Chapter 6.

Eighteenth Century: Western

Europe’s Studies of China in the Middle of the
Qīng Dynasty

Western priests have come to the East one a er another, and their
status was also improving. However, in the early years of Kāngxī康熙,
they were eager for the transplantation of western learning, and
slowed down their study of China. e Chinese learned much more
from the Europeans than what the Europeans learned from the
Chinese.

Since the middle of the Kāngxī period, the priests were called to
the inner court. Some tried their best to report on the general a airs
in China, some tried their best to survey and map the territory, each
exhibited their strengths. What further promoted this tendency and
aroused the desire to discover Chinese culture in Europe was the
Rites controversy (question des rites).

e Rites controversy was the theoretical issue of whether the

original teachings of Jesus doctrine can be compromised with
Chinese rituals and customs for the newly arrived Western priests.
But in reality, it can also be considered as the power competition
between the Jesuit clergy and the Christian clergy of other factions.
In the early days of Matteo Ricci’s preaching to China, they allowed
the converts to keep the old customary rituals, and was tolerant of
ancestor sacri ces and the worship of Confucius. Moreover, the
rituals of sacri cing to heaven and the worship of the Christian God
do not necessarily con ict. is is the reason for their success in
having many believers and gaining prestige. However, the missionary
policy of the Jesuits was condemned by the missionaries of the
factions that came later, namely the Dominicans, the Augustinians,
those from the Paris Foreign Missions Society (Mission étrangères),
and other priests. ese dissidents joined force and appealed to the
Pope of Rome, and Pope Clement XI issued an edict in 1704 (the
43rd year of Kāngxī康熙 of Qīng清), proclaiming: China’s traditional
sacri ces have always given in to idolatry, and it is forbidden that for
Christians to tolerate, recognize or practice them. In the following
Clement XI
year, the great monk of Antiochia, Cardinal de Tournon (Duō Luó铎
罗/多罗, 1668–1710) was sent by the Pope to Beijing. He paid homage

to Xuán Yè⽞烨 the Kāngxī康熙 Emperor and conveyed the Pope’s will.
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 Although Xuán Yè⽞烨 treated him with courtesy, he does not follow
his request, explaining the true meaning of China’s worship of
ancestors and stating that the Pope had no right to enact laws against
the Chinese people. When De Turnon was in Beijing, he received a
communiqué issued by Clement XI, on November 20th 1704 (the
43rd year of Kāngxī), further condemning the Jesuits’ preaching
policies and strictly prohibit their practice. But observing the
situation around him, he dared not publish it. He rst urged the
establishment of an archbishop to govern all the missionaries in
China and recognize the extent of his authority. Xuán Yè accepted
the advice of the Jesuit teachers and refused, and talked about exiling
the priests who violated his will. As a result, the overseas missionary
Charles Maigrot (Yan Jiale严嘉乐, also known as Yan Dang阎当, ?—
1730), who had been negotiating this issue since the beginning, was
exiled to Macau. Once the great monk de Turnon arrived in Nanjing,
he considered the compromise between the two sides and still dare
not publish the communiqué he received in Beijing, waiting for an
opportunity. In the end, the situation was not getting better, and he
decided to make a summary of the communiqué as a statement and Matteo Ricci (le ) and Xu Guangqi
proclaim it under his name, refuting Xuán Yè’s viewpoint. He (Chinese: 徐光啓) (right) in the
ordered the priests who refuse to obey Clement’s decree to withdraw Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements
from China. is took place in February 1707 (the 46th year of (Chinese: 幾何原本) published in
1670
Kangxi of Qing). Xuán Yè immediately arrested de Turnon and
escorted him to Macau, ordering the Portuguese to monitor him.
e Portuguese had always enjoyed the special privilege to preach
Christianity and hated the encroachment of that privilege by other
nations. Now that the great monk de Turnon came to China without
permission from the Portuguese king, arousing his anger.
Furthermore, he despised the authority of the Archbishop of Goa,
wanting to creation an archbishop of the Chinese diocese, which
made the Portuguese hate him even more. ey took this
opportunity to severely imprison him, and de Turnon died in prison
in endless resentment. However, the Papal o ce of Rome did not
waver in its stance. In 1720 (the 59th year of Kāngxī), he sent
Giovanni Ambrogio Mezzabarba, the Archbishop of Alexandria, to
plead with the Qīng court. He did so, but to no avail, and returned to
his homeland empty-handed. In the end, Xuán Yè’s policy and
Clement’s attitude were at loggerheads with each other. In 1718 (the
57th year of Kangxi of Qing), it was strictly forbidden for priests
without permission to reside in the country, but those observing
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 Matteo Ricci’s teaching style were allowed to stay and preach. e
Papal O ce still held an oppositional attitude, and a erwards the
missionaries were in a very di cult position.

