragmatics, and discourse analysis) in three interrelated areas:
linguistic evidence, language and the law, and language during legal procedures and courtroom
discourse has shown the immense contribution of applied linguistics in the codification of law,
delivery of justice and maintenance of the rights of linguistically vulnerable populations (Correa,
2013). Forensic linguistics, which encompasses audio and digital forensics, has made significant
contributions to various institutions, including digital humanities, as well as relevant parties such
as prosecutors and law enforcement agencies. Its purpose is to analyze and determine the validity
of language-based evidence, such as speech, in legal contexts (Surahman, 2021). Potential of
linguistic understanding coupled with collaboration across the areas where language and law
intersect will enhance the importance and utility of forensic linguistics in delivering justice and
linguistic facilitation training for investigators (Perkins, 2021). However, all such unprecedented
developments in the field of forensic linguistics are accompanied with several limitations that
should not be ignored. One of the limitations is that linguistic evidence alone is not sufficient to
convict or exonerate a person. In addition, it should be noted that linguistic analysis facilitated by
technology is not always entirely reliable and can be subject to interpretation. Moreover, the
inability to conduct experiments in the courtroom can make it challenging to demonstrate what
actually occurs in such settings (Correa, 2013).
1.3. Scientific contributions for forensic linguistics
The growing efforts in the 1990s in the development and institutionalization of forensic linguistics
as a discipline culminated in the establishment of its own professional International Association of
Forensic Linguists (IAFL) founded in 1993 (Johnson & Coulthard, 2010) International Association
for Forensic Phonetics (IAFP), and the launch of the journal Forensic Linguistics: The International
Journal of Speech, Language and the Law founded in 1994, a peer-reviewed journal published by
Routledge with articles on any aspect of forensic language, speech and audio analysis (Blackwell,
2012).
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Since its beginning in 1994 as Forensic Linguistics: The International Journal of Speech, Language
and the Law, the journal changed to its present title The International Journal of Speech, Language
and the Law in 2003 now online at (https://www.iafl.org/journal/) to reflect a broadening of
academic coverage and readership and to serve as the official organ of both the International
Association of Forensic Phonetics IAFP and the International Association of Forensic Linguists IAFL
(IAFP, n.d. Blackwell, 2012; IJSLL, n.d. Linguistics. IAFL, n.d.). The journal plays “a pivotal role in
further developing, refining and testing . . . methodologies, in disseminating the results of research
and in making available experience from case studies” and is “intended to appeal to readers and
contributors from a number of different sub-disciplines of linguistics, as well as to solicitors,
barristers and judges who have little or no prior knowledge of the concepts and terminology
connected with linguistic study” (French & Coulthard, 2013, p. viii). Currently published by
Equinox in the UK, the journal has published 28 biannual issues and continues to be the topmost
official journal of the International Association of Forensic Linguists and the International
Association of Forensic Phonetics and Acoustics, projecting the emerging debate within the
forensic linguistics community regarding the scope of the discipline as it evolves and defines itself
(Blackwell, 2012).
The International Association for Forensic and Legal Linguistics, currently online at (https://www.
iafl.org/about-iafl/), is an organization that comprises linguists as well as legal practitioners with
work in the law, more specifically linguistic evidence in court including authorship attribution,
disputed confessions, among others (The International Association for Forensic and Legal
Linguistics, n.d..). Founded in 1992, at the University of Birmingham, UK, the IAFL aims, through
its annual conferences and newsletters, to offer a platform for exchanging ideas and information
on forensic applications of linguistic analysis and to improve the administration of the legal
systems worldwide by means of a better understanding of the interaction between the language
and the law (French & Coulthard, 2013). The creation of the IAFL Web site (now at www.iafl.org) in
1999 which continues to provide resources for members including an online searchable bibliogra
phy of research in language and law remains one of the most remarkable contributions of the
association to keep participants informed and updated with the latest in research in the discipline
(Blackwell, 2012).
