Docks and Harbor

Unit 5
Docks and Harbor

Transportation Infrastructure Engineering (TIE)- UCVC0304
Contents 2
• Introduction • Docks
• Types of Modes of Transportation • Classification of Docks
• Basic Terms and Definitions • Difference Between Dry and Wet Docks
• Facilities at a Port
• Requirements of a Harbor
• Factors Affecting the Location & Design
• Classification of a Harbor of the Harbor
• Accessibility & Size of Harbors • Littoral Drift
➢ Accessibility • Breakwater and its Classification
➢ Size of Harbor
➢ Site Selection
➢ Shape of Harbor
➢ Harbor Depth
➢ Marine Surveys
➢ Harbor Planning
➢ Features of a Harbor
Introduction 3
• The development in navigation has led to the realization that

there is a need to keep the ships safely sheltered during their
cruise or journey or trip.
• This has resulted in the development of the havens where the
ships could load and unload cargos and passengers in a safe
environment. Such a place of haven or refuge is called a harbor.
• Also, the methods of navigation have significantly improved,
thereby, increasing the size, numbers and the importance of the
vessels.
• This has further resulted in providing more suitable, spacious and
comfortable accommodation.
Types of Modes of Transportation 4
• Roadways
• Railways
• Airways
• Waterways: deals with water transportation that should be
capable of providing safer and efficient movement of passengers
and goods by a mode or vehicle that can float upon the water.
• These modes or vehicles can be a hollow vessel of wood or metal
or the combination of both, which are made to pass over water by
the means of natural, manual or mechanical power.
➢ Easiest and cheapest mode of transport, but time consuming.
➢ Affected by hurricanes and storms.
Basic Terms and Definitions 5
• Harbor is a partly enclosed protected water area or basin located

at the sea-shore, lake, canal or river estuary that provides a safe
and suitable shelter for vessels (such as boats, ships, etc.) seeking
refuge, supplies, re-fueling, repairs or the transfer of the cargo.
Source: Google Source: Google

Basic Terms and Definitions (Contd.) 6
Breakwater
Sea
Turning
Circle
Berth
Berth
Breakwater
Dock
Land Berth Berth Berth Berth Land
Typical layout of a Harbor (Source: Google)

• Port is an area where the terminal facilities are provided. It is

landing place for ships on coast, river or lake. It consists both a
harbor and the facilities for handling cargo and the servicing of
ships.

Typical layout of a Container terminal layout (Source:

Amrou et al., 2018)
Typical layout of a Seaport Container Terminal (Source:
Nguyen and Kim, 2010)
• Dock is an enclosed region or area of water in a harbor that is

responsible for handling the loading and unloading of goods,
cargos, etc., and repair of the vessels such as boats, ships, etc.

• Creek is a small protected watercourse, particularly an entrance in a

shoreline or a channel in a marsh.
• Basin is a water reservoir area, that can be navigated when the depth of
the water is more than the draft required by the largest ship that is
expected to visit the harbor.
• Draft is the vertical clearance between the water line and bottom of the
hull or keel. It can also be defined as the vertical linear immersion of the
ship below water surface for keeping the ship afloat safely and maintaining
stability.
• Berth is the designated place or location in a port or harbor used for
mooring the vessels when they are not at sea. It provides a vertical front
that enables safe and secure mooring or anchoring that can make the
unloading and loading of cargo or people from vessels much easier.
• Squat effect is a hydrodynamic process by which a vessel passing

through shallow water generates an area of lower pressure that
causes the ship to increase its draft and subsequently closer to the
seabed than would otherwise be expected.
• Dredging is the process of removal of sediments or debris from the
bottom of the water bodies such as lakes, rivers, etc.
• Apron is a place where cargo is lifted that is immediately in front
of or behind a wharf shed.
• Crest is the level at which the water body peaks before it goes
down.
Requirements of a Harbor 12
• Ship channels (natural or artificial) must have a sufficient depth

for the draft of vessel.  (depth of water > draft requirement); more heavy load means
the ship sinks deeper and the draft is also greater.
waterline
= Draft
hull Source: Wikipedia
Requirements of a Harbor (Contd.) 13
• Land masses or breakwaters must be provided to protect against

the destructive wave action.
Breakwater under construction in Ystad, Sweden Barra da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro

(Source: Wikipedia) (Source: Wikipedia)
• The bottom should furnish sufficient anchorage to hold ships

against the force of high/ strong winds.
Anchorage Area (Source: Sciencedirect)

• The harbor entrance should be both large and narrow enough to

allow an easy passage for shipping and to prevent the excessive
wave energy from being transmitted during storms, respectively.
Harbor Entrance (Source: Koen Trouw, 2011) Harbor Entrance (Source: Johann Halbig, 1854)
Classification of a Harbor (based on protection
16
needed)
Harbors
Natural Semi-natural Artificial

Harbor Harbor Harbor Natural Harbor (Source: Srinivasan, 2012)
• Natural harbor: an inlet or water area protected from storms and waves by natural
configuration of the land.  (naturally formed in a form of creeks and basins enabling the safe
discharge facilities for the ships on the sea coast), e.g. New York, San Francisco, Rio de Janeiro, and
Mumbai.
• Semi-natural harbor: an inlet or a river protected on the two sides by headlands
requiring artificial protection only at the entrance. (e.g. Vishakhapatnam)
• Artificial harbor: an area protected from the impact of waves either by
breakwaters or by dredging. (e.g. Palm Island, Dubai)
needed) (Contd.)
17
• Natural road-stead: the area providing good anchoring facilities in

addition to better berthing conditions. E.g. deep navigable channel with
a protective natural bank to seaward.
• Circumscribed natural road-stead: a confined area enclosed naturally by
islands as in a creek.
Natural Roadstead (Source: Circumscribed Natural Roadstead

Srinivasan, 2012) (Source: Srinivasan, 2012)
needed) (Contd.)
18
Semi-natural
harbor: an inlet or
a river protected
on the two sides by
headlands requiring
artificial protection
only at the
entrance. (e.g.
Vishakhapatnam)
Semi-natural Harbor (Source: Srinivasan, 2012)

needed) (Contd.)
19
Artificial harbor: an
area protected from
the impact of waves
either by breakwaters
or by dredging. (e.g.
Palm Island, Dubai;
Madras)
Artificial Harbor (Source: Srinivasan, 2012)

needed) (Contd.)
20
• Artificial road-stead: Man-made

or artificial formations are
constructed in form of
breakwaters to provide
protection to the ships and Artificial Roadstead
vessels during bad weather. A (Source: Srinivasan,
tract or area of water close to 2012)
the shore is provided by these
artificial harbor walls.
• This area is termed as artificial
roadstead.
• Alternatively, a circumscribed
artificial roadstead can also be
formed by enclosing the tract Artificially Circumscribed
provided with a good anchorage, Roadstead (Source:
by projecting solid walls called Srinivasan, 2012)
jetties, from the shore.
Classification of a Harbor (based on utility) 21
Harbors
Refuge Commercial Fishery Military Marina

Harbor Harbor Harbor Harbor Harbor
• Refuge harbor: used for ships during storms or hurricanes or

emergency situation, but can also be used for commercial
purpose.  (provides good anchorage and safe and easy access from the
sea), e.g. Dover in England.
➢ Requirements:
❖ Ready accessibility from the high seas.
National Harbor of Refuge and Delaware
❖ Safe and convenient anchorage against the sea. Breakwater Harbor Historic District on the
❖ Facilities for obtaining supplies and repairs (loading, NRHP since March 27, 1989 (Source:
unloading, and repair). Wikipedia)
Classification of a Harbor (based on utility) Contd. 22
• Commercial harbor: harbors provided with docks and facilitated