As a result of the rise of the Rites controversy, the missionaries of

all factions were all wanted to support their own faction. So they
studied Chinese etiquette and customs in detail. eir reports and
arguments greatly stimulated the European religious community,
and Westerners made great progress in their knowledge of Chinese
culture. is was an important event in the history of the
development of modern Western European’s knowledge about the
East. During the reign of Yōngzhèng雍正, they still adopted the policy
of restriction toward the preaching of Christianity. In 1724 (the
second year of Yōngzhèng of Qīng), an edict was issued. Except for
those who served the inner court academically, all foreign teachers
are prohibited from living in the country regardless of their attitude
towards the issue of rites. Western religions in China sank into a very
sad situation. His son Hónglì弘历 generally perpetuated this policy. In
1747 (the twel h year of Qiánlóng乾隆of Qīng), he announced that
Western priests from all over the country were to be exiled except
those in the imperial court. ose who dared to violate were to be
imprisoned or executed in order to suppress them. So more time of
tribulation was upon the Westerners. By 1773 (the 38th year of
Qiánlong of Qīng), the Jesuits, who were criticized by the world for
alienating others, due to jealousy from other factions, and political
reasons like the rise of the French Bourbon family and the
oppression by the Pope of Rome, they disintegrated and dispersed
a er Pope Clement XIV decreed to forbid their organized preaching.
e stage of their activity, namely the preaching of Western religion
in China, was in an even worse situation. e Lazarists and the
former Dominicans took their place, barely able to keep things
a oat. Because of the results of the French Revolution, these factions
also experienced di culties for those who lost the protector of the Pope Clement XIV
Catholic Church in Rome. erefore, the study about China by the
missionaries was rather scant. However, during this period, the
emperors of the Qīng Dynasty either respected or liked Western
learning, so the special priests who roamed the imperial court never
went away. Regarding the astronomical observation and the
compilation of calendars, they were always appointed as the
supervisor or deputy supervisor of the Imperial Astronomical
Service, until Monteiro da Serra (Gāo Shǒuqiān⾼守谦, ?-1826) retired
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 from his post with illness and took o for his home country in the
seventeenth year of Dòoguāng道光 (1837). e research on China
through their work, although subtle and insigni cant, never really
ceased.

e work of the Oriental studies by the European scholars in

connection with the gradual development of the missionaries’
studies on China further progressed until the end of the seventeenth
century. In order to revitalize the research on Chinese culture, Louis
XIV was more active in sending outstanding missionaries to the East.
At that time, disputes around the Rites controversy increased, which
also increased the enthusiasm for them to explore things about
China. ese situations reinforced each other both externally and
internally, opening a new scene for Chinese studies. e French
Academy of Sciences (Académie des sciences) established by Colbert
in 1666 (the h year of Kāngxī康熙 of Qīng清) in order to supplement
the knowledge of geography and astronomy, sent members to
various places in Europe and the United States, whereas in China the
Jesuit missionaries took on this role. is was the initial opportunity
for the realization of the new policy for China, and talented
missionaries headed for the land in the East. On March 3, 1665 (the
fourth year of Kāngxī of Qīng), the Jesuit who was pro cient in
mathematics, Jean de Fontaney (Hóng Ruòhàn洪若翰), Louis le
Comte (Lǐ Míng李明), Claude de Visdelou (Liú Yīng刘应), Joachim
Bouvet (Bái Jìn⽩进/⽩晋), Jean-François Gerbillon (Zhāng Chéng张诚)
and other six people went on the voyage. At that time, Portugal was
very unhappy about the eastward advance of France, and did not
want a the French to enter China from Macau, so they got on a ra of
the Cantonese Chinese businessman Wáng Huáshì王华⼠ and dri ed
on the sea, and arrived in Níngbō宁波 of Zhèjiāng浙江 on July 23 in
1687 (the twenty-sixth year of Kāngxī). According to a report from
Zhejiang Governor Jīn Róng⾦容, the Qing court ordered them to go
back to their homeland on the grounds that they did not carry their
passports. However, because one of them was an expert on calendar,
the decision of the court changed, and allowed them to enter the
capital. Hóng Ruòhàn and others enter the Yànjīng燕京 on February
8th in 1688 (the 27th year of Kāngxī). On March 25th (the 21st day of
the 2nd month of the 27th year of Kāngxī), with Xú Rìshēng徐⽇升 as
their guide, they paid homage to Xuán Yè⽞烨 in Qiánqīng Palace乾清
宫. As a result, they were either ordered to stay in the capital or sent
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 to the provinces to serve the Qīng emperor, while working hard to
carry out their original mission.

