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 DG 436-2
Revised 2015

Digest

Determining wind actions using Eurocode 1

Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower
Licensed copy from CIS: unielon, University of East London, 27/11/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

Paul Blackmore

This is the second part of a three-part Digest giving

guidance on the use of Eurocode 1 (BS EN 1991-1-4).
This Digest is aimed at engineers, architects and other
professionals who need to understand how to calculate
the effect of wind on buildings and design options to
minimise it. Wind loads on bridges are not covered in this
Digest.

Part 2 of this Digest demonstrates the calculation

procedure for determining wind loads and includes
example calculations for a two-storey house and a 120 m
residential tower on an 8 m podium. Part 1 gives advice
and guidance on the use of BS EN 1991-1-4 and Part 3
gives an example calculation of dynamic response using
the full dynamic method given in BS EN 1991-1-4 Annex B
for inwind response in the fundamental mode. This
update to Part 2 replaces the guidance published in 1999.

In this Digest we will refer to BS EN 1991-1-4 [1] as the ‘EN’,

the UK National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-4 [2] as the ‘NA’
and PD 6688-1-4 [3] as the ‘PD’.

Example 1: Two-storey house

This example demonstrates the approach to be used for
determining the peak velocity pressure and the cladding and
overall loads on a typical two-storey house. For this example
it has been assumed that the site lies on the outskirts of
Sheffield. This site has been chosen because it is typical of inland
towns and illustrates the typical conservatism arising from the
simplified options for determining peak velocity pressure. For
sites close to the west coast there will be less conservatism and
for sites near the east coast there will be more conservatism.
Assumptions for this example are:
• the site altitude A is 120 m
• the site is less than halfway up a hill so orography is not
significant (NA Figure NA.2)
• the map wind speed vb,map (NA Figure NA.1) for the site is
22 m/s
• the principal dimensions of the house and its orientation
and location in relation to nearby buildings are shown in
Figures 1 and 2
• the season factor cseason = 1.0 and the probability factor
cprob = 1.0 (values applicable for a permanent building)
• the distance to the edge of the town and the distance to the
shore vary as shown in Table 1.
In this example three options for determining the peak velocity
pressure are considered:
• Option 1: taking 12 wind directions (least conservative)
• Option 2: taking four orthogonal wind directions (best
compromise)
• Option 3: taking the single worst case irrespective of
direction (most conservative).
 2 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower
LR = 8.4 m
H = 8.0 m
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Lw = 8.0 m
α = 22.5°
H = 6.3 m
W = 8.0 m
Figure 1: Dimensions of example house
Box 1: Nomenclature
The choice of symbols used in the EN and NA for building
height, reference height and height above ground can
lead to confusion. These symbols and their definitions are:
z the height above ground. This symbol is used in
a number of expressions in the EN and NA and
indicates the height at which the relevant parameter
is calculated. For example, peak velocity pressure qp(z)
in the NA is given by qp(z) = [1 + 3,0 ⋅ Iv (z)2 ⋅ 0.5 ρ ⋅ vm2].
In this expression z signifies the height above ground
at which qp(z) and Iv are calculated.
ze the reference height for external wind action. When
calculating external wind pressure or overall wind
loads ze can be the top of the building, or when
using division by parts ze can be the top of the part
considered (EN Figure 7.4).
zs the reference height for determining the structural
factor cscd. For vertical cantilever buildings zs is taken
as 0.6 h and not the top of the building (EN Figure 6.1).
zi the reference height for calculating internal pressures.
zi can safely be taken as ze.
h the height of the building, or part of the building, as
defined in EN Chapter 7.
H the height of the building, or part of the building; only
used in the PD and the same as h.
hdis the displacement height. The height to which the
effective ground level is raised in urban terrain
(EN Annex A).
have the average height of surrounding buildings (used in
the calculation of hdis).
l the height of the building; used in NA Table NA.10
when calculating force coefficient cf.
DG 436-2
45°
10 m
20 m
30 m
Figure 2: Plan view of site layout with surrounding buildings
Calculating peak velocity pressure qp(z)
The peak velocity pressure qp(z) is given by NA Equation NA.3a
for sites in country terrain and Equation NA.3b for sites in town
terrain:
qp(z) = ce (z) ⋅ qb (Equation NA.3a for sites in country terrain)
qp(z) = ce (z) ⋅ ce,T ⋅ qb (Equation NA.3b for sites in town terrain)
ce (z) is the exposure factor given in NA Figure NA.7
Where: 
ce,T is the exposure correction factor for sites in town

terrain given in NA Figure NA.8
1
qb = ⋅ ρ ⋅ vb2 (EN Expression 4.10)
2
ρ
 = air density = 1.226 kg/m3 (NA Clause NA.2.18)
vb,0 = vb,map ⋅ calt (NA Equation NA.1)
vb = cdir ⋅ cseason ⋅ vb,0 (EN Expression 4.1)
cdir is the directional factor from NA Table NA.1

cseason is the season factor from NA Table NA.2

calt is the altitude factor from NA Equations NA.2a or
NA2.b
vb,map is from the map of fundamental basic wind

velocity for the UK from NA Figure NA.1.
For Option 1 the shortest distance to the shore and to the edge
of the town is determined for each 30º sector along with the
average height of surrounding buildings (have) and the nearest
distance to surrounding buildings (x) within each sector.
This option has the least conservatism but requires the most
calculation effort.
 DG 436-2 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower 3

Table 1: Calculating peak velocity pressure qp(z) for Example 1

Map wind speed, 22

vb,map (m/s)

Site altitude, A (m) 120

calt = 1 + 0.001 ⋅ A 1.12

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Building height, 8 m (when considering wind loads on the side walls, a building height of 6.3 m may be used)
h (m)

Direction (˚N) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Directional factor, 0.78 0.73 0.73 0.74 0.73 0.80 0.85 0.93 1.00 0.99 0.91 0.82 0.78
cdir