with necessary provisions for loading and unloading cargos. 
(can be a part of a bigger complex harbor or single commodity harbor), e.g.
privately owned and operated by companies related to oil, steel, aluminium,
fertilizer, sugar and other industries.
➢ Requirements:
❖ Spacious accommodations for mercantile marine.
❖ Adequate number of storage sheds for cargo.
❖ Sufficient space for transportation, loading and unloading cargo.
❖ Good and quick repair facilities.
❖ More calmer waters for efficient loading and unloading.
Commercial Harbor (Source: Google; Alamy)
❖ More sheltered conditions.
• Fishing harbor: harbors provided for fishing crafts and

trawlers.
➢ Requirements:
❖ Should be constantly opened for the departure and arrival
of fishing ships.
❖ Sufficient number of railway sidings and approach roads.
❖ Adequate loading and unloading facilities and quick
dispatch facilities for the perishable fish catch.
❖ Refrigerated stores with sufficient storage capacity for Fishing Harbor in Vizag
(Source: Google)
preserving the catch.
• Military harbor: harbors provided for accommodating the

naval vessels and serves as a supply depot.  (layout of this
type of harbor is greatly influenced by its location), e.g. Pearl Harbor,
Hawaii.
➢ Requirements:
❖ Should be able to accommodate the naval vessels.
❖ Bombay and Cochin harbors have naval bases.
Naval Norfolk Harbor in

Virginia (USA)
(Source: Google)
• Marina harbor: harbors enables the facilities related to food, fuel, showers,
telephones etc. for the small boat owners having temporary or permanent
berths.
• According to Webster’s New World Dictionary, the marina is defined as a small harbor or boat basin
providing dockage, supply, and services for small pleasure crafts.
➢ Classification:
❖ Large Marinas: 200 or more berths.
❖ Small Marinas: less than 100 berths.
➢ Facilities:
❖ Resort facilities such as restaurants, lounge, swimming pools, motels,
departmental stores, etc.
❖ Yacht club: Permanent members are provided with the marina facilities such as
club house for social activities at a subsidized rate.
❖ Sport (swimming, water skiing, surfing etc. and casinos for gambling); and fishing
facilities.
❖ Marina pubs: supplying quality liquors.
100m Foreshore lease

Fingers- 0.8m X 7m
Fingers- 1m X 11m
Fingers- 1m X 10m
Fingers- 1m X 9m
Fingers- 1m X 7m
Fingers- 1m X 9m
Typical Layout of a
Marina Harbor
(Source:
Srinivasan, 2012)
8m 7m 6.7m 6.7m 6m 5m
Ramp
Gate
Classification of a Harbor (based on location) 27
Harbors
Sea or Ocean River or Estuary Canal Lake

Harbor Harbor Harbor Harbor
• Sea or Ocean harbor: harbor located on the coast of sea or an ocean.

• River or estuary harbor: harbor constructed along the banks of river.
• Canal harbor: harbor located along the canals for sea navigations.
• Lake harbor: harbor constructed along the shore of lake.
Classification of a Harbor (based on location) Contd. 28
• Sea or Ocean harbor:
a. Intended for sea going vessels.
b. Vessels could be variable in size ranging from oil tankers to fishing
craft.
c. Major problems in designing this harbor are the penetration of the
waves into the harbors.
d. In case of sandy coast, the deposition of sand in the harbor and in its
approach channels, and possible erosion of sea coast.
• River or estuary harbor:
a. Lower reaches of a river where the hydraulic conditions are largely
determined by the tides, offer the best possibilities for sea-going
navigation.
b. Increasing navigational demands have led to extensive dredging work.
Classification of a Harbor (based on location) Contd. 29
• Canal harbor:
a. Canals are required to be dredged when the natural access
routes from the sea do not meet the requirements any more.
b. The depth and width of the canal can be easily adopted to the
demands of navigation.
c. The maintenance, and dredging of harbor basins on a canal is
generally negligible.
• Lake harbor:
a. If the lakes are large, the condition are similar to those in a sea
or an ocean, except that tidal action does not occur.
Accessibility & Size of Harbors 30
• Accessibility:
➢ Depends on the location of harbors;
➢ Design and location of the harbor entrance should enable the quick and easy
navigation for the ships;
➢ Entrance should be narrow enough to avoid the exposure of storms; and
➢ Adopting a maximum dimension of up to 180m.
• Size of a Harbor:
➢ Depends on the no. and size of ships expected to use the harbor at once.
➢ Length: 275m to 300m; Width: 30m.
➢ Enough room availability for safe maneuvering of the ships without collision.
➢ Determination of the size is based on: accommodation required, convenience in
navigability and maneuverability; and adaptability to natural features.
Accessibility & Size of Harbors (Contd.) 31
• Design of the Harbor entrance is based on an empirical formula (as given