Louis le Comte (Lǐ Míng李明, 1655-1728), a native of France, was

born in Bordeaux. A er arriving in Běijīng北京, he rst went to
Shǎnxī陕⻄ and then traveled to various places. During that time, he
attempted to observe the comets and other astronomical
observations that appeared in 1689 (the 28th year of Kāngxī康熙 of
Qīng清) and was very successful in this regard. In 1692 (the 31st year
of Kāngxī), he was ordered by the church to report on the state of
preaching activities in China, so he went to Rome and then returned
to his homeland. Nouveaux mémoires sur l’état présent de la Chine
(“a new account on the present state of China”) in three volumes,
published in Paris from 1696 (the 35th year of Kāngxī) to 1698 (the
37th year of Kāngxī). is book, on the one hand, described China at
the time, and on the other hand defended the Jesuit’s opinions on the
Rites controversy. A er its publication, it attracted a lot of attention.
e year a er the rst volume was published (1697, the 36th year of
Kāngxī), the second volume was published. And the third volume
was published in 1698 (the 37th year of Kāngxī), and the third
volume was published in 1698 (thirty-seventh year of Kāngxī).
However, this book was criticized as excessively praising the
Chinese, so the author wrote another book Sur les Cerémonies de la
Chine (“on the rites of China”, Liege, 1700), to try to justify and Engraving of Kangxi Emperor from

dispel the ridicule. But the debate on the Rites controversy became le Comte’s Nouveaux Memoires

more intense.

Claude de Visdelou (Liú Yīng刘应, 1656-1737), was born in

Bretagne. A er arriving in Beijing, he was sent to Shānxī⼭⻄ to do
missionary work. He stayed for two years, had di culties in
livelihood, and moved to Nánjīng南京. A er that, he went to
Guǎngdōng⼴东 and then returned to Běijīng北京, where he worked on
the education of new believers and worked harder on the study of
Chinese books, and became an expert. It turned out that on the issue
of rites, the opinions of his colleagues, namely the priests belonging
to the Society of Jesus, were quite erroneous on the basis of their
arguments. He openly and sincerely communicated this to Cardinal
de Tournon. And with this merit he was appointed as the cardinal of
Guìzhōu贵州. but Xuán Yè⽞烨’s new policy at that time prevented him
from living in China. On June 24, 1709 (the 48th year of Kāngxī), he
le China and arrived at India.
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 During de Visdelou’s stay in China, other than the issue of rites,
his research primarily focused on Chinese history, especially the
history of ethnic groups outside the border. He read Herbelot’s
Bibliothèque Orientale, which was a valuable reference, but lacked
corroboration in Chinese historical records. With this shortcoming
in mind, he translated the Chinese historical records about the Huns,
the Turks, the Khitan, the Mongls and others, exclusively based on
Mǎ Duānlín⻢端临’s Wénxiàn Tōng Kǎo: Sì Yì Kǎo⽂献通考·四裔考. He also
consolidated the research by later historians, made four volumes of
manuscript, and sent it to Europe. is was Histoire de la Tartarie
(“the history of Tatar”). Unfortunately, this manuscript was not
noticed by the world, and the appendix was republished in the
aforementioned Bibliothèque Orientale, which gradually attracted the
attention of scholars. A er the reprint of Bibliothèque Orientale, with
this work and de Visdelou’s work A New Translation of Nestorian
Stele, he fostered a deep bond with Orientalism. As for the textual
research on the translation of the Nestorian Stele, Alvarez de
Semedo and Michele Boym tried to do it, and de Visdelou improved,
and the translation became even more correct. De Visdelou
concentrated on producing works about Sinology, and his
achievements was indeed considerable. Yet because he was busying
himself with the Rites controversy, he produced only few historical
and literary works, which was a pity!

