International Environmental Law

Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University
DR.RAMMANOHARLOHIYA
NATIONAL
LAW
UNIVERSI
TY
Project on:
“International Environmental Responsibility:

Sovereignty vs. trans-boundary environmental harm:
The evolving International law obligations”
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF-

Dr. Aman Deep Singh
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University
SUBMITTED BY:
Himanshu Malik
B.A.LL.B. (Hons). VIII Sem (78)
1
Acknowledgements
The present paper address a topic, which has recently experienced an

explosion of new developments and gained enormous importance to small
developing nations. It has enabled States that may be affected by
environmentally degrading activities of other States to take safeguard
actions in a successful manner. Furthermore this evolving new law of
international responsibility attempts to strike a careful balance between
international environmental protection and the principle of territorial
sovereignty.
This is a very interesting and thought provoking area of research and this
project is the result of my hard work and preservence during my studies. I
express my felt gratitude to my teacher Prof. Amandeep Singh to prepare a
Project file, words fail to express my deepest gratitude to him, who
encouraged me and gave valuable suggestion from time to time whenever I
needed.. I sincerely say that I am deeply indebted to both of them for their
valuable review of my work and the great support extended to me in
performing my task.
Himanshu
Malik
8thSemest
er
2
CONTENTS
PART –I The duty to cooperate in International law:

 The principle of territorial sovereignty and the doctrine of abuse of rights
 Liability for acts not prohibited by international law: the ongoing debate
 The expanding role of practice: substantive and procedural developments
Part II- The evolution of the main principles of International

environmental Law
 New environmental realities and their impact upon the law
 The expanding scope of the law: global reach and international cooperation
Concluding remarks
 India’s failure to provide adequate environmental impact assessment
 Obligation to protect and preserve environment
3
INTRODUCTION
Efforts to prevent Trans boundary environmental inferences by developing international

regimes are proliferating.1 These efforts are induced by compelling considerations.
Traditionally states have had almost unfettered discretion, only marginally limited by a
few general rules of international law, to judge whether adverse trans boundary
environment effects of activities carried out within their territory are permissible. More
often than not, this discretion has been exercised in from the point of view of
environmental protection, an unsatisfactory manner. The inclination of the states to
favour economically advantageous activities to the prevention of the adverse
transboundary environmental effects has proved to be irresistible. This becomes
especially clear if the focus is shifted to one particular environmental problem with
international dimensions: trans boundary water pollution2 .
The study analyzes the regime for transboundary water pollution in terms of the
balance between discretion and constraint. Discretion is defined as the degree of freedom
a sate has, within the obligation imposed by the regime, to independently judge whether
certain activities, in view of their transboundary effects, are permissible. Constraint is an
antipole of discretion. States are constrained in respect of their decision concerning
transboundary water pollution, to the extent that the regime does not leave room for states
to decide for themselves whether a given polluting activity is permissible or not.
Legal Nature
Prevention of trans-
Specificity of obligations Restriction of discretion
boundary Pollution
Compliance control
1
A regime is defined as a set of rules agreed upon or accepted to regulate a given issue-area. See Donnelly
1986 p.62; Haggard and Simmons 1987, P 495
2
Water pollution is defined as any detrimental change in the composition or equality of water which results
directly or indirectly from human conduct; See art. 21(1) of the 1991 ILC draft Articles. Cf Klien 1976, P
20-23, Ando 1981, P, 350-351; Sette-Camara 1984, P 168-172; Lammers 1984, P -16 -17
4
The importance that has been attributed to theses regulatory approaches, the limitations
encountered in the efforts to prevent transboundary water pollution by international
regimes in general, as referred to in the previous section, apply fully to each of them. The
degree of specificity to which obligations are formulated has increased significantly in
recent years at the same time, in several respects specifically is severely limited and
states retain discretion. The number of legally binding obligation has greatly increased
over the past decades; yet the theoretical reasons for which legal rules would pre-
eminently be suited in constraining state behavior are not fully validated by the regime
for transboundary water pollution3.
It is obvious that solutions for global environmental questions require increased
international cooperation, both regionally and globally. International law has long
subjugated national sovereignty to this end, particularly in the environmental field. In this
regard there are no major conceptual difficulties. A different proposition altogether is that
which advocates the virtual elimination of national sovereignty in this field; however,
neither international law nor the political will of states is quite ready for this radical step.
The expanding scope of international environmental law is the best evidence of the
progress made by international cooperation.
3
Nollkaemper Andre, The legal regime for transboundary water pollution; between
discretion and constraints, Martinus Nijhoff/. Graham & Trotman p 5
5
Part I – The duty to cooperate in International law: Sovereignty vs.trans-boundary