by Stevenson) with limited application:
h= {√(l/L) - 0.027 ⁴√D[1+ (l/L)]} H
where,
H = height of the unrestricted wave (in meters) at the entrance mouth
of width l meters;
h = reduced height of the diminutive wave inside the harbor at a
distance D meters from the mouth; and
L = width of the harbor (in meters).
NOTE: This formula is only applicable when the distance from the
entrance is 15m, and where the harbor is well guarded by a vertical sea
wall.
• Site Selection
➢ Inexpensive land and building materials for construction are readily available.
➢ Transportation and communication infrastructure.
➢ Natural protection from winds and waves.
➢ Industrial growth of the locality.
➢ Condition of the sea-bed, sub-soil, and the foundation.
➢ Harbor’s potential for handling the traffic.
➢ Availability of fresh water and electricity.
➢ Defense and strategic aspects.
• Shape of Harbor
• Following principles or fundamentals are required to be

considered while deciding the shape of a harbor:
➢ One pierhead should extend slightly beyond the other, to shield or protect
the harbor from the strong sea waves.
➢ The width within the pierheads should increase quickly or rapidly.
➢ A series of straight lengths should be used to obtain the general shape of
the harbor, and re-entrant angles should not be permitted.
• Harbor Depth
➢ The channel depth is determined using the following formula:
D = D1 + H/3 + D2
where, D1 = draft for the largest ship to be accommodated;
D2 = allowance for squat of the moving ship;
H = height of storm waves. Squat effect (Walké
➢ The harbor and approach channel should be deep enough to allow and Sémhur, 2008)
navigation even during low tide and with fully loaded ships.
➢ Free from obstacles such as boulders or sunken ships at the required depth
for safer navigation.
➢ Maximum harbor depth (bottom is soft) = loaded draft + 1.2m
➢ Maximum harbor depth (bottom is rocky) = loaded draft + 1.8m
• Marine Surveys
➢ Gathering adequate knowledge or information prior to completion of the
harbor’s layout and designing its various components.
➢ Two surveys: Hydrographic survey; and Topographic survey.
a. Hydrographic survey:
✓ Easier in locations with access to local tertiary and minor trigonometrical controls.
✓ For locating the shoreline at the low and high tides, and positions of all the structures
or obstructions in the water and along the shore.
✓ A fathometer or echo sounder is used to measure the depth of the sea bottom. This
device is fixed on the motor boat which is maintained in line with a pre-determined
range line.
✓ The soundings are collected at 7.50m intervals along range lines 15m to 30m apart
depending upon the nature of the bed and the level of the details required.
✓ Then, the hydrographic charts/ maps are created, that assist the navigators in choosing
safe routes through waterways and avoiding the risks caused due to submarine.
b. Topographic survey:
✓ Carried out to establish ground contours at intervals of 0.50m to 1.50m.
✓ Higher contour interval is used where the terrain is rough, and there is little
to no significant construction activities.
✓ Noticeable irregularities should be closely examined at 30m intervals.
✓ Should also be able to locate the existing buildings and other structures.
✓ Should be able to locate the borings and test pits.
✓ Should be able to identify the prominent land marks.
• Harbor Planning
➢ It should be performed after gathering the essential information of the existing/
current features at the proposed site.
➢ Important facts are as follows:
1. An extensive neighborhood survey considering the shoreline and water depths is
necessary.
2. Studies on the nature of harbor to check whether it is protected or not.
3. Awareness regarding the existence of various species including sea insects at the site.
4. Important to conduct borings and soundings to determine the nature of the ground.
5. A careful observation to be made on the problems of silting or erosion of the coastline.
6. It is advisable to perform borings on land to determine the probable sub-surface
condition, which is useful in locating the harbor works accurately.
7. The natural phenomena (storms, rainfall, range of tides, maximum and minimum
temperatures, wind direction and intensity) that can hamper the planning of harbor,
should be studied.
• Features of a Harbor
➢ Entrance and Approach Channels
➢ Berthing and Turning Basins
➢ Break Water
➢ Pier Head
➢ Quays and Wharves
➢ Jetties and Piers
➢ Docks
➢ Slipways, and
➢ Other ancillaries including godowns, sheds, buoys, lights, fire protection
towers, etc.
Entrance and Approach Channels 39
• There is a requirement of a separate approach that has been demarcated and dredged to the necessary depth,
when the sea surrounding the harbor has lesser depth than the required draft for the largest ship approaching
the harbor.
• Entrance: the route that ships can take to reach the harbor safely.
• The entrance maintains more depth and width due to more exposure to the sea waves.
• The width depends on the density of traffic and number of entrances.
• Sufficient width should be available for safer navigation, and to avoid the dangerous tidal currents.
 Entrance and
Approach Channel
of Cam Pha Coal  Harbor Entrance
Port/ Harbor (Source: Google)
(Source: Quy et al.,
2008)
Berthing and Turning Basins 40
• Berthing Basins: used for parking of ships.