Distance to shore 200 128 110 110 200 200 200 200 200 200 112 200 200
(km)

Distance to town 15.5 12.5 9.5 3.5 4.5 1.5 1.6 3.5 2.5 2.5 1.6 5.5 15.5
(km)

Displacement 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 6.4 6.4 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 6.4 3.6 3.6
height,
hdis (m)

Effective height, 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 4.4 4.4
h – hdis (m)

Basic wind 19.2 18.0 18.0 18.2 18.0 19.7 20.9 22.9 24.6 24.4 22.4 20.2 19.2
velocity, vb (m/s)

Basic velocity 226.4 198.3 198.3 203.8 198.3 238.2 268.9 321.9 372.2 364.8 308.2 250.2 226.4
pressure, qb (Pa)

Exposure factor, 1.833 1.833 1.833 1.833 1.654 1.654 1.654 1.654 1.654 1.654 1.654 1.833 1.833
ce (z)

Exposure 0.692 0.699 0.709 0.749 0.698 0.749 0.745 0.708 0.723 0.723 0.745 0.730 0.692
correction factor,
ce,T

Zone C C C C C C C C C C C C C
(for size factor)

Peak velocity 287.2 254.1 257.7 279.8 229.0 295.1 331.3 376.9 445.1 436.2 379.8 334.9 287.2 Op.
pressure, 1
qp(z) (Pa)

310.9 (Quadrant NE) 458.6 (Quadrant SW)

qp(z) (Pa) worst Op.
case by quadrant 2
369.2 (Quadrant SE) 498.1 (Quadrant NW)

qp(z) (Pa) single Op.

511.0
worst case 3

The choices made for determining peak velocity pressure qp(z) for Quadrant SW.

The choices made for determining peak velocity pressure qp(z) for the single worst case.
 4 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower DG 436-2

For Option 2 the shortest distance to the shore and to the edge
of the town and values of have and x are determined for each 90º
Determining pressure coefficients
sector. This option gives a good compromise between simplicity
In this example the peak velocity pressures calculated using
and conservatism.
Option 2 will be used for the two orthogonal axes (Figure 3).
These are:
For Option 3 the worst combination of parameters is taken
irrespective of wind direction. This is the most conservative • wind parallel to the ridge (SW and NE wind directions)
option but can be useful when initially assessing the wind loads. • wind perpendicular to the ridge (NW and SE wind
directions).
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Ordnance Survey 1:50 000 Landranger maps are useful for

determining the distance to the edge of town. A road atlas is
From inspection of Table 1 it can be seen that the SW and NW
generally best for determining the closest distance to the shore.
quadrants give the largest peak velocity pressures and control
the design. Therefore only these two directions are considered.
In towns, closely spaced buildings can cause the wind to
The building parameters for the pressure coefficients on the
behave as if the ground level was raised. This is known as
walls and roof of the house are given in Table 2.
the displacement height hdis and can be determined from
EN Annex A.5. In the EN the effective reference height of the
A check must be made for wind funnelling between buildings
building is given by (h – hdis) where h is the height of the building.
using NA Clause NA2.27 Note d. Where upwind buildings
The displacement height can safely be taken as zero. Values of
provide shelter such that h – hdis < 0.4 h then funnelling will
effective height for this example are given in Table 1 on page 3.
not occur (hdis is given in Table 1). In this particular example
The calculation of peak velocity pressure qp(z) is shown in
the upwind buildings do not provide sufficient shelter to allow
Table 1 for Options (‘Op.’) 1, 2 and 3.
funnelling to be disregarded. Wind funnelling is not significant
For Option 2 the four quadrants considered are 0– 90° (NE),
90–180° (SE), 180–270° (SW) and 270–360° (NW). To calculate
the peak velocity pressure for each 90° quadrant, the worst-case
individual values from each 30° sector have been used. For NW NE
Option 3 the worst-case individual values from all wind directions
have been used to calculate the peak velocity pressure irrespective
of wind direction. For example, in Table 1 the cells highlighted as
show the choices made for determining peak velocity pressure
qp(z) for Quadrant SW and the cells highlighted as show the
choices made for determining qp(z) for the single worst case. Note
that it is not always the largest values of parameters in Table 1
that give the largest value of qp(z). For example, when considering
distance to the edge of town and distance to the shore the
smallest values give the largest values of qp(z).

Table 1 shows that the conservatism between the various

calculation options can be very large. For towns closer to the SW SE
east coast the level of conservatism from Options 2 and 3 is
likely to increase even more and for sites near the west coast the
conservatism is likely to decrease. Figure 3: Orthogonal axes

Table 2: Wall and roof parameters for Example 1

SW wind NW wind Notes

Wall parameters

h = 8.0 m (gable) h = 6.3 m (eaves) Reference height (for cladding design)

b = 8.0 m b = 8.0 m Building crosswind depth

d = 8.0 m d = 8.0 m Building inwind depth

h/d = 1.0 h/d = 0.79 Use to determine pressure coefficients

e = 8.0 m e = 8.0 m e = smaller of b or 2 h

x = 20.0 m x = 4.0 m Distance to surrounding buildings

Roof parameters

h = 8.0 m (ridge) h = 8.0 m (ridge) Reference height (for cladding design)