environmental harm
(A) The principle of territorial sovereignty and the doctrine of abuse of rights
The stating point of this paper lies in the principle of territorial sovereignty, which must
bend before international obligations and identification of its limitations, where its
exercise touches upon the territorial sovereignty and integrity of another State. Although
in earlier times States assumed ‘full’ and ‘absolute’ sovereignty and thus could freely use
resources within their territories regardless of the impact this might have on neighboring
States, few would argue today that territorial sovereignty is an unlimited concept
enabling a State to do whatever it likes. State sovereignty cannot be exercised in isolation
because activities of one State often bear upon those of others and, consequently, upon
their sovereign rights. As Oppenheim noted in 1912: A State, in spite of its territorial
supremacy, is not allowed to alter the natural conditions of its own territory to the
disadvantage of the natural conditions of the territory of a neighbouring State4. Thus, the
principle of territorial sovereignty finds its limitations where its exercise touches upon the
territorial sovereignty and integrity of another State. Consequently, the scope for
discretionary action arising from the principle of sovereignty is determined by such
principles and adages as ‘good neighbourliness’ and sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas
(you should use your property in such a way as not to cause injury to your neighbour’s)
as well as by the principle of State responsibility for actions causing transboundary
damage. Today, under general international law, a well-recognized restraint on the
freedom of action which a State in general enjoys by virtue of its independence and
territorial supremacy is to be found in the prohibition of the abuse by a State of the rights
enjoyed by it by virtue of international law. The strongest support for these principles and
their implications can be found in the jurisprudence of international case law.
In The Island of Palmas Case (United States v. The Netherlands, award in 1928) the sole
arbitrator Huber, who was then President of the Permanent Court of International Justice,
stated that: Territorial sovereignty involves the exclusive right to display the activities of
a State. This right has as corollary a duty: the obligation to protect within the territory the
4
Oppenheim on International Law (1912: 243–44) Chapter Eight p.220
6
rights of other States5. In the Trail Smelter Case (United States v. Canada, awards in
1938 and 1941) the Arbitral Tribunal decided that, first of all, Canada was required to
take protective measures in order to reduce the air pollution in the Columbia River Valley
caused by sulphur dioxide emitted by zinc and lead smelter plants in Canada, only seven
miles from the Canadian-US border. Secondly, it held Canada liable for the damage
caused to crops, trees, etc. in the US state of Washington and fixed the amount of
compensation to be paid. Finally, the Tribunal concluded, more generally, in what no
doubt constitutes its best-known paragraph: Under the principles of international law, no
State has the right to use or permit the use of its territory in such a manner as to cause
injury by fumes in or to the territory of another or the properties or persons therein,
when the case is of serious consequence and the injury is established by clear and
convincing evidence6. The Arbitral Tribunal reached this conclusion on air pollution, but
it is also applicable to water pollution and is now widely considered to be part of general
international law. This prohibition of causing significant harm to others or to places
outside the State’s territory, as well as the duty to take into account and protect the rights
of other States, has also been referred to and elaborated upon in other cases. For example,
in 1949, in the Corfu Channel Case (United Kingdom v. Albania) the International Court
of Justice (ICJ) rendered a judgment, in fact in its very first case, on the responsibility of
Albania for mines which exploded within Albanian waters and which resulted in the loss
of human life and damage to British naval vessels. On the question whether the United
Kingdom had violated Albania’s sovereignty, the Court came to the conclusion that the
laying of the minefield in the waters in question could not have been accomplished
without the knowledge of Albania. The ICJ held that the Corfu Channel is a strait used
for international navigation and that previous authorization of a coastal State is not
necessary for innocent passage. In view of the passage of foreign ships, the ICJ held
therefore that it was Albania’s obligation to notify,
[…] for the benefit of shipping in general, the existence of a minefield in Albanian
territorial waters and to warn the approaching British warships of the imminent dangers
to which the minefield exposed them7. Since Albania failed to do so on the day of the
5
Island of Palmas Case, 2 RIAA (1949), pp.829–90. See also Lagoni (1981: 223–24).
6
Text as in Harris (1991: pp.245,224.
7
ICJ Reports 1949, p. 22.
7
incident, the Court held Albania responsible for the damage to the warships and the loss
of life of the British sailors and accordingly determined the amount of compensation to
be paid. For our purposes, it is relevant that the Court referred to every State’s obligation
not to allow knowingly its territory to be used for acts contrary to the rights of other
States. It is also relevant to refer to the Lac Lanoux Case (Spain v. France, award in 1957)
on the utilization by France of the waters of Lake Lanoux in the Pyrenees for generating
electricity. For this purpose, part of the water had to be diverted from its natural course
through the transboundary Carol River to another river, the Ariège. According to Spain,
this would affect the interests of Spanish users, but France claimed that it had ensured
restoration of the original water flow and had given guarantees so that the needs of
Spanish users would be met. France and Spain were unable to resolve this issue by
negotiation, and therefore submitted it to arbitration in 1956. This led to an interesting
award dealing with the rights and duties under general international law of riparian States
in relation to an international watercourse. The Tribunal concluded that the works
envisaged by France did not constitute infringements of the Spanish rights under the
Treaty of Bayonne and its Additional Act, because France had taken adequate measures
to prevent damage to Spain and Spanish users, and for other reasons. As to the question
whether the prior consent of Spain would be necessary, the Tribunal was of the opinion
that such an essential restriction on sovereignty could only follow from exceptional
circumstances, such as regimes of joint ownership, co-imperium or condominium but not
from the case in question: […] to admit that jurisdiction in a certain field can no longer
be exercised except on the condition of, or by way of, an agreement between two States,
is to place an essential restriction on the sovereignty of a State, and such restriction could
only be admitted if there were clear and convincing evidence.’ According to the Tribunal,
prior agreement would amount to ‘admitting a ‘right of assent’, a right of veto’, which at
the discretion of one State paralyses the exercise of the territorial jurisdiction of another.
However, France was under an obligation to provide information to and consult with
Spain and to take Spanish interests into account in planning and carrying out the
projected works. According to the Tribunal, France had sufficiently done so. While the
Tribunal clearly emphasized the hard-core nature of the principle of territorial
8
sovereignty, it also admitted that it must function within the realm of international law:
Territorial sovereignty plays the part of a presumption. It must bend
before all international obligations, whatever their source, but only for such obligations8.
From this award is derived in general international law, as Lammers puts it9:
A duty for the riparian States of an international watercourse to conduct in good faith
consultations and negotiations designed to arrive through agreements at settlements of
conflicts of interests. This duty has been referred to in subsequent cases, such as the