Jean-François Gerbillon (Zhāng Chéng张诚, 1654–1707) was a

native of Verdun, France. He came to China in 1687 (the twenty-
sixth year of Kāngxī康熙 of Qīng清), and went to Běijīng北京 the
following year. With his linguistic genius, he soon became familiar
with Manchurian and was favored by Xuán Yè⽞烨. He participated in
important diplomatic meetings, and attended the Nerchinsk
Conference (1689) together with Xu Risheng徐⽇升. He did much
negotiation on behalf the Qīng government for the establishment of
this treaty, and Xuán Yè trusted him even more a er this, and
repeatedly joined the entourage on the Imperial hunt in the north.
When the envoys of Russia (the Grand Duke of Moscow) came to
China in 1693 (the 32nd year of Kāngxī), he was tasked by the
Emperor to negotiate in Italian. A er Jean de Fontaney (Hóng
Ruòhàn洪若翰) le for his homeland in 1699 (the 38th year of Kāngxī),
he succeeded him as the head of the Chinese mission and traveled to
Mongolia eight times. Some of things he saw and heard during the
trip were collected into Volume 4 of Jean Baptiste du Halde’s e
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 Complete History of the Chinese Empire, and was a powerful historical
material that would bene t future generations.

Joachim Bouvet (Bái Jìn⽩进, 1656—1730) was born in le Mans,

France. When he lived in China, he was very much favored by Xuán
Yè⽞烨. He was Xuán Yè’s teacher together with Gerbillon. He taught
mathematics, and personally tutored him by his side day and night.
He knew his character very well, and became familiar with all
aspects of his life, both public and private. He had the full picture. In
the book he authored, Portarit historique de I’Empereur de la Chine
(Paris, 1697), the description did not have the slightest omission,
and was a go-to reference for the study of the biography of Xuán Yè.
Because of Bouvet, Xuán Yè deeply admired the knowledge of the
French Jesuits, and asked Bouvet to seek to attract many outstanding
scholars to come to China as soon as he returns to France. Bouvet
was ordered to return to France in 1697 (the 36th year of Kāngxī康熙
of Qīng清), and he brought 49 volumes of Chinese books that Xuán
Yè⽞烨 gi ed to Louis XIV, which were collected in the Bibliothèque
royale (Paris Royal Library, the predecessor of the National Library).
At that time, there were only four Chinese books kept in this library,
and this increased that number slightly. Joachim Bouvet received ten
outstanding missionary monks from his home country. He came to
China in the following year in 1698 (the 37th year of Kāngxī康熙 of
Qīng清), entering Yànjīng燕京 in autumn. Besides missionary work, he
was engaged in the research of Chinese culture, and was
commissioned by Xuányè⽞烨 (the Kāngxī康熙 emperor) to take part in
the geographical survey of various places within the Qīng清
dominion, and to devote to map-making. e arrival of these ten
missionaries, and the academic activities of French missionaries in
the next 20 to 30 years, were indeed the apex of Western religious
priests’ studies on China, and a crown jewel in the history of
European studies of the Far East.

On March 6th, 1698 (the 37th year of Kāngxī康熙 of Qīng清), the

merchant ship Amphitrite departed from the port of La Rochelle on
the west coast of the sea nation (?, “hǎi guó海国”), carrying ten priests
including Bouvet. ey headed east, and a er seven months, they
Joachim Bouvet
arrived at Shàngchuān Island上川岛 in October 6. is ship,
Amphitrite, was the rst French merchant ship to China. e
evangelist on this ship all played an important role in the history of
Eastern studies. e ship was commissioned for commercial
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 purposes by the order of the French East India Company and
Durden, and Bouvet was the one who pushed for its realization.
Among the ten, the ones worthy of special mention were Joseph
Henri de Prémare, Dominique Parrenin, and Jean-Baptiste Régis.

Joseph Henri de Prémare (Mǎ Ruòsè⻢若瑟, 1666–1736) was born

in Le Havre and died in Macau. A er coming to China, he engaged in
missionary education in Yuánzhōu Prefecture袁州府, Jiāngxī Province.
De Prémare, together with Bouvet and Jean-François Foucquet (Fù
Shèngzé傅圣泽), reviewed the classics such as Yì易, Chānqiū春秋, Lǎozǐ
⽼⼦, and Huáinánzǐ淮南⼦, in order to nd similarities with Christian

teachings. (Foucquet was from France and came to China in 1690, or

the 29th year of Kāngxī康熙 of Qīng清.) In addition, the three made
writings about the ancient history, authoring Recherches sur les temps
antérieur à ceux dont parle le Chou-king et sur la mythologie chinoise
(“research on times prior to those which the Shūjīng书经 speaks
about, and on Chinese mythology”), which was not published at that
time, but was rst published in 1770 (the 35th years of Qiánglóng乾隆
of Qīng清) as the front piece (?, “juàn tóu卷头”) of Shūjīng书经 by
Antoine Gaubil. On the other hand, the masterpiece of de Prémare’s
generation, was Notitia Linguae Sinicae (“notes on the Chinese
language”), which was the rst book that correctly communicated
the nature and structure of the Chinese language to Europe. It was
originally published in 1831 (the 11th year of Dāoguāng道光 of Qīng
清) by the London Missionary Society’s Anglo-Chinese College in