b = 8.0 m b = 8.4 m Building crosswind depth

e = 8.0 m e = 8.4 m e = smaller of b or 2 h

 DG 436-2 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower
where the distance x to the faces of surrounding buildings
measured perpendicular to the wind direction is < e/4 or > e
(e is given in Table 2). For the NW direction x = 20 m so
funnelling can be disregarded. For the SW direction x = 4 m so
funnelling will occur and the external pressure coefficients have
been taken as -1.6 (for Zone A) and -0.9 (for Zones B and C) from
NA Clause NA.2.27 Note e.
External pressure coefficients
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The EN gives two sets of pressure coefficients: cpe,1 for loaded
areas ≤ 1 m2 and cpe,10 for loaded areas ≥ 10 m2, with a
logarithmic interpolation between cpe,1 and cpe,10 values. This
interpolation between cpe,1 and cpe,10 pressure coefficients must
not be used in the UK. The NA gives cpe,10 pressure coefficients
that are to be used in the UK for all loaded areas > 1 m2. The cpe,1
values given in the EN should only be used for loaded areas of
≤ 1m2. All external pressure coefficients given in this Digest are
cpe,10 values and are denoted as cpe.
The values of the pressure coefficients on the house walls are
shown in Figures 4 and 5 (using NA Table NA.4) and on the roof
in Figure 6 (using NA Tables NA.7a and NA.7b). The EN allows
division by parts (EN Figure 7.4) based on the h/b ratio. For
h/b ≤ 1 no division is allowed, for 1 < h/b ≤ 2 the building may
be subdivided into two parts and for h/b > 2 the building may
be divided into two or more parts. In this example h/b < 1 for
both orthogonal directions, therefore division by parts is not
applicable. Note that in this example the effective height for
determining wall pressure coefficients has been taken as the
ridge height for SW wind and as the eaves height for NW wind.
-0.44
Leeward face (h/d = 0.79)
Figure 4: Wall pressure coefficients (cpe) for NW wind direction
+0.8 -1.6
1.6 m
Windward face (h/d = 1.0) Side face (max funnelling)
Figure 5: Wall pressure coefficients (cpe) for SW wind direction including funnelling
5
The EN gives both positive and negative pressure coefficients
for most roof zones. The negative values will generally represent
the worst-case roof cladding loads. The negative values should
be used when considering uplift loads on the roof and both the
positive and negative values should be used when considering
the overall alongwind loads acting on the building. The positive
values are likely to give the most onerous design case when
considering load combinations of wind + snow, wind + dead
load.
Internal pressure coefficients
The internal pressure depends on the h/d ratio, and the ratio of
openings μ (including background permeability) in the facades
and roof of the building. μ is given by the following equation:
∑ area of openings where cpe is negative or -0.0
μ=
∑ area of all openings
In practice it is not easy to determine the area of openings or
permeability in a building. For that reason it is simpler to
consider the area of the faces where the pressures are positive or
negative. The equation for μ then becomes:
∑ areas where cpe is negative or -0.0
μ=
∑ sum of all openings
In this example it is assumed that the walls and roof of the
house have similar permeability; this is a reasonable assumption
-0.8 -1.2 +0.77
1.6 m
Side face (isolated) Windward face (h/d = 0.79)
-0.9 -0.5
Leeward face (h/d = 1.0)
 6 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower DG 436-2

-0.8/+0.5
-0.45/+0.2 -0.45/+0.2

-0.65/+0.35
Ridge

Ridge
-0.3/+0.3 -1.1 -0.5
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NW
wind

-0.6/+0.25 -0.6/+0.25
4.0 m

-0.8/+0.5
2.1 m
0.8 m

-1.4/+0.35 -1.3/+0.3 -1.3/+0.3 -1.4/+0.35

2.0 m 2.0 m SW 0.84 m

wind
4.0 m 0.84 m
Figure 6: Roof pressure coefficients (cpe) for SW and NW wind directions

for modern airtight buildings. Where a face has more or less
permeability (perhaps a higher or lower number of opening
doors and windows), then the relative area of that face can be
increased or reduced to give a larger or smaller effective area for
the calculation of μ; see Part 1 of this Digest for more details of
this approach. Because the roof has both positive and negative
pressure coefficients on some zones, both sets of pressure
coefficients must be considered when calculating the internal
pressure in the building.
NW wind
Case 1: Considering negative coefficients on roof
Areas where cpe is negative = 50.4 (leeward wall) + 57.2 × 2
(gables) + 36.5 × 2 (roof slopes) = 237.8 m2
Total area = 50.4 × 2 (side walls) + 57.2 × 2 (gables) + 36.5 × 2
(roof) = 288 m2

The relative areas of each wall and roof element of the house 237.8
are: µ= = 0.83 (From EN Figure 7.13 cpi = -0.32 (h/d = 1.0))
288
• Side walls: 8 m × 6.3 m = 50.4 m2
• Gable ends: 8 m × 6.3 m + (8 m × (8 – 6.3)/2) = 57.2 m2
Case 2: Considering positive coefficients on roof
• Roof (per slope): 8.4 m × 4.35 m = 36.5 m2 (true area of
each roof slope).
Areas where cpe is negative = 50.4 (leeward wall) + 57.2
× 2 (gables) + 36.5 (leeward roof slope) = 201.3 m2

SW wind Total area = 50.4 × 2 (side walls) + 57.2 × 2 (gables) + 36.5 × 2

Case 1: Considering negative coefficients on roof
Areas where cpe is negative = 50.4 × 2 (side walls) + 57.2
(leeward gable) + 36.5 × 2 (roof) = 231 m2
Total area = 50.4 × 2 (side walls) + 57.2 × 2 (gables) + 36.4 × 2
(roof) = 288 m2
231
µ= = 0.8 (From EN Figure 7.13 cpi = -0.3 (h/d = 1.0))
288
Case 2: Considering positive coefficients on roof
(both roof slopes) = 288 m2
201.3
µ= = 0.7 (From EN Figure 7.13 cpi = -0.16 (h/d = 1.0))
288
If the house has a well-sealed ceiling, the internal pressure
coefficient could be separately determined for the loft space and
the main body of the house.
As the building height is < 20 m, the structural factor cscd may be
taken as 1.0. However, for determining both the cladding and
overall wind loads, significant benefit can be derived by splitting
this factor into the size factor cs and the dynamic factor cd.