North Sea Continental Shelf Case, where the Court refers to the obligation to enter into
‘meaningful negotiations10’ and as well as in the Barcelona Traction case (Belgium
v.Spain) in which the Court noted that: An essential distinction should be drawn between
the obligations of a State towards the international community as a whole, and those
arising vis-à-vis another State in the field of diplomatic protection. By their very nature
the former are the concern of all States. In view of the importance of the rights involved,
all States can be held to have a legal interest in their protection; they are obligations erga
omnes11 This concept of the obligatio erga omnes could (in the future) be of relevance
when global environmental problems are at issue, such as the extinction of the world’s
biodiversity, the pollution of international waters, and the threat of climatic change. The
world’s climate and biodiversity were identified as a ‘common concern’ of mankind in
the 1992 Conventions on Climate Change and Biodiversity. The Rio Declaration (1992),
adopted in a non-binding form by the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), provides in Principle 2 that States shall prevent transboundary
damage: States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the
principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant
to their own environmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure
that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment
of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction and the health of
8
International Law Reports (1957) p.120.
9
Lammers on International Law (1984) p.517.
10
ICJ Reports 1969, p.3.
11
ICJ Reports 1970, p. 32, para. 33. In the next paragraph, the Court stated that such obligations might
derive, for example, in contemporary international law ‘from the outlawing of acts of aggression, and of
genocide, as also from principles and rules concerning the basic rights of the human person, including
protection from slavery and racial discrimination’. In such cases a State has obligations vis-à-vis the
international community as a whole and every other State can hold it responsible and institute a so-called
actio popularis in protection of the community’s interest.
9
human beings, including generations unborn12. In its 1996 Advisory Opinion on the
Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, the ICJ recognizes: The existence of
the general obligations of States to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction and
control respect the environment of other States or of areas beyond national control is now
part of the corpus of international law relating to the environment 13. This recognition by
the ICJ leads paper to pay due attention to the increasingly important principles of
International Environmental law and its procedural obligations, concerning trans
boundary environmental damage.
B) Liability for acts not prohibited by international law: the ongoing debate
International liability for acts not prohibited by international law involves a rather
stringent form of responsibility-liability, which in turn has a strong impact on the nature
and extent of remedial measures in the field. It follows that the debate about the present
state of international law on this point has been most lively.
First, it should be noted that the much discussed decision of the International Law
Commission in 1976,66 referred to above (which lists among international crimes those
relating to the breach of an international obligation of essential importance for the
safeguarding and preservation of the human environment), has to be understood more as
an expression of concern in line with the Stockholm Conference than as a radical
departure in terms of the consequences attached to the breach of such an obligation.
The work of the International Law Commission on “International Liability” reveals a
cautious approach to the state of international law on the matter. On the one hand the
separation of liability for acts not prohibited by international law from State
Responsibility is indicative of the policy of attaching a legal consequence - liability even
to international lawful activities, yet on the other hand State Responsibility could well
apply to extra-hazardous operations, thus also attaching a legal consequence to activities
that are not, per se, unlawful. In this regard the remedial aspect of the law would not be
different under either approach. What is of importance is that international law is
12
Principle 2 of the Rio Declaration (1992), United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED).
13
paragraph 29 of the Judgment in ICJ Reports 1996, p.225.
10
accepting legal consequences for a variety of activities that may result in an adverse
impact upon the environment.
The “compound ‘primary’ obligation” identified by the International Law Commission in
its schematic outline on “international liability” refers to four basic duties: prevent,
inform, negotiate, and repair14. The emphasis is on preventive measures as well as the
new obligation to notify and consult. However, it is surprising that the failure to comply
with the first three duties mentioned is not regarded as wrongful and, consequently, no
action can be brought against such failure; only the failure to make reparations is
ultimately identified with a wrongful act and, hence, engages the State’s responsibility 15.
It follows that from the perspective of the International Law Commission, there is really
not much difference between international liability and state responsibility, since the
ultimate test of wrongfulness in both lies in the failure to make reparation. While it is true
that under international liability the initial activity can be lawful and under state
responsibility normally it will be unlawful (although neither excludes both lawful and
unlawful activities), the two are equated in terms of the end result.
It has been rightly observed that one consequence of the International Law Commission
approach could “allow a state to persist in an unlawful act even without the consent of the
injured state, as long as the acting state pays monetary reparations to the injured state.” In
the field of environmental protection this result would be utterly unacceptable and self-
defeating, which is why there has been an emphasis on both preventive measures and
new developments that require that pollution be terminated and allow all states to bring
actions to this effect.
Although there has also been debate about whether the Trail Smelter decision involved,
in addition to its pioneering invocation of international liability, an element of
international responsibility given that a wrongful act had been committed, it is quite clear
that the effect of the decision never would have allowed the harmful activity to persist.
As noted above it ordered the smelter to “refrain” from such activity and put in place a
regime for the control of emissions. This result is in line with the emerging consensus
that international law ought to provide adequate protection of the environment.
14
International Law Commission, fourth Report on International Liability for Injurious Consequences
Arising out of Acts Not Prohibited by International Law,
15
“Third Report,” supra note 14
11
Another element of the debate prompted by the International Law Commission’s work is
the method of determining reparation. The schematic outline favours the method of
reparation determined by a “balance-of-interests” test, which takes into account the
shared expectations of the states involved, a number of principles and factors, and the
extent to which the duties to prevent, inform, and negotiate have been complied with 16.
This approach offers the advantage of introducing an element of flexibility that allows the
weighing of the different circumstances of the case, but, on the other hand, it involves
greater subjectivity. The alternative test of strict liability is in a sense more objective,
because the harmful result will be separated from the intention of the state and even from
the fact of having discharged the relevant duties. Again this last approach is more in line
with the needs of environmental protection.
C) The expanding role of practice: substantive and procedural developments