The International Association for Forensic Phonetics and Acoustics (IAFPA), now at (http://www.
iafpa.net/), is the professional association for forensic scientists and researchers working on voices,
speech and audio recordings analysis. IAFPA was formally established in York, England, in 1991
with the name The International Association for Forensic Phonetics (IAFP). The dynamic growth of
the IAFP into 120 members worldwide, with expertise spanning both forensic phonetics and
acoustics has resulted in the addition of the latter “A” to IAFPA. Initially, the IAFP served as the
professional body for phoneticians engaged in forensic work (P. French & Coulthard, 2013). The
association aims to encourage research and provide a platform for the interchange of ideas and
information on practice, development and research in forensic phonetics and acoustics. The IAFP,
through its professional Conduct Committee, has set down and formulated a Code of Practice by
which all members are bound.
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authorship analysis, sociolinguistic profiling, interactional meanings, trademark disputes and copy
right infringement (R. Perkins & Grant, 2013).
Furthermore, forensic linguistics has broad applications in the fields of humanities and comput
ing, including the identification of digital forgery in audio and video recordings (Hunyadi, 2003).
Considering authority, Hutton stressed the importance of forensic linguists’ roles, and insisted that
forensic linguistics must distance itself from core linguistics in order to perform more effective
roles in language and law (Hutton, 2005). Despite the fact that forensic linguistics appears to be an
older field of study in countries like the United Kingdom and the United States, it continues to grow
in other countries (e.g., China, Africa) (Gao, 2010; Mollema, 2019).
A number of recent studies have examined the key elements of forensic linguistics, focusing on
the explored and examined areas within this field (e.g., plagiarism detection) (Ariani et al., 2014).
An additional study reviewed educational efforts in the area of forensic linguistics to teach
language and law (Udina, 2017). Forensic linguistics is developing in the higher education sector
and more courses are being offered in universities, indicating the preparation of a greater number
of forensic linguists (Coulthard et al., 2017b). In addition, Umiyati conducted a literature review on
forensic linguistics, but this review was primarily based on reviewing books relevant to this field
(2020). This review is significant in that it outlines the types of texts and sources used in forensic
linguistics settings, as well as the most extensively examined areas in the field (Umiyati, 2020).
In this study, a scientometric approach was employed to investigate the rise and development
of forensic linguistics. The investigation entailed an examination of 6,460 triangulated documents
from three prominent knowledge databases (Scopus, WOS, and Lens) spanning the period between
1936 and 2022. Three key research objectives were formulated to guide the analysis. Firstly, the
study sought to determine the extent of knowledge production in forensic linguistics in relation to
variables such as year, region, higher education institution, journal, publisher, research area,
author, and cited document. Secondly, the investigation aimed to identify the central and most
influential authors in the field. Finally, the study sought to delineate the main areas of research in
forensic linguistics.
2. Methods
These studies are guided by scientometric indicators. Indicators may relate to elements (e.g.,
publications, citations, references, potential, etc.) or types (e.g., quantitative, impact) (Parkinson,
2011). “Mapping knowledge domains” is also a subject that is worthy of mentioning. A critical
component of the process is the creation of “an image that shows the development process and
the structural relationship of scientific knowledge”—using maps that are “useful tools for tracking
the frontiers of science and technology, facilitating knowledge management, and assisting scien
tific and technological decision-making” (Huang et al., 2021, p. 6201). In a recent study, it was
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Table 1. Bibliometric and scientometric indicators for measuring forensic linguistics development, adapted from (Alduais et al., 2022)
Definition/specification/retrieved Database/Software
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2214387
Element
data
Indicator Scopus WOS Lens
Bibliometric
Alduais et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2214387
(Continued)
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Table 1. (Continued)
Element Definition/specification/retrieved Database/Software
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data
Indicator Scopus WOS Lens
Silhouette Used in cluster analysis to measure √ Χ
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suggested that this approach could be applied across all fields of study, not just medical, health,
and pure sciences (Sooryamoorthy, 2020). The field of forensic linguistics is examined in this
present study as an interdisciplinary area of linguistics that integrates with other fields like law,
forensic science, sociolinguistics, etc.
2.2. Measures
Our previous discussion has already indicated that both bibliometric and scientometric studies are
used to guide the assessment of the knowledge produced in a given field (e.g., forensic linguistics).