Malacca and had an English translation. De Prémare translated the

yuánqǔ元曲 (classical poems from the Yuan dynasty) e Orphans of
the Zhao Family (Zhào Shì Gū’ér赵⽒孤⼉), one from a common
collection of 100 such poems. e translation was appended to Jean
Baptiste du Halde’s Geographical, Historical, Chronological, Political,
and Physical Description of the Empire of China and Chinese Tartary,
which had a considerable in uence on French literature.

Dominique Parrenin (Bā Duōmíng巴多明, 1665–1741) was born in

Leutre near Besançon. A er traveling to China, he died in Beijing
between September 2 to 9 in 1741 (the sixth year of Qianlong). He
was very much favored by Xuányè⽞烨 (the Kangxi emperor), and was
a political and diplomatic consultant. He was ordered to study the
Chinese and Manchu languages. Although he did not do any special
academic research, he contributed much to the negotiations with
Dominique Parrenin
Russia. He also had many other achievements such as speaking to the
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 Qing emperor and encouraging the survey and mapping of the Qing
territory.

Jean-Baptiste Régis (Léi Xiàosī雷孝思, 1603–1738) was born at

Istres in Provence. He translated the Book of Changes (Y-King,
Antiquissimus Sinarum Liber). He worked very hard, and the book
was its rst full translation into a Western language. He had even
more special contributions in the supervision of the mapping of the
entire territory of China. e survey began in 1708 (the 47th year of
Kāngxī康熙 of Qīng) which was promoted by Parrenin and was under
the charge of priests like Régis. He started from various places in
Manchuria and gradually included the various provinces. By
observing the celestial bodies, he determined the latitude and
longitude. Using triangulation, he measured the dimensions of the
land. Tibet and Joseon were also added. Under the supervision of
Pierre Jartoux, he made a comprehensive and uni ed map which was
completed in 1717 (the 55th year of Kāngxī). He presented it to the
imperial court. It was called Huáng Yù Zǒnglǎn Tú皇舆全览图 (“the
general map of the imperial dominion”). No one knows if the
original work still exists. ere was a master copy from the year of
Bǐngzǐ丙⼦ (1756, or the 21st year of Qiánlóng乾隆). Out of this master,
41 copies were made and and kept in the Mukden Palace of
Shěnyáng. Photocopies of these were titled Mǎn-Měng Hé Bì Qīng
Nèi Fǔ Yī Tǒng Yú Dì Mì Tú满蒙合璧清内府⼀统舆地秘图 (“the secret map of
the uni ed dominion of the Manchus and the Mongols”). Later,
there was the Gēngchén庚⾠ master copy (Gēngchén year was 1760, Detail, Huáng Yù Zǒnglǎn Tú
or the 25th year of Qiánlóng). 400 copies were produced from it,
which were kept in the Forbidden City in Běipíng北平. Photocopies of
them was titled Qiánlóng Shísān Pái Tóng Bǎn Zhōngguó Tú乾隆⼗三排铜
版中国图. e master copy was sent to France by the priests and is now
stored in the Old Text Library at the Ministry of Foreign A airs in
Paris. From this master copy we can see what the rst dra looked
like.

In addition to Jean-Baptiste Régis, there were Joachim Bouvet,

Pierre Jartoux (Dù Déměi杜德美, 1669–1720, French), Fridelli (Fèi Yǐn
费隐, ?–1740, German), Cardoso (Mài Dàchéng⻨⼤成, Portuguese),

Guillaume Bonjour (Pān Rú潘如, 1670–1714, French), Pierre Vincent

de Tartre (Tāng Shàngxián汤尚贤, 1669-1724, French), Joseph-Anne-
Marie de Moyriac de Mailla (Féng Bǐngzhèng冯秉正, 1669–1748,
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 French), Roman Hinderer (Dé Mǎnuò德玛诺, 1669-1744, French),
each with his own contributions.