However articulate most of these arguments are, in practice the solutions sought are more
straightforward and less abstract, particularly in the field of international environmental
law. Furthermore, international liability can hardly be separated from liability in general,
since the essential issue is how to make available rules of substance and procedure that
will ensure adequate compensation to those affected by environmental damage. An
innovative approach to the traditional state of the law is developing in treaty and
domestic practice as evidenced by the following:
1). Based on principles of “federal common law,” which to an extent resemble the
principles of international law, it has been concluded that a state can present a claim for
injury to its environment independently from any injury to its nationals or property.74
The environment, as noted above, thus becomes a value protected on its own merits. The
concept of remedy under international law is thereby significantly broadened. In addition,
preventive and remedial measures will be highlighted even in the case where there has
been no injury. Treaty practice is beginning to reflect this innovative approach 17.
2). Liability for pollution injuries is becoming increasingly recognized by means of
treaties, which provide a number of uniform principles in matters such as strict liability,
16
Schematic Outline
17
, e.g., CRAMRA
12
identification of the competent forum, limitations of liability, insurance and financial

guarantees, subsidiary state liability, and international funds, to name a few18.
Proposals have been introduced for extending state liability not only to directly caused
damage but also to indirect state action that has ultimately led to an environmental harm.
As explained above, states may be liable for private actions of entities and individuals
under their jurisdiction, or they may have a form of subsidiary liability. International joint
commissions are becoming a common mechanism for dealing with the matter of
transboundary environmental problems. Nor is self-help ruled out in given circumstances
as a preventive or remedial measure.
The most elaborate rules in the matter of civil liability are those of (1) the 1969
Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 19, the related International
Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil
Pollution Damage20, and their respective supplementary agreements 21, and (2) the
Conventions on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy 22, including the
Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage 23 and related agreements. Agreements
of private operators in the case of oil pollution, such as TOVALOP 24, OPOL25, and
CRISTAL26 are also important elements in the development of the law in the field of
liability.
3) In spite of the developments evidenced by some instances of treaty practice, such
practice is generally limited to only a few sectors of activity 27. Some efforts are being
made to broaden this practice, as evidenced by the 1988 Joint Protocol on the
18
. Restatement
19
Brussels International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 29 Nov. 1969, 9 I.L.M.
45 (1969).
20
Brussels International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for
Oil Pollution Damage, 18 Dec. 1971, 11 1. L. M. 284 (1972).
21
See the Protocols to the Conventions cit., supra notes 78, 79, 19 Nov. 1976 16 I.L.M. 617, 621 (1976).
22
Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, 29 Jul. 1960, 55 A.J.I.L. 1082
(1960), Brussels Supplementary Convention, 31 Jan. 1963. 2 I.l.M. 685 (1963)
23
Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 21 May 1963, 2 I.L.M. 727 (1963).
24
Tanker Owners Voluntary Agreement Concerning Liability for Oil Pollution (TOVALOP), 7 Jan. 1969,
8 1. L. M. 497 (1969).
25
Oil Companies Offshore Pollution Liability Agreement (OPOL), 4 Sept. 1974, 13 I.L.M. 1409 (1974)
26
Oil Companies: Contract Regarding an Interim Supplement to Tanker Liability for Oil Pollution
(CRISTAL), 14 Jan. 1971, 10 I.L.M. 137 (1971).
27
Siena Forum,
13
Conventions on Nuclear Liability28, but they are still far from becoming comprehensive.
Discrepancies between domestic legislation and treaty practice are sometimes a bar to the
adoption of appropriate solutions. Limitations on liability have also become an obstacle
for adequate remedial act ion.88 This has prompted a number of national legislatures to
establish unlimited liability or the alternative approach followed by the Antarctic
arrangements, which will be discussed below. Civil liability provisions are now at the
heart of many international negotiations, recent examples of which include the 1989
Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes89 and the 1989
Geneva Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Caused during Carriage of Dangerous
Goods by Road, Rail, and Inland Navigation Vessels.
4.) As a consequence of the limitations just discussed, more comprehensive and
integrated arrangements concerning liability are being sought, with particular reference to
the payment of full compensation to those affected. Here subsidiary state liability plays a
fundamental role. “Product liability” would also be a helpful development, a first hint of
which may be discerned in the negotiations leading to a protocol on liability for damages
relating to transboundary movements of hazardous wastes that would involve the liability
of the exporting sate. Procedural aspects are also relevant for this discussion of more
comprehensive arrangements. The elimination of the requirement of exhausting local
remedies before a claim is presented, the presentation of a “consolidated claim” on behalf
of all those affected, and the establishment of international claims commissions for
certain priority matters are all suggestions that aim at a more flexible and timely
procedure.
5.) None of the above precludes recourse to domestic remedies, as evidenced by the
Bhopal and Amoco Cadiz29 cases and many other transboundary incidents involving
smoke and coal-dust damage, chemical insecticides, salinization, or noise pollution 30.
Domestic case-law has given rise to other developments of interest.
6). Given the difficulty of identifying a single source of pollution, some domestic legal
systems have introduced the general remedial measure of having the various enterprises
28
Id. at 21,22
29
. In Re Oil Spill of ‘Amoco Cadiz” 699 F 2d 909 (17th Cir. 1983).
30
For recent developments relating to transboundary pollution cases, see A.C. Kiss, “La reparation pour
atteinte a l’environnement,” 23e Colloque de la Soci�t� Fran�aise pour le Droit International, “La
Responsabilit� dans le syst�me international”, Le Mans, 31 Mai-2 Juin 1990.
14
involved in an activity pay a tax or forms of compensation. Proposals to this effect have
also been made at the international level, but international law has not yet introduced
such measures, except in very specific fields, notably nuclear energy31.
7). Particularly in the United States courts, jurisdictional choice of law difficulties arising
in cases of interstate damages have gradually led to a clarification of the pertinent rules. It
has been suggested that in transboundary cases, the governing law should be that of the
state where the suit is brought, or that the wrongful act should be considered to have been
committed in both states so that either one of them will have jurisdiction, or alternatively,
that the law where the damage has occurred should apply. Although these questions are
particularly relevant for private remedies under domestic legal systems, they also have an
important bearing upon international law solutions. As mentioned above, some of the
treaty regimes have provided rules as to the competent forum and applicable law. Special
arrangements for transboundary activities have also been made, particularly in terms of
the posting of bonds for guaranteeing compensation for potential damage and requiring
subsidiary state liability.32
8). Equal access to remedies and courts by nationals and foreigners alike on a non-
discriminatory basis is also a trend that should be noted since the 1977 OECD
recommendations to this effect33. Although the developments of state practice in relation
to remedial measures are not quite systematic, they clearly reveal a trend toward the
broadening of claims and liability and their legal consequences, both in terms of the
material content of the law and the introduction of more flexible procedural rules. This
can be further confirmed by the following discussion of some specific areas of concern.
PART–II THE EVOLUTION OF THE MAIN PRINCIPLES OF