Generally, bibliographic indicators are available in knowledge databases like Scopus, WOS, and
Lens (Birkle et al., 2020; Burnham, 2006; Penfold, 2020; Pranckutė, 2021). In scientometrics,
indicators are usually provided through software packages. The software used in our study, for
example, was CiteSpace 5.8.R3 (C. Chen, 2014) and VOSviewer 1.6.18 (van Eck & Waltman, 2022).
Our bibliometric and scientometric indicators are listed in Table 1.
On Wednesday, 22 June 2022, data were retrieved for this study. Language restrictions were not
imposed as long as the title, abstract, and keywords were available in English. However, owing to
the scarcity of results in other languages, a manual verification process was conducted. The study
incorporated all types of documents that met the criterion of containing the full-text.
A comprehensive description of the search strings used in the three databases and other relevant
specifications can be found in Table 2.
In this study, the concept of “forensic linguistics” and its equivalents were utilized to assess the
magnitude and development of research in this field. The search strings employed in our search
did not comprise keywords that were exclusively specific to forensic linguistics, such as violent
Table 2. Search strings for retrieving data on forensic linguistics from Scopus, WOS, and lens
Scopus
(ALL ( “forensic linguistics” ) OR ALL ( “legal linguistics” ) OR ALL ( “language and law” )) AND (LIMIT-TO
(DOCTYPE, “ar”) OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ch”) OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “cp”) OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “re”) OR
LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “bk”))
Wednesday, 22 June 2022, 2,780 results document results, 1966–2022
WOS
“forensic linguistics” (All Fields) or “legal linguistics” (All Fields) or “language and law” (All Fields) and Articles or
Book Chapters or Proceedings Papers or Review Articles or Early Access or Books (Document Types)
Wednesday, 22 June 2022, 688 results document results, 1985–2022
Lens
(Title: ( AND (“forensic linguistics” AND )) OR (Abstract: ( AND (“forensic linguistics” AND )) OR Full Text: ( AND
(“forensic linguistics” AND )))) OR (Keyword: ( AND (“forensic linguistics” AND )) OR ((Title: ( AND (“legal
linguistics” AND )) OR (Abstract: ( AND (“legal linguistics” AND )) OR Full Text: ( AND (“legal linguistics” AND ))))
OR (Keyword: ( AND (“legal linguistics” AND )) OR ((Title: ( AND (“language and law” AND )) OR (Abstract: ( AND
(“language and law” AND )) OR Full Text: ( AND (“language and law” AND )))) OR Keyword: ( AND (“language
and law” AND ))))))
Filters: Year Published = (1936 -) Stemming = Disabled Publication Type = (journal article, unknown, book
chapter, book, dissertation, conference proceedings article, preprint, conference proceedings)
Wednesday, 22 June 2022, Scholarly Works (2,992), 1936–2022
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language, verbal violence, and document fabrication. Our preliminary Google search and prior
familiarity with the field informed the decision to employ the aforementioned search strings to
retrieve information related to forensic linguistics (refer to Table 2 for further details).
CiteSpace and Mendeley were used to remove duplicates before starting the analysis in
CiteSpace. We then used Excel to perform the bibliometric analysis. Citation reports were gener
ated and converted into figures using Excel.
Since no settings were changed in either software package, scientometric analysis settings were
set to default. There were three different visualisations created for each database, namely net
work, overlay, and density. We analysed Scopus and WOS data three times per dataset: co-
occurrences by author keywords, co-citations by source, and co-citations by cited authors. In the
case of Lens, four analyses were performed: cooccurrence-by-keyword analysis, citation-by-author
analysis, citation-by-source analysis, and citation-by-document analysis. Scopus and WOS were
each analysed three times in CiteSpace: to identify co-citations by document (references), co-
citations by cited authors, and occurrence (keywords). Our analysis resulted in narrative summa
ries, cluster summaries, maps, and burst tables.