Areas where cpe is negative = 50.4 × 2 (side walls) + 57.2 For overall loads on the house the scaling length b + h = 16 m
(leeward gable) + 0.0 (roof) = 158 m2 (8 m + 8 m). The effective height h – hdis is < 6 m for all directions
(Table 1) and cs = 0.856 (from NA Table NA.3 for Zone C).
Total area = 50.4 × 2 (side walls) + 57.2 × 2 (gables) + 36.5 × 2
(roof) = 288 m2 For buildings < 20 m in height (such as the house) and
for cladding, the dynamic factor cd may be taken as 1.0
158 (NA Clause NA.2.20 Note 4).
µ= = 0.55 (From EN Figure 7.13 cpi = +0.05 (h/d = 1.0))
288
 DG 436-2 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower 7

and leeward pressure coefficients or when using net pressure

Cladding or elemental loads
An example calculation is given in Table 3 for wind blowing onto
the gable end of the house, ie wind blowing parallel to the ridge
(SW wind), using Option 2 for determining the peak velocity
pressure qp(z) and the worst-case internal pressure coefficient
for this case.
coefficients. Note that it is not necessary to calculate internal
pressures when calculating overall loads because these act on
both windward and leeward faces of the building. The internal
pressures therefore cancel out when the windward and leeward
face pressures are added together.

The EN does not give an equation for net wind force on Wall loads for SW wind
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cladding panels or elements. The net wind force is determined

by vectorial summation of the external and internal forces, ie For SW wind (ie wind parallel to the ridge), the roof pressures
EN Expressions 5.5 and 5.6 as shown below. However, it should do not contribute to the overall loads except through friction
be noted that the cscd factor is only applied to the external wind effects, which are not applicable for this building (EN Clause 7.5
pressures and not the internal wind pressures. Note 3). The wind loads are given in Table 4.

F = ((cscd ⋅ we) – wi) ⋅ Aref

F = ((0.856 × 1.0 × 366.9) – (-137.6)) × 57.2 = 25.8 kN
Overall loads
The overall wind force Fw is given by summation of the external
pressures using EN Expression 5.5:
Wall loads for NW wind
For NW wind (ie wind perpendicular to the ridge), the load
contribution from the walls and roof have to be considered
separately. Table 5 gives the overall loads on the wall and Table 6
gives the overall loads on the roof.

Fw = cscd ∑ we ⋅ Aref Roof loads for NW wind

In this example the overall loads have been determined for
the two worst-case orthogonal directions of SW and NW. The
overall load on the house can be determined by summing the
external pressure coefficients given in Figures 4–6. However,
significant benefit will be obtained from using the net pressure
coefficients given in NA Clause NA.2.27 Note f. The net
pressure coefficients only apply to the walls. The EN does
not give net pressure coefficients for roofs so these will need
to be determined using vectorial summation of the external
pressure coefficients given in Figure 6. When considering overall
wind loads determined from external pressure coefficients,
a reduction factor accounting for the lack of correlation
between wind gusts on the windward and leeward faces may
be included. This factor does not have a symbol in the EN so
is referred to as factor in these calculations. This factor varies
from 0.85 for h/d ≤ 1.0 to 1.0 for h/d ≥ 5.0 (EN Clause EN 7.2.2
Note 3). This factor can be applied when summing windward
For NW wind (ie wind perpendicular to the ridge), the positive
windward roof slope coefficients and the negative leeward roof
slope coefficients should be considered. The effective pressure
coefficient acting on the roof can be obtained by summing the
area-weighted load contribution acting over each roof zone, F
to I (EN Figure 7.8b).
The overall loads acting on the house for wind perpendicular to
the ridge are given by summing the wall and roof loads:
15.71 kN + 2.61 kN = 18.32 kN
For roof pitches ≤ 25º it will be conservative to ignore the
contribution to overall load from the roof pressures and consider
the wall height to be equal to the ridge height. For this example,
ignoring the roof loads and assuming the wall to be equal to the
ridge height gives an overall load of 24.7 kN.

Table 3: Cladding wind loads on the gable wall for SW wind direction
Wind loads on gable wall (SW wind) Notes

h = 8.0 m Maximum height of gable end

b = 8.0 m Maximum width of gable end

b + h = 16.0 m Scaling dimension for size factor

qp(z) = 458.6 Pa From Table 1, worst-case value for Quadrant SW

cpe = +0.8 From Figure 4, gable end cpe for SW wind

cpi = -0.3 or +0.05 As calculated in previous section, use worst-case value of -0.3

cd = 1.0 For cladding (NA Clause NA.2.20 Note 4)

cs = 0.856 From NA Table NA.3 for h – hdis < 6 m, Zone C

Aref = 57.2 m2 Area of gable end

we = 458.6 × 0.8 = 366.9 Pa External wind pressure, we = qp(ze) ⋅ cpe (EN Expression 5.1)

wi = 458.6 × -0.3 = -137.6 Pa Internal wind pressure, wi = qp(zi) ⋅ cpi (using cpi = -0.3) (EN Expression 5.2)
 8 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower DG 436-2

Table 4: Overall wind loads on the walls for SW wind (ie wind parallel to the ridge)
Wind loads on walls (SW wind) Notes

h = 8.0 m Building height to ridge

b = 8.0 m Building breadth

b + h = 16.0 m Scaling dimension for size factor

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h/d = 1.0 For wind parallel to ridge

factor = 0.85 Lack of correlation factor for h/d = 1.0 (EN Expression 7.2.2 Note 3)

e = 8.0 m e = smaller of b or 2 h

qp(z) = 458.6 Pa From Table 1 (maximum value for Quadrant SW)

cp,net,walls = 1.1 Net cp on walls for h/d = 1.1 (NA Clause NA.2.27 Note f)

cs = 0.856 From NA Table NA.3 for h – hdis < 6 m, Zone C

cd = 1.0 For h < 20 m high (NA Clause NA.2.20 Note 4)