INTERNATIONAL NVIRONMENTAL LAW
31
. Restatement
32
A Canadian corporation involved in drilling for oil [D the Beaufort Sea, on the Canadian side of the
boundary, was required to post a $20 million bond to secure compensation to potential U.S. pollution
victims, in addition to the Canadian government subsidiary liability, as provided for in a special
arrangement with the United States. See generally Restatement, supra note 11 at 125; Handl, “State
Liability for Accidental Transnational Environmental Damage by Private Persons,” 74 A.J.I.L. 525 (1980),
at 547-548.
33
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Recommendation of the Council for
the Implementation of a Regime of Equal Right of Access and Non-Discrimination in Relation to
Transfrontier Pollution, 17 May 1977, 16 I.L M. 977 (1977)
15
The present section will examine the SSCP project in the light of existing principles of
international environmental law that are based on customary international law,
multilateral treaties and decisions of the ICJ and ITLOS. International environmental law
evolves with an integrated legal approach to environmental management and solves
environment related conflicts at regional and global levels. The negotiation of resolutions,
recommendations or declarations in important global forums often carries normative
weight and facilitates their entry into customary law. The ‘soft approach’ of a nonbinding
framework or ‘umbrella legislations’ becomes a step on the way to ‘hard law’ in the form
of conventions, agreements, treaties or protocols. Gradually, it incorporates elements of
responsibility, liability and compensation followed by penalties, sanctions,
implementation and dispute settlement. However, the changing institutional structure of
international cooperation and governance has created new trends where conferences of
parties (COPs) and systems of implementation reviews (SIRs) have become vital
elements. Regional laws, bilateral agreements and national instruments play a
complimentary role. The UN Declarations on environment commencing with the
Stockholm Declaration of 1972 and over a 150 international instruments which followed,
provided ample evidence of State obligations in regard to Environment Law. Justice
Weeramantry in his dissenting Opinion on the Use of Nuclear Weapons, (ICJ-Advisory
Opinion of 8 July 1996) at the request of World Health Organization (WHO), outlined
how these obligations had accrued. He observed:
From rather hesitant and tentative beginnings, environment law has progressed rapidly
under the combined stimulus of over more powerful means of inflicting irrevocable
environmental damage and an ever-increasing awareness of the fragility of global
environment. Together these have brought about a Universal concern with activities that
may damage global environment which is the common inheritance of all nations, great
and small34. Summarizing these authorities, Weeramantry J. observed “these principles of
Environmental Law thus do not depend for their validity on treaty provisions. They
are part of customary international law. They are part of the ‘sine qua non’ for human
survival35.”The Public International law matters in question revolve around the nature
34
ICJReports1996 p. 258.
35
ibid
16
and effect of international treaties, and the manner in which those treaties are practically
applied. In its most basic form, international law governs the conduct of States and
treaties laid down many of the rules on which such conduct is based. The treaties embody
commitments that are binding at international law on Governments, which are party to
them. As such, the Government is legally required to comply with, and give effect to, any
provision of a treaty to which it becomes party.
In Sri Lanka and India, as in other States based on the Westminster model, there is a
basic separation of powers between the Executive and the Legislature. The Executive has
the power and authority to undertake foreign relations and as part of this mandate to
negotiate and enter into treaties. However, the Executive cannot change the domestic law
of the State to give effect under domestic law to obligations assumed through
international law in respect of a treaty. This can only be done by the Legislature. Despite
this separation of powers the Legislature will almost always have a role of one kind or
another in respect to treaty making. This arises in two instances. The first is where a
State’s domestic statute law needs expansion or amendment to encompass the obligations
that it will assume when it ratifies the treaty in question.
The second entails parliamentary scrutiny of the proposed ratification. It is this situation,
where legislative action is required to give effect to obligations assumed under an
international treaty that is commonly referred to as the “incorporation” of a treaty into
domestic law. However there are situations where international treaties may be taken into
account by the Courts as a declaratory statement of customary international law, which
itself is a part of the law of the land; and as relevant to the interpretation of a statute. The
first situation, where a treaty is declaratory of customary international law, underlines the
point that customary international law itself forms part of domestic law. No treaty binds
States without its consent. Indeed it is an exercise of sovereignty that States undertake in
deliberately assuming those commitments. Therefore obligations assumed under the
UNCLOS are more than balanced by corresponding commitments by other States to act
towards the particular State in a manner that protects or is consistent with its interests. As
a small, developing trading nation Sri Lanka has an obvious interest in rules that protect
the freedom of protection of the marine environment and the navigation of vessels
carrying exports to foreign markets. Furthermore, with modest enforcement capabilities,
17
the protection afforded by UNCLOS is no little comfort to the managing of human

impacts on Sri Lanka’s marine environment. Then the question of soft law obligations in
addition to treaty law has become the subject of attention. To some extent, experts
recognize a limited normative force of certain norms in soft law even though they
concede that those norms would not be enforceable by an international court or other
international organ. To say that it does not exist because it is not of the ‘enforceable'
variety that most legal norms exhibit takes to another dimension of the reality of
international practice. In practice, the development of soft law norms with regard to the
protection of the human environment began immediately after the Stockholm Conference
with the creation of a special subsidiary organ of the UN General Assembly devoted to
the promotion of both universal and regional environmental law. This United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP) has played a leading role in the promotion of international
cooperation in matters related to environment. A prime example of this phenomenon is
provided even in its early stages by the 1978 UNEP Draft Principles of Conduct in the
Field of the Environment for the Guidance of States in the Conservation and Harmonious
Utilization of Natural Resources Shared by Two or More States. At the regional level in
general, and in Europe in particular, several international institutions have engaged in
important activities related to environmental protection: the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD), which, in particular, has adopted a series of
recommendations conceived of as a follow-up to the Stockholm Declaration regarding
the prevention and abatement of transfrontier pollution; the European Economic
Commission (EEC) which has adopted Programmes of Action for the Environment, on
the basis of which hard law is later established mainly by way of directives. The action of
some non-governmental organizations has also contributed to this aspect of international
law. The International Law Association (ILA), for example, adopted an influential
resolution in 1966 known as the Helsinki Rules on the Use of Waters of International
Rivers, which was expanded and enlarged by the same institution in 1982 with the
adoption of the Montreal Rules of International Law Applicable to Transfrontier
Pollution. All of the international bodies referred to above should be viewed, as far as
their recommendatory action in this field is concerned, as transmitting basically the same
message. Cross references from one institution to another, the recalling of guidelines
18
adopted by other apparently concurrent international authorities, recurrent invocation of