3. Results
3.2.1. Overview of Forensic linguistics studies from Scopus, web of science, and lens
For the purpose of analysis, a total of 2,780 papers on forensic linguistics were retrieved from
Scopus, 688 from WOS, and 2,992 from Lens databases, spanning the years 1966–2022, 1985–
2022, and 1936–2022, respectively. The Scopus database contained 1,523 articles, 224 review
articles, 251 conference proceedings (articles), 566 book chapters, and 216 books. The WOS
database contained 589 articles, 21 review articles, 82 book chapters, 3 books, 75 proceedings,
and 5 early access articles. The documents retrieved from Lens comprised 1,782 articles, 300 book
chapters, 216 books, 38 dissertations, 44 conference proceedings (articles), 604 unknown types,
and 8 preprints. While many of these documents were authored in English, some were written in
other languages such as Spanish, Catalan, Russian, French, Galician, and German. Nonetheless, as
the analysis was based on title, keywords, abstract, and references, all documents included this
information in English to avoid any bias towards published data in English.
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250
200
Documents 150
100
50
0
19661974198519881991199319951997199920012003200520072009201120132015201720192021
Year
B (WOS)
140
120
100
Documents
80
60
40
20
0
1985
1986
1987
2007
1990
1993
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022 Year
C (Lens)
300
250
200
Documents
150
100
50
0
1936
1950
1959
1965
1967
1969
1972
1976
1978
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
2021
Year
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Poland 80
Canada 95
China 124
Germany 141
Italy 147
Spain 164
Australia 215
FINLAND 13
BELGIUM 14
BRAZIL 17
AUSTRALIA 21
GERMANY 24
PEOPLES R CHINA 26
RUSSIA 32
ENGLAND 77
USA 82
SPAIN 263
C (Lens)
Figure 1a-c illustrates the length of knowledge production over the years for the three data
bases. It is evident that forensic linguistics has witnessed a significant increase in knowledge
production, with 275 publications in Scopus in 2021, 127 publications in WOS in 2021, and 263
publications in Lens in 2017. The range of publications per year varies between 1 and 275 in
Scopus, between 1 and 127 in WOS, and between 1 and 263 in Lens. Notably, the lowest number of
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Zhejiang University 27
University of Melbourne 28
University of Cambridge 29
University of Birmingham 29
Cardiff University 35
University of York 49
Aston University 75
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Documents by university
B (WOS)
UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS 15
GENERALITAT CATALUNYA 15
UNIVERSITAT DE GIRONA 21
ASTON UNIVERSITY 31
UNIVERSITY OF BARCELONA 44
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Documents by university
C (Lens)
publications occurred in the preceding year across all databases. Consequently, there has been
a marked growth in the production of forensic linguistics knowledge over the last two decades.
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A (Scopus)
Figure 4. Forensic linguistics
knowledge production size by
Studies In Logic Grammar And Rhetoric 25
source.
Semio ca 27
Journal Of Pragma cs 29
B (WOS)
C (Lens)
D (Lens)
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Walter De Gruyter 13
Elsevier 14
Springer Nature 28
Routledge 63
B (Lens)
databases, while Spain is ranked first in WOS. Notably, China and Hong Kong (i.e., China SAR) is the
only eastern country appearing in Scopus, while other countries such as Russia, Indonesia, and
Brazil are listed in WOS and Lens databases.
Figure 3a-c presents the top 10 universities and/or research centres producing knowledge in
forensic linguistics. Despite the fact that most of the universities in the Scopus database are British
universities, they are Spanish universities in the WOS database. Lens presents a variable list of
institutions, but the majority of them are British universities including the Aston Institute for
Forensic Linguistics.
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A (Scopus)
Figure 6. Forensic Linguistics
Knowledge Production Size by
Health Professions 24
Research Area.
Neuroscience 25
Engineering 72
Mathema!cs 102
Medicine 114
Psychology 179
B (WOS)
Area Studies 9
Literature 10
Computer Science 21
Communica!on 26
Criminology Penology 81
Linguis!cs 252
C (Lens)
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which are ranked first and second respectively. The rest of the journals that publish in this field
include pragmatics, language studies, law and forensic science. Some of these sources are also
available in Spanish. It can be seen in Figure 4d that there are both specific journals to forensic
linguistics and other related fields publishing in the field, such as language studies, law and
forensic science.