Aref = 57.2 m2 Projected gable wall area for SW wind

we,net = 458.6 × 1.1 × 0.85 = 428.8 Pa Net wind pressure, we,net = qp(z) ⋅ cp,net ⋅ factor

F = 0.856 × 1.0 × 428.8 × 57.2 = 21.0 kN Overall wind force F = cscd ⋅ we,net ⋅ Aref

Table 5: Overall wind loads on the walls for NW wind (ie wind perpendicular to the ridge)
Wind loads on walls (NW wind) Notes

h = 6.3 m Building height to eaves

b = 8.0 m Building breadth

b + h = 14.3 m Scaling dimension for size factor

h/d = 0.79 For wind parallel to ridge

factor = 0.85 Lack of correlation factor for h/d ≤ 1.0 (EN Expression 7.2.2 Note 3)

e = 8.0 m e = smaller of b or 2 h

qp(z) = 404.8 Pa At height 6.3 m. This calculation is not shown

cp,net,walls = 1.05 Net cp on walls for h/d = 0.79 (NA Clause NA.2.27 Note f)

cs = 0.863 From NA Table NA.3 for h – hdis < 6 m, Zone C

cd = 1.0 For h < 20 m (NA Clause NA.2.20 Note 4)

Aref = 50.4 m2 Projected area for NW wind

we,net = 404.8 × 1.05 × 0.85 = 361.3 Pa Net wind pressure, we,net = qp(z) ⋅ cp,net ⋅ factor

F = 0.863 × 1.0 × 361.3 × 50.4 = 15.71 kN Overall wind force F = cscd ⋅ we,net ⋅ Aref
 DG 436-2 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower 9

Table 6: Overall wind loads on the roof for NW wind (ie wind perpendicular to the ridge)
Wind loads on roof (NW wind) Notes

h = 1.7 m Roof height above eaves

b = 8.4 m Roof breadth

b + h = 10.1 m Scaling dimension for size factor of roof

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factor = 0.85 Lack of correlation factor for roof (EN Expression 7.2.2 Note 3)

e = 8.4 m e = smaller of b or 2 h

qp(z) = 498.1 Pa From Table 1 – maximum value for Quadrant NW

cp,zone F = 0.012 × 2 (two zone Fs) Example calculation of cp contribution from Zone J:
cp,zone G = 0.019 cpe for Zone J = -1.1, Area of Zone J = 8.4 m × 8.4/10 = 7.06 m2
cp,zone H = 0.128 Total roof area = 8.4 m × 4.35 × 2 = 73.08 m2 (true area of both slopes)
cp,zone I = -0.214 Weighted roof area = 7.06/73.08 = 0.097
cp,zone J = -0.106 Weighted coefficient = -1.1 × 0.097 = -0.106
cp,net,roof = 0.491 Net cp for roof (windward slope cp – leeward slope cp)
cs = 0.88 From NA Table NA.3 for h – hdis < 6 m, Zone C

cd = 1.0 For h < 20 m (NA Clause NA.2.20 Note 4)

Aref = 14.28 m2 Projected horizontal roof area for NW wind (1.7 × 8.4)

we,net = 498.1 × 0.491 × 0.85 = 207.9 Pa Net wind pressure, we,net = qp(z) ⋅ cp,net ⋅ factor

F = 0.88 × 1.0 × 207.9 × 14.28 = 2.61 kN Overall wind force F = cscd ⋅ we,net ⋅ Aref

Example 2: Residential tower on a 20 m 30 m

podium
Assumptions for this example are:
• the site is in open country on the outskirts of Glasgow
• the site altitude A is 173 m

120 m
• the site is flat so orography is not significant
• the map wind speed vb,map (NA Figure NA.1) for the site is
25.3 m/s
• factors cseason and cprob = 1.0
• logarithmic decrement of damping δs = 0.05 for a steel
building (from EN Table F.2)
• the principal building axes are aligned SW to NE and SE to 8m
NW.
44 m 54 m

54 m
This example is a residential tower 120 m tall on an 8 m podium.
The tower storey height is 3 m and the podium storey height is 30 m
4 m. The dimensions of the building are shown in Figure 7, the
scaling parameters are given in Table 7 and the values of peak
20 m
44 m

velocity pressure qp(z) are given in Table 8. NW wind

In this example the peak velocity pressure qp(z) has been

determined using Option 2 taking four orthogonal wind SW wind
directions. Only SW and NW wind directions are considered as
these give the worst-case loading for the two orthogonal axes. NW elevation SW elevation

Figure 7: Building dimensions

Determining cladding pressures
For SW wind the h/d ratio for the tower exceeds 5.0 and so
is outside of the h/d range given in NA Table NA.4. However,
NA Clause NA.2.27 Note b allows the values for h/d = 5.0
to be used for cladding design when h/d > 5.0. The external
wall pressure coefficients for cladding design taken from
NA Table NA.4 are shown in Figure 8.
 10 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower DG 436-2

Table 7: Building parameters for Example 2

Wind onto wide face (SW wind) Wind onto narrow face (NW wind) Notes

Tower scaling parameters

h = 120.0 m h = 120.0 m Height of tower (above podium)

b = 30.0 m b = 20.0 m Tower crosswind depth

Licensed copy from CIS: unielon, University of East London, 27/11/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

d = 20.0 m d = 30.0 m Tower inwind depth

h/d = 6.0 h/d = 4.0 Use to determine pressure coefficients

e = 30.0 m e = 20.0 m e = smaller of b or 2 h

d/b = 0.67 d/b = 1.5 Used in calculation of force coefficient

Podium scaling parameters

h = 8.0 m h = 8.0 m Height of podium

b = 54.0 m b = 44.0 m Podium crosswind breadth

d = 44.0 m d = 54.0 m Podium inwind depth

h/d = 0.18 h/d = 0.15 Use to determine pressure coefficients

e = 16.0 m e = 16.0 m e = smaller of b or 2 h

Inset storey scaling parameters (PD Clause 3.4)