the same rules formulated in one way or another at the universal, regional and more
restricted levels, all tend progressively to develop and establish a common international
understanding. As a result of this process, conduct and behavior which would have been
considered challenges to State sovereignty twenty-five years ago are now accepted within
the mainstream36. Hence, generally understood that soft law creates and delineates goals
to be achieved in the future rather than actual duties, programs rather than prescriptions,
guidelines rather than strict obligations. It is true that in the majority of cases the softness
of the instrument corresponds to the softness of its contents. After all, the very nature of
soft law lies in the fact that it is not in itself legally binding. Therefore, it is extremely
important to observe in practice that Member States' approach the negotiation of those
provisions with extreme care, just as if they were negotiating treaty provisions. Such
behavior suggests that States do not view such soft recommendations as devoid of at least
some political significance, if not, in the long term, any legal significance. In fact, for a
few of these soft instruments, some States consider it necessary to formulate reservations
to such texts, just as if they were creating formal legal obligations37. These observations
can lead to the conclusion that the identification of soft law, significant at least because it
may potentially become hard law in the near or distant future, should derive from a
systematic case-by-case examination in which a variety of factors are carefully
considered. These factors would include, among others, the source and origin of the text
(Governmental or not), the conditions, both formal and political, of its adoption, its
intrinsic aptitude to become a norm of international law; and the practical reaction of
States to its statement. However, there is substantial evidence of a growing acceptance of
the notion of graduated normatively in international legal contexts. A similar tendency
seems to permeate some of the work of the International Law Commission (ILC). Thus,
the Commission's work on the topic of international liability for injurious consequences
arising out of acts not prohibited by international law, obligations that engage state
responsibility and obligations that arise out of lawful state conduct were referred to as
36
Pierre-Marie Dupuy, Soft Law and the International Law of the Environment, 12 MICH. J. INT'L
L. 420,422-25, 428-31 (1991).
37
ibid
19
dealing with different shades of prohibition38. Despite all the criticisms, soft law does
perform positive functions in a world that is deeply divided. Thanks to soft law, States
still have people channeling efforts toward law and toward trying to achieve objectives
through the legal mechanism, rather than going ahead and doing it in other fashions. This,
in itself, represents some reinforcement of the legal symbol and, at least, prevents or
retards the use of violence to achieve aims. The rapid growth of soft law and complaints
about it are, in large part, a concern of the developed countries. Part of it has to do with
the deep dissatisfaction that we feel at the shift of power within formal lawmaking arenas,
in which we are a numerical minority. We discover that many of these for a make law we
do not like. This law, we insist derisively, is soft. This may be a valid complaint, but
those who are making this soft law also have a valid complaint. From their perspective,
customary law, which we would consider very hard, is in fact law that is created
primarily because of the great power that we in the industrial world exercise over others.
There are really two sides to the controversy over soft law. It is important, when we
criticize it, to appreciate that there are others on the other side of the mirror who are
looking at it quite differently39. In this context the international environmental law
principle of duty to cooperate needs to be considered. This principle manifests itself as an
obligation whereby States must inform and consult one another, prior to engaging in any
activity or initiative that is likely to cause trans-boundary environmental harm, so that the
State of origin of the potentially dangerous activity may take into consideration the
interests of any potentially exposed State. The principle of information and consultation
has been reiterated for almost thirty years by the different organizations. It can be found
in many recommendations or resolutions: the aforementioned 1978 UNEP Draft
Principles of Conduct on Shared Natural Resources; UN General Assembly Resolutions
3129 and 3281 of December 1973 (the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States);
OECD Council recommendations on Transfrontier Pollution and the Implementation of a
Regime of Equal Right of Access and Non-Discrimination in Relation to Transfrontier
Pollution and ILA resolutions of 1966 and 1982 are all some of early examples in this
regard. On the other hand, International law of the non-navigational use of international
38
Gunther Handl, National Uses of Transboundary Air Resources: The International Entitlement
Issue Reconsidered, 26 Nat. Resorces. J. 405, 407-09 (1986).
39
Michael Reisman A Hard Look at Soft Law, 1988 Am. Socy.Int. law. p. 371-77.
20
rivers is now a settled body of norm and consists of both substantive and procedural rules,
which have been developed through bilateral and regional treaties relating to utilization
of waters of rivers, decisions of international courts and tribunals. In fact, widespread
State practice regarding these rules has given rise a set of customary international law
relating to international law of the river to the effect these principles are binding upon all
States. These customary international law principles have been codified by the UN
Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses'
adopted in 1997. The Convention provides both substantive and procedural rules for the
States to follow in their dealings over international watercourses. The Convention lays
down important procedural mechanisms such as co-operation which includes the
obligation to exchange data and information regularly, the obligation to notify other
riparian States of planned measures, the establishment of joint mechanisms,
environmental impact assessments, the provision of emergency information, the
obligation to enter into consultations, and the obligations to negotiate in good faith.
However, irrespective of the fact that a particular State has not ratified the Convention,
still it is bound by the customary principles of international law of rivers. Apart from this
multilateral treaty, these customary legal norms regulating utilization of waters of
international rivers have also achieved concrete recognition by the International Court of
Justice in 1997. This is through its decision in the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros case, which
was concerned with a dispute between Hungary and Czechoslovakia over building two
dams on the Danube. The judgment of the ICJ in this case clearly indicates the concept of
community of interest in the international rivers as well as the necessity of co-operation
of the States in the area of prevention of environmental harm arising out of activities
regarding these common rivers. The UN General Assembly Resolution No. 3129 on 'Co-
operation in the field of the environment concerning natural resources shared by two or
more States' adopted 13 December 1973, has called for “States to establish 'adequate
international standards for the conservation and harmonious exploration of natural
resources common to two or more States.” It also provides that co-operation between
countries “must be established on the basis of a system of information and prior
consultation.” Article 3 of the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, 1974
states to the similar effect: In the exploitation of natural resources shared by two or more
21
countries, each state must co-operate on the basis of a system of information and prior
consultation in order to achieve optimum use of such resources without causing damage
to the legitimate interests of others 40.The most important aspect of transboundary co-
operation is that a State involved in any proposed project for the use of shared resources
must inform the other State, which is likely to be affected by such a project. In this way
each State will have the opportunity to determine whether the project in question is going
to cause any damage or if it entails a violation of the principle of equitable and reasonable
use of the resource.
a) New environmental realities and their impact upon the law