• Turning or Swinging Basins: to allow the gradual turning of the ship.
Berthing Basin at Whitehill Marina in U.K. Turning Basin at Gdynia Port/

(Source: Google) Harbor in Poland (Source: Google)
Break Water 41
• The protective barrier or wall which is built to enclose harbors and shield
the harbor waters from the effects of large and powerful waves.
A typical cross-section of a breakwater

(Source: Domingo, 2010)
Breakwater (Source: Google)

Close-up of a breakwater (Source: Google)
Pier Head 42
• The structure provided at the tip of breakwater that serves the purpose of
entrance mark. E.g. lighthouse.
Pier Head such as

Lighthouse
(Source:
DeviantArt) →
Pier head such as Port Washington Breakwater

Lighthouse, Wisconsin (Source: Google)
Quays and Wharves 43
• Wharves are the platforms or loading areas that are required for ships to come close
enough to the shore.
• Quays are the wharves constructed parallel to the shore or breakwater.
• Piers are the wharves that project into the ships’ fairway or basin at right angles or
oblique from shore.
• The aim is to enable berthing of vessel next to the cargo operations.
Pier (Source:
BBC) →
 Salford Quay in
England (Source:
Wikipedia)
Jetties 44
• These are the piled projections from shore to berth vessels, and for
loading and unloading of cargo.
• These are typically constructed from shore towards sea water to prevent
silting and dredging to allow free flow of tidal currents.
• These assist in diversion of the current away from the river bank.
• Prevention of the scouring action. Jetty (Source:
NGC) →
 Aerial view of a
Jetty at
Swakopmund,
Namibia (Source:
Wikipedia) Typical cross-section of a Jetty (Source:
Briggs and Melito, 2008)
Planning and Layout of Harbors 45
• Planning of harbors deals with the arrangement of 1) the facilities

to be provided on land, and 2) the facilities connected with basin
water.
• Layouts of harbor that can be adopted are based on different
geometrical shapes: square layout, rectangular layout,
machicolated layout, tridentine layout, and digital layout.
Defects in Harbor 46
• Depth of water is found insufficient for different ships.