Figure 5a–b shows the list of top 10 publishers for knowledge in forensic linguistics. As Scopus
does not provide publisher information, these lists are limited to the WOS and Lens databases. The
first publisher in Scopus is a Spanish publisher, while Elsevier is ranked first in Lens.
3.7.1. Overview of forensic linguistics studies from Scopus, web of science, and lens
Presented in this section is a scientometric analysis of the retrieved data from Scopus, WOS, and
Lens databases based on their scientometric properties. There is a specific focus on highlighting
the impact of certain concepts, authors, references, and emerging trends on the field of forensic
linguistics through this publication.
CiteSpace was used to determine the top keywords with the largest citation bursts from Scopus
and WOS Figure 8a–b. The green line indicates the period during which all research was conducted.
Red lines indicate the beginning and end of the burst period. The word with the strongest citation
burst in Scopus is speaker identification = 10.31 between 2000 and 2004, and linguistic law = 20.43
between 2016 and 2018 for the WOS. The order of the citations changes when based on their burst
duration. While the keyword with longest burst duration in Scopus is priority journal = 1990–2009,
it is discourse analysis = 2004–2016 in the WOS data.
Clusters and authors are further illustrated in network visualisations Figure 9a–d. Humanities
and linguistics are the most discussed topics in forensic linguistics. According to Figure 9b, lan
guage and forensic linguistics are the most discussed topics in published research retrieved from
the WOS database. Figures 9c-d illustrate the most cited references and the topics that were
searched when citing these references. Some of these topics include statutory interpretation,
forensic voice comparison, and others (See Figure 9c). Among the topics included in the WOS
database are sociolinguistic evidence, gender violence cases, legal translation, forensic stylistics,
and many others (See Figure 9d).
Another important aspect to consider is the co-occurrence of the used keywords. Using
VOSviewer, we generated three visual network maps depicting the occurrence of the most fre
quently used keywords in forensic linguistics across the three databases (see Figure 10a-c). Each
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Eades, D. 13
Shuy, R.W. 14
Nakane, I. 14
Morrison, G.S. 14
Powell, R. 15
Coulthard, M. 15
Grant, T. 16
Foulkes, P. 17
Cheng, L. 21
0 5 10 15 20 25
Documents by author
B (WOS)
Libarona IU 11
Fernandez FG 11
Ma!la HES 12
Johnson A 12
Albert RSI 12
Wright D 16
Coulthard M 16
Boix AMP 21
Pujolras AP 23
Parera EP 23
0 5 10 15 20 25
Documents buy author
C (Lens)
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colour in the network maps represents a different area of forensic linguistics study. The yellow
color indicates studies that specifically focus on keywords related to forensic linguistics. Blue
colour represents studies related to legal translation and law, while green colour is associated
with speaker identification and forensic science topics (refer to Figure 10a). The colours may vary
depending on the databases used. For example, in Figure 10b, blue colour represents keywords
related to language and law, green colour represents words related to sociolinguistics and Catalan
evidence, while brown colour indicates forensic linguistic keywords. In Figure 10c, blue colour
represents keywords related to forensic voice comparison.
With the help of VOSviewer, we were able to generate three visual network maps for co-citations
and citations by authors Figure 11a–c. Each colour represents a co-citation or citation network. The
larger the circle, the more co-cited or cited the author is (R. W. Shuy, 2006; Coulthard, 1995;
J. Gibbons, 2003), etc., are among these authors.
VOSviewer was used to generate three visual network maps of co-citations and citations by
sources Figure 12a–c. Co-citations or source citations are represented by colours. According to
Figure 12a, blue journals refer to forensic science, red journals to linguistics, and green journals to
conference proceedings. Throughout Figure 12b, yellow represents Spanish journals, green repre
sents speech communication, blue represents pragmatics and interpretation, and red represents
forensic science journals. In Figure 12c, blue represents forensic linguistic journals, green indicates
language sciences journals, and purple indicates language and society journals.