The experience gathered in environmental studies and the design of action plans and
other means for the protection of the global environment show that things have generally
worsened rather than improved. Since the 1972 Stockholm Conference 41,which served of
course as a landmark in the growing awareness of the international community on the
matter, the environmental impacts flowing from major disasters or simply from the
magnitude of industrial operations have grown considerably. In this regard, the many
plans and organizations that have emerged since then cannot generally be viewed as an
example of success.
Three conclusions are particularly worth retaining from this experience because they
represent a broad consensus of opinion among most authors:
(1) The problems of the global environment are becoming more serious as their risks and
consequences become better understood, while at the same time it is increasingly difficult
to pinpoint a single source of such problems and attach a causative link to a given agent,
private or public, national or transnational;
(2) Growing lead times are usually needed to take preventive or corrective action; and
(3) Some of these impacts may become irreversible if left unchecked.
These three basic premises have had a profound impact on the nature and extent of the
Law of State Responsibility and the corresponding developments in the specific field of
liability, both domestic and international. Because they are based on a broad consensus in
40
Article.3, Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States,1974.
41
Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment of the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment,
22
the international community, these conclusions are becoming reflected in the body of
international law through gradual responses to the new needs. There are of course other
aspects that have not attained that same degree of consensus and that on occasion have
been objected to. These other aspects are presently mere policy suggestions that cannot
form the basis for consolidation as a rule of law.
While the scientific conclusions mentioned above pertain to the consensual category, a
number of ideological issues prompted by the debate on the environment do not. This
dichotomy explains both the opportunities and the limits facing the development of the
Law of State Responsibility and related matters as applied to the environment. In
particular, it highlights the differing views about the scope of the basic principles, rules,
and institutions necessary to address global environmental change.
B) The expanding scope of the law: global reach and international cooperation
A number of fundamental developments characterize the contemporary evolution of this
body of law, and they have in turn contributed to the clarification of the extent and scope
of the basic principle referred to above.
One development to note is that environmental law applies today not only to activities
that cause transboundary effects between neighboring states - as was very much the case
at the time of the Trail Smelter 42, the Lake Lanoux43, or the Gut Dam44, but also to those
that have effects at a long distance or, still more important, that have an effect upon areas
beyond territorial jurisdiction. Thus the law has evolved from a purely national level in
its origins to a transnational dimension and then to a properly international or global role.
This geographical extension of the law, quietly developing during this century, has set the
stage so that the current problems affecting the environment can be addressed.
The most significant breakthrough in this process of innovation came with the Trail
Smelter decision in 194145. Relying on principles and decisions of US courts and on the
42
Trail Smelter Arbitration (U.S. v. Can.) 1941, 11 Mar. 1941, 3 R.l.A.A. 1905 (1949).
43
Lake Lanoux Arbitration (Spain v. France) 1957 - I.L.R. 101 (1957).
44
Gut Dam Arbitration (U.S. v. Can.) 22 Sept. 1968, Report of the Agent of the United States before the
Lake Ontario Claims Tribunal, 8 I.L.M. 118 (1969). The compromise of 25 May 1965 establishing the
tribunal is found at T.l.A.S. No. 6114 (1965). See also the Agreement on the Settlement of Claims Relating
to Gut Dam, 18 Nov. 1968, 6 U.S.T. 7863 (1968), T.l.A.S. No. 6624 (1968).
45
Restatement (Third), The Foreign Relations Law of the United States (1987), at 109-110 (hereinafter
Restatement).
23
basis of identifying a general principle of international law, the arbitral tribunal