Up to the Qiánlóng乾隆 era, the Europeans’ studies on China still

centered on the French priests, whose achievements were no less
than the ones before them. Antoine Gaubil (Sòng Jūnróng宋君荣),
Jean Joseph Marie Amiot (Qián Démíng钱德明), Pierre-Martial Cibot
(Hán Guóyīng韩国英), were the prominent among them. e grand
works of Joseph-Anne-Marie de Moyriac de Mailla also date from
this period. Mailla was born at Château Maillac on the Isère. He
came to China in 1703 (the 42nd year of Kāngxī康熙 of Qīng), knew
the Chinese and Manchu languages, and studied Chinese history.
e book Tōng jiàn Gāngmù通鉴纲⽬ by Zhū Xī朱熹 was translated into
Manchu during Kāngxī’s reign, and Mailla translated it into French
from the Manchu translation and the Chinese original. He also
translated the Jì Tōng Jiàn Gāng Mù继通鉴纲⽬ by Shāng Lù商辂 et al
from the Míng dynasty, which supplemented Tōng jiàn Gāngmù with
historical facts from the Sòng, Yuán and Míng dynasties. Mailla also
added the events from late Míng to early Qīng based on various
Chinese and Western books and on the things he saw and heard. e
book was completed and sent to his home country. From 1777 (the
42nd year of Qiánlóng) to 1783 (the 48th years of Qiánlóng), it was
published in Paris successively as Histoire générale de la Chine, ou
Annales de cet empire, traduites du Tong-Kien-Kang-Mou in twelve
volumes. is book made it easier for Europeans to know the outline
of Chinese history. e Frenchman Cordier’s famous book Histoire
générale de la Chine still drew much of its information from this book
on the period prior to Qīng.
Antoine Gaubil (Song Junrong宋君荣 1689-1759) was the most
profound in Chinese in this period. Gaubil, born in Languedoc,
South France, came to China in 1722 (the 61st year of Kāngxī康熙 of
Qīng) and stayed in Beijing for 36 years. Continuing the work of
Parrenin, he taught Latin to Manchurian youth for diplomacy with
Russia. His masterpiece was Twelve years a er his death, in 1770
(35th year of Qiánlóng乾隆 of Qīng), His masterpiece is the French
translation of the Book of Documents (Chou King) published in Paris
in 1770 (the 35th year of Qiánlóng), 12 years a er his death. In
particular, the chapter “Tribute of [Great] Yǔ禹贡 Yǔ Gòng” was o en
quoted by Western European scholars. Books published during his
lifetime included Histoire de Gentchiscan et de toute la dynastie des
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 Mongous, ses successeurs, conquérans de la Chine (Paris, 1739). His
Abrégé de l’histoire chinoise de la grande dynastie des Tang (Paris,
1791-1814) and its appendix Traité de la chronologie chinoise (Paris,
1814) were both published a er his death. Histoire was originally
recorded by Shào Yuǎnpíng邵远平 of Míng in Yuán Shǐ Lèi Biān元史类编.
Abrégé was published in the eenth and sixteenth volumes of
Mémoires concernant les Chinois. e manuscripts of the nal issue
include “A Research on the Relations of Mongolian History,” “A
Research on the eory of History and Geography,” and “Letters.”

A er Antoine Gaubil, there were the German Florian Bahr (Wèi

Jìjìn魏继晋), and French Jesuits like Pierre Foureau (Wú Duōlù吴多禄),
Alexandre de la Charme (Sūn Zhàng孙璋), Pierre d’Incarville (Tāng
Zhízhōng汤执中), Jean Mathieu de Ventavon (Wāng Dáhóng汪达洪), all
living in Beijing and doing research. In addition, there was Jean
Joseph Amiot, who was all in one. Jean Joseph Amiot (Qián Démíng
钱德明 1718-1793), also called Wáng Ruòsè王若瑟, was born in Toulon.

He entered Běijīng in 1751 (the 16th year of Qiánlóng乾隆 of Qīng),

and died 42 years later. He was pro cient in Chinese and Manchu,
and studied the historical facts of Chinese cultural relics. His works
were comparable to Gaubil in detail, but surpassed him in erudition.
His main works included (1) Éloge de la ville de Moukden (Paris
1770); (2) Art militaire des Chinois (Paris 1772); (3) Mémoire sur la
musique des Chinois, tant anciens que modernes (Paris 1780); (4) La
vie de Koung-tsee (Paris 1786); (5) Dictionnaire tartare-mantchou
ançais. (Paris, 1789–90, 3 vols); (6) Grammaire tartare-mantchou
(Paris, 1787) and others. La vie de Koung-tsee contained the Jean Joseph Amiot
genealogy of Confucius. Dictionnaire tartare-mantchou ançais
mixed in Manchurian movable type, which made printing very
di cult. A grant from the Ministry of Education of France made its
completion possible. Besides these, other short papers were mostly
included in Chinese Miscellaneous Compilation.