In order to determine the top 10 cited works, we exported the citation reports from Scopus,
WOS, and Lens. As shown in Table 3, the top cited documents were merged and duplicates were
removed to produce the final list. The majority of these are in the field of forensic linguistics, while
others are in other fields that have used forensic linguistics in some way.
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B (WOS)
C (Lens)
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B (WOS)
C (Lens: Cita!on)
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B (WOS)
C (Lens: Cita!on)
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Table 3. Top cited documents of forensic linguistics from Scopus, WOS and lens
No. Source title Citation Citations by database
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(Continued)
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Table3. (Continued)
No. Source title Citation Citations by database
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2214387
Introduction to Language in
the Justice System
13 Foundations of Voice Studies: (Kreiman & Sidtis, 2011) 261 Χ Χ
An Interdisciplinary Approach
to Voice Production and
Perception
14 Just Words: Law, Language, (Conley & O’Barr, 1998) Χ Χ 199
and Power
15 Language and linguistics on (Rickford & King, 2016b) Χ 77 Χ
trial: hearing Rachel Jeantel
(and other vernacular
speakers) in the courtroom
and beyond
16 Mining e-mail content for (de Vel et al., 2001) 345 Χ 452
author identification
forensics
17 Online hatred of women in (Jaki et al., 2019) Χ 35 Χ
the Incels.me forum
Linguistic analysis and
automatic detection
18 Paths to Post-Nationalism: (Heller, 2011) 360 Χ Χ
A Critical Ethnography of
Language and Identity
19 Problems in communicating (Nakane, 2007) Χ 29 Χ
the suspect’s rights in
interpreted police interviews
20 Quantifying evidence in (Grant, 2007) Χ 46 Χ
forensic authorship analysis
(Continued)
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Table3. (Continued)
No. Source title Citation Citations by database
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A (WOS)
3.8. Impact of research on forensic linguistics by clusters, citation counts, citation bursts,
centrality, and sigma
Figures 13a-b present a summary of the most commonly used keywords associated with forensic
linguistics in both the Scopus and WOS databases, as generated by the CiteSpace software. In
comparison to Scopus, where the frequency range is 42–120, the range in WOS is 15–87. In Scopus,
the most frequently used word is forensic linguistics, followed by human and linguistics. Forensic
linguistics occupies the top position in WOS, followed by linguistic law and language policy. The
keywords presented above serve as a valuable indicator of the most frequently discussed topics in
forensic linguistics.
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3.8.1. Clusters
The network is divided into 22 co-citation clusters in Scopus data (See Table 4 for the detailed list
of clusters.). The largest 8 clusters are summarized as follows. The largest cluster (#0) has 150
members and a silhouette value of 0.818. It is labelled as legal context by both LLR and LSI, and as
role (1.39) by MI. The most relevant citer to the cluster is (Coulthard & Johnson, 2010), The
Routledge Handbook of Forensic Linguistics.
The network is divided into 15 co-citation clusters in the WOS data. The largest 6 clusters are
summarized as follows. The largest cluster (#0) has 109 members and a silhouette value of 0.744.
It is labelled as police interview by LLR, forensic linguistics by LSI, and creole continuum courtroom
(1.67) by MI. The most relevant citer to the cluster is (Coulthard et al., 2017c), Introduction to
Forensic Linguistics: Language in Evidence.
3.8.3. Bursts
In Scopus, the top ranked item by bursts is (Gibbons, 1994b) in Cluster #0, with bursts of 16.70.
The second one is (Rose, 2002) in Cluster #2, with bursts of 14.58. In the WOS, the top ranked item
by bursts is (Nogueira López, 2018) in Cluster #7, with bursts of 3.78. The second one is (Cornu,
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2014) in Cluster #2, with bursts of 3.49. See Table 6 and Figure 14a-d for the remaining top
detected bursts in forensic linguistics.
3.8.4. Centrality
In Scopus, the top ranked item by centrality is [Anonymous] (1973) in Cluster #3, with centrality of
185. The second one is (Coulthard & Johnson, 2010) in Cluster #6, with centrality of 107. In the
WOS, the top ranked item by centrality is (Berk-Seligson, 1999a) in Cluster #1, with centrality of 85.