concluded that “no state has the right to use or permit the use of its territory in such a
manner as to cause injury by fumes in or to the territory of another or the properties or
persons therein “46Such a principle meant in fact that international law had entered the
field of transboundary environmental protection, albeit still limited to the territories of
states. A somewhat similar conclusion was reached by the International Court of Justice
in the Corfu Channel Case47 in relation to acts contrary to international law or the rights
of other states. It should be noted, however, that in the specific domain of the utilization
of rivers, a similar principle had been identified since the early part of the century 48. The
Trail Smelter decision had other interesting impacts on the development of the law. First,
the tribunal ordered the smelter to “refrain” from causing further damage, which involves
a preventive measure to forestall harmful activities in the future. The tribunal then
established a regime for the control of emissions, including technical improvements to
the industry and the institutional mechanism of an ad-hoc commission of three scientists
that had the power to adopt binding decisions.
After these first steps were given specific applications, the basic principles could be
found in different situations before national courts or international tribunals. Thus it was
no surprise when the 1972 Stockholm Declaration included the often quoted Principle 21,
which links states’ sovereign rights relating to the exploitation of resources and national
environmental policies to the “responsibility to ensure that activities within their
jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas
beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. 49” The link had already been established under
international law, which explains why there was general agreement to express it in this
Principle. Various international documents and treaties have since reaffirmed the essence
of Principle 21 or further expanded it in order to cope with new situations affecting the
environment. The case of the Cosmos 95450, the EEC environmental policy adopted in
46
Trail Smelter Arbitration, supra note 6.
47
Corfu Channel Case (U.K. v. Alb.) 1949, I.C.J. 4 (Judgment of 9 April 1949).
48
Restatement, supra note 9
49
Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, U.N. Doc. A/ CONF. 48/14, Rev.
1, 3, 5 (1973). See also Stockholm Declaration, supra note 2.
50
Canada, Claim against the USSR for Damage Caused by Soviet Cosmos 954, Notes of 23 Jan. 1979 and
15 Mar. 1979, 18 I.L.M. 899 (1979). Canada-USSR. Protocol on Settlement of Canada’s Claim for
Damages Caused by Cosmos 954, 20 I.L.M. 689 (1981). The Canadian Claim was based on the convention
24
197351, the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution52 with its 1985
Protocol setting in place precise obligations for the reduction of sulphur emissions 53, and
the IAEA Conventions on Notification and Assistance in the case of Nuclear Accident 54
are all cited as examples of the outreaching scope of environmental law today55.
Principle 21 was a further step of the utmost importance because it extended the
transboundary reach of the law to include areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction,
thereby improving upon the reach of the Trail Smelter decision and providing the global
scale referred to above. This development has been particularly apparent in relation to the
marine environment and the atmosphere. The regime established under the 1982
Convention on the Law of the Sea for the marine environment 56, like the Convention on
the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification
Techniques57, the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer of 1985 58,
and its Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer of 1987 59 have all
established broad international regimes based on the principle of responsibility. The
special case of Antarctica will be discussed further below.
However, as commented upon by the Italian document referred to above, many of these
developments lack precise rules on responsibility, primarily because of the difficulty in
identifying a single source or establishing the causal link between conduct and damage.
The traditional requirements of international law were not always well suited to meet the
on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 29 Mar. 1972, 24 U.S.T. 2389, T.l.A.S. No.
7762, and on general principles of international law
51
. European Economic Community, Declaration on the Environmental Action Programme, 22 Nov. 1973,
13 I.L.M. 164 (1974).
52
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, 13 Nov. 1979, 18 I.L.M. 1442 (1979), T.l.A.S.
No. 10541 (1979).
53
1985 Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, on the Reduction of
Sulphur Emissions or Their Transboundary Fluxes by at Least 30 Per Cent, 8 July 1985, 27 I.L.M. 707
(1985).
54
. IAEA Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, 26 Sept. 1986.25 I.L.M. 1370 (1986);
IAEA Convention on Assistance in Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency, 26 Sept. 1986,
25 l.L.M. 1377 (1986).
55
Siena Forum, supra
56
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 Dec. 1982. 21 I.L.M. 1261 (1982) (hereinafter Law
of the Sea Convention).
57
Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification
Techniques, 18 May 1977, 16 I.L.M. 88. 31 U.S.T. 333, T.l.A.S. No. 9614 (1977) (hereinafter Enmod
Convention).
58
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 22 Mar. 1985, 26 I.L.M. 1529 (1987)
59
Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, 16 Sept. 1987, 26 I.L.M. 1550 (1987).
25
changing conditions of industrial activity that are at the heart of current environmental
problems. However, international law has begun to respond to the new challenges, and
recent international regimes have included a more elaborate set of secondary rules
governing responsibility. In addition, as suggested by the Italian document, it is always
possible to complement the existing treaties with protocols dealing with responsibility 60.
A second major development was prompted by the changing international reality. As the
Restatement of the Law (Third) states, “it soon became obvious that unilateral action by
states to control pollution was not sufficient, and that international cooperation and
regulation to protect the environment were necessary61.” Here again the legal measures
evolved from the national to the binational level, then to the regional ambit, and most
recently to the global level, thereby setting the appropriate stage for dealing with current
issues.
As a consequence of increased international cooperation to protect the environment, new
obligations have devolved upon states in the environmental field. Some examples of how
these obligations have broadened the scope of the basic principle of responsibility for
environmental damage are: (1) the responsibility to control activities taking place beyond
the state territory - like the jurisdictional outreach provided for under IMO 62 and the Law
of the Sea Conventions63; (2) the responsibility engaging the state for activities of private
entities; (3) the need to obtain the consent of other states for given activities, as provided
for under the Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Waste and Their Disposal64; and (4) the more general obligation to notify and consult in
environmental matters65.
In the light of the present debate about whether treaties are an adequate source of rules of
international law as to ensure the protection of the global environment, or whether more
60
Siena Forum,
61
Restatement,
62
See IMO Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter. 29
Dec. 1912, 2 U.S.T. 2403, T.l.A.S. No. 8165 (1972) (hereinafter Dumping Convention); London
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, MARPOL, 2 Nov. 1973, 12 I.L.M.
1319 (1973).
63
Law of the Sea Convention, supra note 23 at Part Xll.
64
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal,
22 Mar. 1989, 28 I.L M. 657 (1989) (hereinafter Basel Convention).
65
. Restatement
26
flexible procedures should be sought, it is worth remembering that treaties are not the
only source of law to consider. Some of the major developments in the Law of State
Responsibility in an environmental context have emerged from the operation of
customary law and general principles of law as understood by international tribunals and
the writings of eminent authors. In addition, the fundamental principle embodied in the
maxim sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas (use your own property so as not to injure the
property of another)66 has repeatedly been applied to the settlement of environmental
disputes, on both national and international levels, and has formed the basis of the
rationale inspiring the Trail Smelter decision, the work of the International Law
Commission, and most of the international regimes in force for the protection of the
environment. In fact, the very principle of international responsibility for environmental
damage is an expression of this older general principle of law. Because the flexible use of
the sources of international law has not historically been a problem, it should not really
be a contemporary one either.
66
opinion of Judge Lauterpacht in Oppenheim, International Law, 346 47 (8th ea., 1955).
27
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
 Resolution of international water dispute edited by The international Bureau of
the permanent court of Arbitration , Kluwer Law International The
Hague/London/New York
 Bellinger E.G., McLoughlin J. , Environmental Pollution Control, Graham &
Trotman/Martinus Nijhoff
 Kees BAstmeijer, Timo Koivurova, Theory and practices of Transpbpundary
Environmental Impact Assessment Martinus Nijhoff Piblishers.
 Karl Fuller, Stephen Tromans, Environmental Impact Assessment – Law and
Practice, Lexis Nexis Butterworths.
 Anna white / Neil Stanley/ Susan Wolf, Principles of Environmental Law,
www.cavendishpblishing.com
 Henrik Ringbom, Competing Norms in the Law of Marine Environmenal
Protection, Kluwer Law International.
WEB SOURCES
 www.un.org/Depts/los/nippon/.../mendis_0607_sri_lanka
 www.elitepro.in/...laws/...law/318-trail-smelter-arbitration-states-responsibility-
for-environmental-injury
 www.jstor.org/stable/76157
28

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Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University

“International Environmental Responsibility:

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF-

The present paper address a topic, which has recently experienced an

PART –I The duty to cooperate in International law:

Part II- The evolution of the main principles of International

Efforts to prevent Trans boundary environmental inferences by developing international

Part I – The duty to cooperate in International law: Sovereignty vs.trans-boundary

C) The expanding role of practice: substantive and procedural developments

identification of the competent forum, limitations of liability, insurance and financial

PART–II THE EVOLUTION OF THE MAIN PRINCIPLES OF

the protection afforded by UNCLOS is no little comfort to the managing of human

adopted by other apparently concurrent international authorities, recurrent invocation of

a) New environmental realities and their impact upon the law

basis of identifying a general principle of international law, the arbitral tribunal

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