e/2 = 15.0 m e/2 = 10.0 m The width of the zone of influence is based on
the height and breadth of the tower

e = 30.0 m e = 20.0 m The width of the zone of influence is based on

the height and breadth of the tower

4.0 m 16.0 m 6.0 m

+0.8 -1.2 -0.8 0.5 -0.7 +0.8 -1.2 -0.8 -0.7

-1.2 -1.2

+0.7 -0.8 -0.5 -0.3 +0.7 -0.8 -0.5 -0.3

3.2 m 12.8 m 3.2 m 12.8 m

NW elevation SW elevation

Figure 8: Pressure coefficients on the walls of the tower and podium

 DG 436-2 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower 11

Table 8: Calculating peak velocity pressure qp(z) for Example 2

Map wind speed, 25.3

vb,map (m/s)

Site altitude, 173

A (m)
Licensed copy from CIS: unielon, University of East London, 27/11/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

Direction (˚N) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Directional factor, cdir 0.78 0.73 0.73 0.74 0.73 0.80 0.85 0.93 1.00 0.99 0.91 0.82 0.78

Distance to shore 200 200 114 150 200 200 100 200 36 90 142 200 200
(km)

8 m podium (effective height ze = h = 8 m)

calt = 1 + 0.001 ⋅ A 1.173

Basic wind velocity, 23.15 21.66 21.66 21.96 21.66 23.74 25.23 27.60 29.68 29.38 27.01 24.34 23.15
vb (m/s)

Basic velocity 328.5 287.7 287.7 295.6 287.7 345.5 390.1 466.9 539.9 529.1 447.1 363.0 328.5
pressure, qb (Pa)

Exposure factor, ce (z) 2.189 2.189 2.189 2.189 2.189 2.189 2.189 2.189 2.249 2.194 2.189 2.189 2.189

Zone (for size factor) B B B B B B B B B B B B B

qp(z) (Pa) worst case 719.0 (Quadrant NE) 1214.1 (Quadrant SW)
by quadrant
853.8 (Quadrant SE) 1160.9 (Quadrant NW)
120 m tower (effective height ze = h = 128 m)

calt = 1 + 0.001 ⋅ A ⋅ 1.104

(10/128)2

Basic wind velocity, 21.78 20.39 20.39 20.67 20.39 22.34 23.74 25.97 27.93 27.65 25.42 22.90 21.78
vb (m/s)

Basic velocity 290.9 254.8 254.8 261.8 254.8 306.0 345.5 413.5 478.1 468.6 396.0 321.5 290.9
pressure, qb (Pa)

Exposure factor, ce (z) 3.949 3.949 3.949 3.949 3.949 3.949 3.950 3.949 4.059 3.960 3.949 3.949 3.949

Zone (for size factor) B B B B B B B B B B B B B

qp(z) (Pa) worst case 1149.3 (Quadrant NE) 1943.0 (Quadrant NW)
by quadrant
1365.7 (Quadrant SE) 1854.3 (Quadrant NW)

The pressure coefficients on the roof of the tower and podium
are shown in Figure 9. The presence of the tower will affect
the wind pressures on the roof of the podium. In this case
the tower should be treated like an inset storey according
to PD Clause 3.4. The roof pressure coefficients within the
zone of influence of the tower are taken as the adjacent wall
pressure coefficients on the tower. In this example, for NW
wind there is a narrow strip on the windward edge of the
podium where the normal roof edge coefficients of -2.0 and
-1.4 exist (NA Table NA.5). For SW wind the zone of influence
of the tower completely envelopes the podium and the local
high negative pressure coefficients have been replaced with a
positive pressure coefficient of +0.8. It is recommended that
the design of the podium roof in windward edge zones F and G
is assessed for the roof pressure coefficients determined from
both NA Table NA.5 and PD Clause 3.4.
Cladding pressures on the tower and podium walls and roofs
are determined using EN Expressions 5.1 and 5.2 as shown in
Example 1. These calculations are not included for this example.
 12 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower DG 436-2

-1.4 -2.0
-1.2 -0.8 -0.5 -0.7

-2.0 -2.0/+0.2
-0.8 -0.7 -0.8
-1.4 +0.8 -0.7 -2.0/+0.2 -0.7
NW wind -2.0 -1.4 -2.0
-2.0
-1.2 -1.2
Licensed copy from CIS: unielon, University of East London, 27/11/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

-1.2 -0.8 -0.5 +0.8

-2.0

SW wind

Figure 9: Pressure coefficients on the roof of the podium and the tower (tower roof shaded)

Calculating overall wind force on the cd = 1.185 (from NA Figure NA.9 for: δs = 0.05,

h/b = 4.0, h = 120 m)
tower above the podium
For tall buildings with h/d > 5, the overall wind force (base shear cf = cf,0 ⋅ ψr ⋅ ψλ (EN Expression 7.9)

force) Fw is determined from EN Expression 5.3, which uses force
coefficients (cf): cf,0 = 2.38 (from EN Figure 7.23 for d/b = 0.67)

Fw = cscd ⋅ cf ⋅ qp(z) ⋅ Aref (EN Expression 5.3 – use when h/d > 5)
ψr = 1.0 (from EN Figure 7.24 for r/b = 0)


ψλ = 0.68 (from EN Figure 7.36 using solidity ϕ = 1


For buildings with h/d < 5, the overall wind loads should be
and λ = (2 l/b)(2/cf,0) = (2 × 120/30)(2/2.38) = 6.7 from
determined from the summation of wind pressures on the
NA Table NA.10)
windward and leeward faces (plus friction forces if appropriate)
using EN Expressions 5.5 and 5.7:
cf = 2.38 × 1 × 0.68 = 1.62