• Insufficient size of harbor to accommodate the increased
traffic.
• The quay and landing area between the berths is very narrow,
and there is inadequate space availability for the storage of
the cargo.
• The whole area is crowded, therefore making it impossible for
the harbor to operate efficiently.
Docks 47
• These are the enclosed spaces where the ships are accommodated to
keep them afloat at a constant level to facilitate loading and unloading
cargo.
• A marine structure for berthing of vessels for loading and unloading cargo
and passengers.
• Necessary for discharging of the cargo.
• The water level needs to be uniform throughout the period of time which
is required for discharging the cargo.
• In a situation when the ship is under the influence of the vertical
movement by the tides, it becomes inconvenient to lift the cargo from
the ship, and special arrangements are required to be made for lifting the
cargo.
Classification of Docks 48
• Wet Docks or Harbor Docks: These are required for berthing of

ships or vessels to facilitate the loading and unloading of
passengers and cargo.
• Dry Docks: These are required for providing ship repair facilities.
Wet Docks (Source: Google) Dry Docks, Dubai (U.A.E) (Source: Google)
Difference Between Dry and Wet Docks 50
Serial No. Dry Docks Wet Docks
1. It is a small vessel or basin that can be filled with water to It is a type of dock where water is contained by a lock or the
accommodate floating loads and then can be drained/ dock gates, that allow the ships to stay afloat at low tide in a
emptied to enable the loads to land on a dry platform. location with high tidal ranges. There is no effect on the
water level, even though the tide is rising and falling.
2. These docks provide facilities for the construction, These docks facilitates the process of loading and unloading
maintenance and repair of ships, boats and other water passengers and cargos or goods, and does not deal with any
vessels. repair work.
3. These docks are incapable of holding the ships in a steady These docks are capable of handling such situations.
flow in areas with strong floods.
4. The cleaning of such docks is much easier on a routine Generally, it is located at a high flood region, therefore the
basis. cleaning on routine basis becomes tedious.
5. In dry season, very less water is available for floatation. Here, water is always available.
6. Occasionally, the water level becomes much lower than Here, the water level is always higher.
usual.
7. Here, the buoyancy of water is low. Here, the buoyancy of water is high.
Facilities at a Port 51
• Protection facilities: protection from wind and waves through natural land mass projection or
artificially by providing breakwaters.
• Dredging Facilities: in case of insufficient navigable depth, it is required to remove the sediments and
debris that has been deposited at the sea-bed. It is performed by an equipment known as dredger. Required
once→ primary dredging, repeated at regular intervals→ secondary.
• Entrance Facilities: width of the entrance > width of the widest ship; entrance space depth > navigable
depth required for the heaviest ship. Entrance can be tidal without gates, but the lock gates may confine it.
• Guiding Facilities: are in form of fixed or floating signals, whistling signals, lighthouse, etc. Fixed signals
on the pierheads of breakwaters; floating signal in form of floating buoys which defines the width and direction of
approach; whistling buoys during foggy weather when the visibility is poor; lighthouse are provided on a high land
nearby port with the rotating focusing lights to illuminate large sea nearby port.
• Locking Facilities: when the tidal range > 3m, a water lock is necessary else the basin water would be
disturbed to a great extent. Lock has a chamber with size > largest ship expected to visit. Lock chamber has a pair
of gates (entry and exit), which if operated properly enables the ship to enter and exit the port safely.
• Turning Facilities: vessels expected to visit must have required space in harbor basin to change their
direction of motion in form of turning. Therefore, a large space for full turning is kept. If not, then turnings are
made with restrictions such as restricted turning by nosing or touching with pier.
• Docking Facilities: provision of aprons or platforms supported on wharves or quay walls or piers
constructed in harbor basin form wet docks. Similar to railway station platforms.
Facilities at a Port (Contd.) 52
• Loading-Unloading Facilities: setting up of cranes on permanent track with capacities from 1 to 50 tonnes to
operate on aprons, supported on quay walls of wet docks. Based on different categories of goods, vacuum pumps and conveyors are
also provided.
• Storage Facilities: goods to be imported or exported must be stored on temporary basis for proper checking, entry,
destination dispatching, etc. Transit sheds are used in case of the storage has to be done for 2-3 days; while for longer durations, the
storage has to be made in the warehouses. Cold storages for medicines, chemicals, etc.
• Repairing Facilities: fixed and floating types of docks; fixed (e.g. dry dock, marine railway dry dock, lift dock common
type of repairing docks), while the floating type docks are power run to reach the place of accident and save lives, and properties on
affected ship.
• Administrative Facilities: such as booking offices, custom houses, power houses, repair shops, fire houses,
post offices, banks, telephone service and security service.
• Offshore Terminal Facilities: when a large-sized ship with the draft more than the available depth of
water in the basin is approaching the harbor, it has to be halted outside the harbor basin with mooring and
anchors. For the loading and unloading of such ships, submarine pipes and pumps are used.
• Quarantine Inspection Facilities: passengers arriving from abroad who would undergo a medical
check-up are advised to wait outside the harbor; quarantine is a precautionary measure to check the entry of
epidemic and contagious diseases into the country through new passengers who could be victim to such diseases.
Hence, the affected passenger are required to be vaccinated and then only a clearance certificate is granted for
entry to the country.
Factors Affecting the Location & Design of the Harbor 53
• A harbor engineer needs to consider various factors such as the