Among the European travels to the East up to the eighteenth

century, the rst one that was completely devoted to academic
publishing, was Travel to India by Anquetil-Duperron (1731-1805).
He studied Oriental languages in Paris. In order to study
Zoroastrianism, he went to India in 1754 (the 19th year of Qiánlóng乾
隆 of Qīng清), and returned in 1762 (the 27th year of Qiánlóng), and

published the full translation of the book Avesta (Zend-Avesta,

Ourrege de Zoroastra) in 1771 (the 36th year of Qiánlóng). is
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 accomplishment was not prominent at the time, and there were even
those who say that the original text he translated was falsi ed. Today,
he is revered as a pioneer in this eld. He also wrote Recherches
histoiques et géographique sur l’Inde (“the geographical study of the
history of India,” 1787), L’Inde et rapport avec l’Europe (“the relations
between India and Europe,” 1790).

As for Siberia, a er the Cossacks moved east, Russia held the rst
expedition in 1725 (the third year of Yōngzhèng雍正 of Qīng清). is
was the so-called “ rst Kamchatka expedition,” conducted according
to the will of Peter the Great. e main purpose was to investigate
whether there is a strait between Asia and America. Vitus Bering, a
Swedish o cial in Russia, was appointed as the expedition leader.
ey departed from the Okhotsk Sea in 1728 (the sixth year of Anquetil-Duperron
Yōngzhèng), and returned in 1730 (the eighth year of Yōngzhèng).
Although they did not reach the coast of America at this time, but
found out that there indeed was a strait between the two continents.
Soon therea er, according to the plan of Kirillov, the secretary of the
Senate, a large expedition was sent to various parts of Siberia, which
was the second Kamchatka expedition. Bering also took part,
exploring what is known today as the Bering Strait and investigated
the Kamchatka Peninsula. He died on Bering Island in 1741 (the
sixth year of Qiánlóng of Qīng).

e study of China by the European priests who lived in China in

this period reached its epitome with the survey and mapping led by
the French. At this time, there were also considerable achievements
among the missionaries of his country, and the most prominent was
the French Jesuit Jean-Baptiste Du Halde (Dù Hèdé杜赫德,
1674-1743). A native of France born in Paris, he joined the Society of
Jesus at the age of 18 in 1692 (the 31st year of Kangxi康熙 of Qīng清),
specializing in compilation of documents. A er the death of the
fellow Jesuit Charles Le Gobien (1653–1708), he oversaw the
publication of the Lettres édi antes (“upli ing letters”) of the Jesuit
missionaries abroad. e ninth to the twenty-sixth volumes were
actually edited and published by du Halde personally. His ambition
to compile the Description of China was probably inspired by the
many preaching teachers’ reports he read when he edited Lettres
édi antes. Du Halde gathered the letters, reports, researches, etc. of
the cloth teachers around him, and cleverly arranged them, carrying
out the grand work of the compilation of Description of China, that is,
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 the Description géographique, historique, chronologique, politique et
physique de l’Empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie chinoise
(“Geographical, historical, chronological, political and physical
description of the Empire of China and Chinese Tartary”). e book
had four volumes, and the rst volume recorded the writers who
were employed in the compilation of this book, 27 people in all. It
was a grand compilation of all the achievements the Europeans had
on the study of China over a period of some a hundred and y
years, from the end of Míng to that time, an unprecedented wonder
in Western Sinology, a monument that could be praised in the whole
world.

Description of China inserted the actual survey map of China by

the Western priests during the Kāngxī康熙 period. e map was
produced by the royal expert Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville, a
well-known cartographer at the time, and edited, traced and
engraved by his protégés. In the year of 1737 (the second year of
Qiánlóng乾隆 of Qīng清), a standalone edition was published in e
Hague in the Netherlands, called Nouvel atlas de la Chine, de la
Tartarie chinoise, et du ibet ( “New Atlas of China, Chinese Tartary,
and Tibet”). In the past, the maps of China in circulation were
mostly based on the Huángcháo Zhōngwài Yìtǒng Yú Tú皇朝中外⼀统舆
图, also known as Dà Qīng Yìtǒng Yútú⼤清⼀统舆图. (“a uni ed map of