Fw = cscd ⋅ ∑ we ⋅ Aref (EN Expression 5.5 – use when h/d ≤ 5)
surfaces Aref = 120 × 30 = 3600 m2


qp(z) = 1943.0 Pa (from Table 7 for Quadrant SW)


Where:  ∑ we is the summation of windward and leeward
surfaces face pressures = qp(z) (cpe,windward – cpe,leeward)
Fw = 0.874 × 1.185 × 1.62 × 1943.0 × 3600 = 11.7 × 103 kN

Ffr = cfr qp(z) ⋅ Aref (EN Expression 5.7 – use when h/d ≤ 5)
Where: cfr is the friction coefficient from EN Clause 7.5
Afr is the area of external surface parallel to the wind as
 surfaces
defined in EN Figure 7.22.
The effects of friction can be disregarded when the total area of
all surfaces parallel to or at a small angle to the wind is ≤ 4 times
the total area of all external surfaces perpendicular to the wind.
In practice this means that friction only needs to be considered
when the plan aspect ratio of the building is greater than about
4:1 (EN Clause 5.3 Note 4).
In the example calculations given below, the overall wind loads
are determined for the podium and tower for the two principal
wind directions using the largest peak velocity pressure qp(z) for
the SW and NW quadrants from Table 7.
The overall force on the tower should be determined using
EN Expression 5.3 for wind onto the narrow face (h/d >5) and
EN Expressions 5.5 and 5.7 (h/d ≤5) for wind onto the wide face.
Base shear force for wind onto the wide face of the tower
(h/d = 6) for SW wind (EN Expression 5.3)
Fw = cscd ⋅ cf ⋅ qp(z) ⋅ Aref
Where: cs = 0.874 (from NA Table NA.3 for: z – hdis = 120 m,
b + h = 150 m, Zone = B)
Base shear force for wind onto the narrow face of the
tower (h/d = 4) for NW wind (EN Expression 5.5)
Fw = cscd ⋅ ∑ we ⋅ Aref
When using EN Expression 5.5 there are three calculation
options, not all of which will be appropriate in every case:
• sum the wind pressures on the windward and leeward faces
of the building using cpe pressure coefficients
• use the cp,net pressure coefficients from NA Clause NA.2.27
Note f
• use division by parts for windward cpe pressure coefficients
from EN Clause 7.2.2.
Each of these options is considered below. Note that friction
forces can be disregarded for this example because the sum of
surface areas parallel to the wind is < 4 times the sum of surface
areas perpendicular to the wind (EN Clause 5.3 Note 4).
Option 1: Summing windward and leeward cpe pressure
coefficients
Where available, cp,net pressure coefficients would normally be
used in the calculation of overall wind loads. However, for some
building forms, such as non-rectangular buildings or buildings
with pitched roofs, cp,net pressure coefficients are not given in the
EN, NA or PD. In these cases, summing windward and leeward
face pressures is the only option. This approach is included here
to demonstrate the procedure:
 DG 436-2 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower 13

cs = 0.88 (from NA Table NA.3 for: z – hdis = 120 m, b + h = b

140 m, Zone = B)
128 m
cd = 1.22 (from NA Figure NA.9 for: δs = 0.05, h/b = 6, h = 120 m) b

∑ cpe = cpe,windward – cpe,leeward = 0.8 – (-0.65) = 1.45 (from

108 m
NA Table NA.4: cpe,windward = 0.8 (Zone D), cpe,leeward = -0.65
(Zone E), interpolated for h/d = 4.0)
Licensed copy from CIS: unielon, University of East London, 27/11/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

qp(z) = 1854.3 Pa (from Table 7 for Quadrant NW) 88 m

Lack of correlation factor = 0.963 (from EN 7.2.2 Note 3 for h/d
= 4.0)
68 m
Aref = 120 × 20 = 2400 m2

Fw = cscd ⋅ ∑ we ⋅ Aref
surfaces 48 m

Fw = 0.88 × 1.22 × 1.45 × 0.963 × 1854.3 × 2400 = 6.67 × 103 kN

28 m
Option 2: Using cp,net pressure coefficients
b
This is the option that is recommended by BRE for rectangular
buildings because it requires the least calculation effort and 8m
generally gives the lowest wind loads:

cs, cd, qp(z), Aref and lack of correlation factors are the same as for
Option 1. Figure 10: Subdivision of the tower used for division-by-parts calculation

cp,net = 1.272 (from NA Clause NA.2.27 Note f) for h/d = 4.0)

Windward face loads: Part 1 (top part, h = 128 m)
Fw = 0.88 × 1.22 × 1.272 × 0.963 × 1854.3 × 2400 = 5.86 ×
103 kN qp(z) = 1854.3, calt = 1.104, Aref = 400 m2, cpe = +0.8

This represents a reduction of about 14% over the result Fw = 0.88 × 1.22 × 0.8 × 0.85 × 1854.3 × 400 = 541.5 kN
obtained by summing windward and leeward face pressures.
Windward face loads: Part 2 (h = 108 m)

Option 3: Using division by parts qp(z) = 1821.0, calt = 1.107, Aref = 400 m2, cpe = +0.8