natural and meteorological phenomena that influence the location
and design of the harbor. These factors are as follows:
1. Coastal currents and silting indicators such as littoral drift or coast
erosion.
2. Tides and tidal range.
3. Wind, wave and their combined effect on harbor structures.
Littoral Drift or Longshore Drift 55
• Littoral drift is the term used to describe the movement that

occurs along or near the foreshore and is caused by the longshore
transport of debris or sediments.
Shore Line
Wind Effect on the

Shore (Source:
Srinivasan, 2012)
Drift Track
Breakwater and its Classification 56
• The protective barrier or wall which is built to enclose harbors

and shield the harbor waters from the effects of large and
powerful waves is known as breakwater.
• Selection of Type of Breakwater:
1. Availability of construction materials,
2. Depth of water at the construction site,
3. Funds and time availability,
4. Characteristics of natural foundation, and
5. Availability of construction equipment or machinery.
Breakwater and its Classification (Contd.) 57
• Advantages of Breakwaters:
1. To break the momentum of water by means of wave breakers.
2. To reduce the force of approaching wind and waves.
3. Occasionally, the inner side of a breakwater is built as a quay for handling the
cargo and it is referred as a mole.
• Breakwaters are classified into 4 types:
➢ Heap or mound breakwater
➢ Mound with superstructure or composite breakwater
➢ Upright wall breakwater
➢ Special breakwater
• Heap or Mound Breakwater:

It is the simplest type of breakwater which is a result of dumping or
tipping of rubble stones into the sea till the heap or mound emerges
out of the water. The mound is then composited, and the action of the
waves control the side slopes.
Crest
Armour
Blocks
Filter or secondary Core Sea bed

armour
Mound Breakwater (Source: Srinivasan, 2012)
• Heap or Mound Breakwater:
Heap or Mound Breakwater
Rubble Mound Concrete Blocks Rubble Mound Rubble Mound

Breakwater Mound Breakwater Breakwater Breakwater
supplemented supplemented
by concrete by patented
blocks stones
Type I Type II
Top of core of mound Crest level of core of mound
breakwater is above MSL breakwater is below MSL
• Rubble Mound Breakwater: Type I (Top of core of mound breakwater is above

MSL); Type II (Crest level of core of mound breakwater is below MSL).
The value of
depth of water
from MSL to crest
of core in meters
(Source: Srinivasan, 2012)

Rubble Mound Breakwater Supplemented by Concrete Blocks (concrete blocks are laid towards seaside)

Rubble Mound Breakwater Supplemented by Patented Stones
• Concrete blocks are not rough

enough, therefore only a small
amount of energy of the wave is
dissipated.
• High cost for casting such blocks.
• Based on various experiments,
different countries have
developed the concrete blocks
Mound Breakwater
which are hydraulically rough and
Supplemented by
stable in any position.
Tetrapods
• These are patented by each of
the companies for worldwide use.
• Wall or Upright or Vertical Faced Breakwater: A large regular wall

which is built to form or create a harbor basin on a firm and stable
natural or artificial base, in order to withstand the forces and
their components produced due to incoming water and waves.
Seaside of basin
Harbor Side A Typical Layout of Wall

type Breakwater
(Srinivasan, 2012)
Wall type
Breakwater
Foundation
Overturning point
Mound Type Breakwater V/s Wall Type Breakwater
Serial No. Mound Type Breakwater Wall Type Breakwater