The second one is (Coulthard et al., 2014) in Cluster #0, with centrality of 71. For a list of the
remaining central authors in forensic linguistics, please refer to Table 7.
3.8.5. Sigma
In Scopus, the top ranked item by sigma is [Anonymous] (1973) in Cluster #3, with sigma of 0.00.
The second one is (Coulthard, 2007b) in Cluster #6, with sigma of 0.00. In the WOS, the top ranked
item by sigma is (S. Berk-Seligson, 1999a) in Cluster #1, with sigma of 0.00. The second one is
(Coulthard et al., 2014) in Cluster #0, with sigma of 0.00. See Table 8 for the remaining authors
with potential high citation in forensic linguistics.
4. Discussion
The purpose of this study was to measure the development of knowledge in the field of forensic
linguistics. The latter is now known as “the interdisciplinary field which examines, defines, and
investigates language in court as evidence to policies, judges, and lawyers” (Umiyati, 2020, p. 23).
The study results were presented in two distinct sections. The first section provided an overview of
bibliometric indicators, including publications by year, the top 10 countries, universities, journals,
publishers, subject/research areas, and authors. The second section focused on citations, co-
citations, and co-occurrence indicators. Seven significant findings were discussed in relation to
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bibliometric indicators. Firstly, knowledge production related to forensic linguistics has experienced
a marked increase over the last two decades. Secondly, the most notable contributors in terms of
countries are the UK, the US, and Spain. Thirdly, British universities dominate the list in Scopus and
Lens databases, while Spanish universities dominate the list in the WOS database. Fourthly, while
there are a few journals that specialize in forensic linguistics, most journals are related to prag
matics, language studies, law, and forensic science. Fifthly, the major publishers in this field are
Escola Adm Publica Catalunya and Elsevier. Sixthly, several areas related to forensic linguistics
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were identified, including social sciences, arts and humanities, computer science, government law,
linguistics, and criminology penology. The last finding (7) shows that (Cheng & Wu, 2021; Durant,
2022; Matulewska & Gwiazdowicz, 2020; Parera & Pujolràs, 2021, 2021; Wang et al., 2022) are
some of the major authors contributing to the field. In accordance with scientometric indicators,
we analyzed the most cited keywords in Scopus and WOS. These included language policy
(Guimarães et al., 2019), speaker identification (Singh, 2018), speech analysis (Brederoo et al.,
2021), law (Carvalho, 2019), and information retrieval (Carneiro et al., 2014). They also included
linguistic law (Torre et al., 2019), minority language (Limberger et al., 2020), legal translation
(Zeifert & Tobor, 2021), forensic linguistics (Umiyati, 2020), and official language (Ward, 2019).
Additionally, we identified the largest clusters of co-citations. In Scopus, they included legal
context (Roehling, 2017) and legal translation (Zeifert & Tobor, 2021), whereas in WOS they were
forensic linguistics (Umiyati, 2020) and public service (Engen et al., 2021).
Regarding the most cited authors’ latest contributions, a number of them, such as (Durant, 2022;
Matulewska & Gwiazdowicz, 2020; Parera & Pujolràs, 2021) focused on the juridical part of forensic
linguistics rather than on the linguistical one. Others, like (Cheng & Wu, 2021), and (Wang et al., 2022),
addressed topics related to the research methods adopted, including critical discourse analysis.
By analyzing the bibliometric data of each database, we determined the top 10 cited documents.
These explored various topics including emotions (Juslin & Laukka, 2003b), interrogations
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Table 8. Sigma metrics for potential authors with high citations in forensic linguistics
WOS Scopus
(Gudjonsson, 2002b; Haworth, 2006), sociolinguistics (Holmes & Wilson, 2022; Rickford & King,
2016a), and expert searching (Balog et al., 2006).
Finally, we performed a Sigma analysis to identify the top-ranked items in both Scopus and WOS.