Division by parts is only applicable to the windward face Fw = 0.88 × 1.22 × 0.8 × 0.85 × 1821 × 400 = 531.8 kN
pressure coefficients and only where h/b ≥ 1.0 (EN Figure 7.4).
In this example (Figure 10), the tower has been divided into Windward face loads: Part 3 (h = 88 m)
six equal parts in order to demonstrate the approach. Peak
velocity pressure qp (z) is determined for the top of each part. qp(z) = 1787.6, calt = 1.112, Aref = 400 m2, cpe = +0.8
The horizontal shear force at any level is due to the wind force
above that level. It might therefore be expected that the size Fw = 0.88 × 1.22 × 0.8 × 0.85 × 1787.6 × 400 = 522.0 kN
factor cs would be based on the size of the loaded area being
considered. However, in EN Expression 5.5 the structural factor Windward face loads: Part 4 (h = 68 m)
cscd is outside of the summation sign. This means that cs based
on the dimensions of the whole building must be used to qp(z) = 1724.5, calt = 1.118, Aref = 400 m2, cpe = +0.8
calculate the forces on each part of the building. The size factor
cs and dynamic factor cd are therefore the same as those given Fw = 0.88 × 1.22 × 0.8 × 0.85 × 1724.5 × 400 = 503.6 kN
in Option 1, ie 0.88 and 1.22 respectively. The values of the
altitude factor calt and the peak velocity pressure qp (z), which Windward face loads: Part 5 (h = 48 m)
depend on calt , are calculated at the top of each part being
considered. The full calculation of qp (z) and calt at each height is qp(z) = 1643.0, calt = 1.126, Aref = 400 m2, cpe = +0.8
not given here.
Fw = 0.88 × 1.22 × 0.8 × 0.85 × 1643 × 400 = 479.8 kN
The factor accounting for the lack of correlation between
windward and leeward faces (EN Clause 7.2.2 Note 3) should Windward face loads: Part 6 (bottom part, h = 28m)
be determined for each individual part considered. In this case
h/d = 20/30 = 0.67 and the factor = 0.85 for wind loads on the qp(z) = 1506.7, calt = 1.141, Aref = 400 m2, cpe = +0.8
windward face of each part considered. For the wind loads on
the leeward face the building is not divided by parts and the Fw = 0.88 × 1.22 × 0.8 × 0.85 × 1506.7 × 400 = 440.0 kN
factor = 0.963.
Total windward face load = 541.5 + 531.8 + 522.0 + 503.6 +
479.8 + 440.0 = 3.02 x 103 kN
 14 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower DG 436-2

Leeward face loads

qp(z) = 1854.3, calt = 1.104, Aref = 2400 m , cpe = -0.65
2
Fw = 0.88 × 1.22 × -0.65 × 0.963 × 1854.3 × 2400 = -3.0 ×
103 kN
Total base shear on tower = 3.02 + 3.0 = 6.02 × 103 kN
Licensed copy from CIS: unielon, University of East London, 27/11/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.
References
1. BSI. Eurocode 1 – Actions on structures – General actions – Wind
actions. BS EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010. London, BSI, 2005.
2. BSI. UK National Annex to Eurocode 1 – Actions on structures –
General actions – Wind actions.
NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010. London, BSI, 2008.

3. BSI. Background information to the National Annex to

This value is a reduction of about 11% compared with summing
BS EN 1991-1-4 and additional guidance. PD 6688-1-4:2009.
the windward and leeward face pressures and is about
London, BSI, 2009.
3% higher than the force obtained using the net pressure
coefficients. Division by parts, in this particular example, does
not give any reduction in wind load compared with using the net
pressure coefficients. Generally, the increased calculation effort
involved in a division-by-parts calculation is only useful where
individual storey-height forces are required.

Calculating overall wind force on the

podium
The overall load on the podium is determined using
EN Expression 5.5:
Fw = cscd ⋅ ∑ we ⋅ Aref
surfaces

Base shear force for wind onto the wide face of the
podium (h/d = 0.18) for SW wind (EN Expression 5.5)

cs = 0.858 (from NA Table NA.3 for: z – hdis = 8 m, b + h = 62 m,

Zone = B)

cd = 1.0 (height < 20 m from NA Figure NA.9 Note 4)

cp,net = 0.8 (from NA Clause NA.2.27 Note f for h/d < 0.25)

qp(z) = 1214.2 Pa (from Table 7 for Quadrant SW)

Lack of correlation factor = 0.85 (from EN 7.2.2 Note 3)

Aref = 8 × 54 = 432 m2

Fw = 0.858 × 1.0 × 0.8 × 0.85 × 1214.2 × 432 = 306.0 kN

Base shear force for wind onto the narrow face of the
podium (h/d = 0.15) for NW wind (EN Expression 5.5)

cs = 0.868 (from NA Table NA.3 for: z – hdis = 8 m, b + h = 52 m,

Zone = B)

cd = 1.0 (height < 20 m from NA Figure NA.9 Note 4)

cp,net = 0.8 (from NA Clause NA.2.27 for h/d < 0.25)

qp(z) = 1160.9 Pa (from Table 7 for Quadrant NW)

Lack of correlation factor = 0.85 (from EN 7.2.2 Note 3)

Aref = 8 × 44 = 352 m2

Fw = 0.868 × 1.0 × 0.8 × 0.85 × 1160.9 × 352 = 241.2 kN

The overall forces on the building are obtained by summing the

forces on the tower and podium.
 DG 436-2 Determining wind actions using Eurocode 1 15
Licensed copy from CIS: unielon, University of East London, 27/11/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

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 16 Part 2: Worked examples – wind loads on a two-storey house and 128 m tower DG 436-2

Related publications from IHS BRE Press Acknowledgements

Wind loads on roof-mounted PV Wind microclimate around buildings Wind loads on unclad structures
and solar thermal systems

Get updated Learn about This Special

guidance on the the general Digest provides
wind loads to principles of guidance on
Licensed copy from CIS: unielon, University of East London, 27/11/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

be used for the wind flow designing lattice

design of roof- around buildings structures
mounted solar and techniques and individual
systems in the for mitigating members for
UK. This Digest unacceptable wind loading.
has been revised wind speeds. The design
and expanded to This Digest also guidance
include guidance gives advice on is based on
for a wider range of roof-mounted the methods and criteria for assessing information from BS EN 1991-1-4 and
solar installations and example pedestrian wind comfort. other relevant sources.
calculations.
This Digest (ref. DG 520) is available in This Special Digest (SD 5) is available in
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DG 436-2, August 2015
ISBN 978-1-84806-424-9 (Part 2)
ISBN 978-1-84806-426-3 (3-part set)