1. Initial cost is less. Initial cost is high.
2. Inspection is easy and repair work can be Repair work is difficult to be carried out.
carried out periodically.
3. It does not require sinking for foundation. It requires sinking for foundation.
4. It requires foundation with more width. It requires foundation with less width, but
foundation must rest on firm soil.
5. It required unskilled labour. It requires skilled labour.
6. It is not very efficient. It is very efficient.
7. Material required is more. Material required is less.

8. More maintenance cost. Low maintenance cost.

Docks and Harbor - 2022 - Dec-23

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Unit 5

• The development in navigation has led to the realization that

• Harbor is a partly enclosed protected water area or basin located

Source: Google Source: Google

Land Berth Berth Berth Berth Land

Typical layout of a Harbor (Source: Google)

• Port is an area where the terminal facilities are provided. It is

Source: Google Source: Google

Typical layout of a Container terminal layout (Source:

• Dock is an enclosed region or area of water in a harbor that is

Source: Google Source: Google

• Creek is a small protected watercourse, particularly an entrance in a

• Squat effect is a hydrodynamic process by which a vessel passing

• Ship channels (natural or artificial) must have a sufficient depth

• Land masses or breakwaters must be provided to protect against

Breakwater under construction in Ystad, Sweden Barra da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro

• The bottom should furnish sufficient anchorage to hold ships

Anchorage Area (Source: Sciencedirect)

• The harbor entrance should be both large and narrow enough to

Natural Semi-natural Artificial

• Natural road-stead: the area providing good anchoring facilities in

Natural Roadstead (Source: Circumscribed Natural Roadstead

Semi-natural Harbor (Source: Srinivasan, 2012)

Artificial Harbor (Source: Srinivasan, 2012)

• Artificial road-stead: Man-made

Refuge Commercial Fishery Military Marina

• Refuge harbor: used for ships during storms or hurricanes or

• Commercial harbor: harbors provided with docks and facilitated

• Fishing harbor: harbors provided for fishing crafts and

• Military harbor: harbors provided for accommodating the

Naval Norfolk Harbor in

100m Foreshore lease

Sea or Ocean River or Estuary Canal Lake

• Sea or Ocean harbor: harbor located on the coast of sea or an ocean.

• Design of the Harbor entrance is based on an empirical formula (as given

• Following principles or fundamentals are required to be

• Berthing Basins: used for parking of ships.

Berthing Basin at Whitehill Marina in U.K. Turning Basin at Gdynia Port/

A typical cross-section of a breakwater

Breakwater (Source: Google)

Pier Head such as

Pier head such as Port Washington Breakwater

• Planning of harbors deals with the arrangement of 1) the facilities

• Depth of water is found insufficient for different ships.

• Wet Docks or Harbor Docks: These are required for berthing of

• A harbor engineer needs to consider various factors such as the

• Littoral drift is the term used to describe the movement that

Wind Effect on the

• The protective barrier or wall which is built to enclose harbors

• Heap or Mound Breakwater:

Filter or secondary Core Sea bed

• Heap or Mound Breakwater:

Heap or Mound Breakwater

Rubble Mound Concrete Blocks Rubble Mound Rubble Mound

• Rubble Mound Breakwater: Type I (Top of core of mound breakwater is above

(Source: Srinivasan, 2012)

(Source: Srinivasan, 2012)

(Source: Srinivasan, 2012)

• Concrete blocks are not rough

• Wall or Upright or Vertical Faced Breakwater: A large regular wall

Harbor Side A Typical Layout of Wall

Serial No. Mound Type Breakwater Wall Type Breakwater