Among the most cited items are court interpreting (S. Berk-Seligson, 1999b), approaches to
language in legal settings (Coulthard, 2007a; J. P. Gibbons, 1994a), pragmatics (Coulthard,
2007a), and attitudes (J. Gibbons, 2001a). Our analysis highlighted various topics that are all
related to forensic linguistics to a different extent. For instance, court interpreting is an important
issue considering that the trial’s outcome usually depends on the witness’ answers to leading
questions.
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5. Conclusion
The findings of this research provide compelling evidence that research in forensic linguistics has
witnessed a significant increase in the last two decades. Our study examined the development and
growth of forensic linguistics from 1936 to 2022 using scientometric analysis of 6,460 documents.
Through our research, we were able to visualize and analyse forensic linguistics using eight bibliometric
indicators and eight scientometric indicators. We have identified the most influential regions and
institutions in the field, such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Spain, China, Russia, and others.
Additionally, we have identified the most frequently used keywords in forensic linguistics, including
human, linguistics, legal translation, language, speech recognition, legal language, authorship attribu
tion, and natural language processing. The keywords also included legal linguistics as a synonym for
forensic linguistics, as well as several other areas such as linguistic law, language policy, language and
law, official languages, legal translation, and linguistic rights. Moreover, the significant benefit of our
scientometric analysis was the ability to categorize the 6,460 documents in forensic linguistics into
several clusters based on research patterns. Some of these patterns include the role of forensic linguists
in legal contexts, legal translation, legal composition, forensic voice comparison, authorship attribution,
and human language technologies. Other clusters included the use of forensic linguistics in police
interview settings, public service settings, and courtroom settings, linguistic rights, and online debates.
2
Funding Department of English and Communication, The
No funding was received for this paper. Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR,
China.
3
Author details Department of English, Ibb University, Ibb, Yemen.
4
Ahmed Alduais1,2 Department of General Psychology, University of Padua,
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0837-4915 Italy.
5
Mohammed Ali Al-Khulaidi3 Centre of Languages and Translation, Ibb University, Ibb,
E-mail: mohamed.khulaidi336@gmail.com Yemen.
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3439-6790
Silvia Allegretta4 Highlights
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5536-6411 ● Forensic linguistics is a unique field of study
Mona Mohammed Abdulkhalek5 that emphasizes the observation of language
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1256-1417
1
Department of Human Sciences (Psychology), University
usage in our daily lives, providing a legal per
of Verona, Verona, Italy. spective for the analysis of language.
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Bennett, W. L., & Entman, R. M. (Eds.), (2000). Mediated
Contribution statement Politics Communication in the Future of Democracy.
Conceptualization, Ahmed Alduais, Mohammed Al- Cambridge University Press.
Khulaidi, Silvia Allegretta and Mona Abdulkhalek; Data Berk-Seligson, S. . (2002). The bilingual courtroom: Court
curation, Ahmed Alduais; Formal analysis, Ahmed Alduais; interpreters in the judicial process. Chicago University
Investigation, Ahmed Alduais; Methodology, Ahmed Press.
Alduais and Silvia Allegretta; Project administration, BERK-SELIGSON, S. (1988). The impact of politeness in
witness testimony: The influence of the court
Ahmed Alduais; Resources, Mohammed Al-Khulaidi and
Interpreter. Multilingua - Journal of Cross-Cultural and
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Ahmed Alduais; Writing—original draft, Ahmed Alduais, Berk-Seligson, S. (1990). The bilingual courtroom: Court
Mohammed Al-Khulaidi, Silvia Allegretta and Mona interpreters in the judicial process. University of
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Berk-Seligson, S. (1999a). The impact of court interpreting
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This research did not require IRB approval. Linguistics, 6(1), 30–56. https://doi.org/10.1558/sll.
1999.6.1.30
Informed consent statement Berk-Seligson, S. (1999b). The impact of court interpreting
Neither human nor non-human subjects were involved on the coerciveness of leading questions. Speech,
directly in this research. Therefore, informed consent was not Language and the Law, 6(1), 30–56. https://doi.org/
required. 10.1558/sll.1999.6.1.30/
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review, Ahmed Alduais, Mohammed Ali Al-Khulaidi, Silvia in legal translation. Linguistica Antverpiensia, New
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