imperial China and abroad”, “a map of the uni ed great Qīng”) by Gu

Linyi故林翼 engraved in Wǔchāng武昌 in 1863 (the second year of
Tóngzhì同治 of Qīng清). is “Wǔchāng map” was no more than a
copy and translation of d’Anville’s map.
Mémoires concernant des Chinois was is a collection of the results
of various priests in Beijing studying Chinese historical facts, Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville
academics, desires, art, and customs. e full title was Mémoires
concernant I’histoire, les sciences, les arts, les moeurs, les usages, etc. des
Chinois: par les missionaires de Pékin. It was a large collection of 16
volumes, collecting various researches. e rst volume was
published in 1776 (the 41st year of Qiánlóng乾隆 of Qīng清), and the
sixteenth volume was published in 1814 (the 19th year of Jiāqìng嘉庆
of Qīng). It took forty years and was a commemorative series of 18th
century Chinese studies. ose in charge of editing and publishing
this work were mainly the Jesuit monk Gabriel Bretier and the
historian L.-G.-Oudard-Feudrix de Bréquigny. At the end, Sylvestre
de Sacy, a contemporary Oriental scholar, was put in charge. is
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 book contained portraits of Hónglì弘历 painted and calligraphed by
the Italian Giuseppe Panzi (Pān Tíngzhāng潘廷章). Panzi and his
fellow countryman Giuseppe Castiglione (Láng Shìníng郎世宁), the
French European Jean Denis Attiret (Wáng Zhìchéng王致诚), Ignatius
Sickelbarth (Aì Qǐméng艾启蒙or Aì Nàjué艾纳爵), Michel Benoit ( Jiǎng
Yǒurén将友仁), and others, who were all important gures who
introduced Western European art to China.

e above-mentioned Description of China and Mémoires

concernant des Chinois were the two pillars of Sinology in the 18th
century. If there was one more book, making it a tripod, perhaps it
would be the Lettres édi antes? e Lettres édi antes was a source for
Chinese studies by Europeans at that time. It collected reports on the
correspondance from the priests living in China and East India,
compiled by category. e publication started in 1702 (the 41th year
of Kāngxī康熙 of Qīng清), and a total of 34 volumes had been
published by 1776 (the 41st year of Qiánlóng乾隆 of Qīng). e one
who took charge whas the Jesuits le Gobien, du Halde, and others.

Research on China in Europe was progressing day by day. ere

was Etienne Fourmont (1683-1745) who studied at Collège Mazarin
as a child, and later worked as a private tutor. ere was Mr. Huáng⻩
from Xīnghuà兴化 of Fújiàn福建, who was studying at the Paris
eological School under Missions etrangères. Pope Louis XIV
ordered Fourmont to learn Chinese from him and write a beginner’s
Chinese-langauge textbook. Later, he became a professor of Arabic
at the French Academy, and still continued to study Chinese. A er
Huáng⻩ died, he kept his posthumous manuscripts. e Grammatica
Sinica was published in 1742 (the seventh year of Qiánlóng乾隆 of
Qīng清), which was a tome of over 500 pages. is book was only a
Latin translation based on the Mandarin Chinese Grammar by the
Spanish priest Francisco Varo. He also plagiarized Joseph de
Prémare’s Notes on Chinese Language, and was criticized for it. His
academic quality and personal character were not the greatest, but
the early French scholars like Joseph de Guignes all came from his
tutelage. In the end, his hard-earned minor contributions to Chinese
studies must be recognized. Michel-Ange-André Le Roux
Deshauterayes succeeded him as the translator of the Royal Library,
being in charge of Chinese and Manchurian, edited and published
Moyriac de Mailla’s Histoire générale, which was praised by the
world.
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 e outstanding disciple of Fourmont was Joseph de Guignes
(Déjīng德经, 1721-1800), who continued Fourmont’s work in 1736
(the rst year of Qiánlóng乾隆 of Qīng清). In 1742 (the seventh year of
Qiánlóng) Fourmont’s Grammatica Sinica was written, and brought
Guignes to pay homage to the Pope, and received funds. A er the
death of his teacher, he and his fellow student Dài Zǎolái戴早莱 served
as translators in the royal library. Mémoire historique sur l’origine des
Huns et des Turcs was published in Paris in 1748 (the thirteenth year
of Qiánlóng). In 1756 (the 21st year of Qiánlóng), he published the
masterpiece Histoire générale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongols et des
autres Tartares occidentaux, avant et depuis J. C. jusqu’à présent. A er
another two years, the entire book was completed. Comparing
Chinese historical records with Occidental accounts, these were
masterpieces of French Sinology in the 18th century. Since the
French Revolution in 1789 (the 54th year of Qiánlóng), the whole
country was disturbed, and he served in a museum, but still managed
to not give up his work. He tried to translate the Spring and Autumn
Annals春秋 but failed to nish the book. He published Mémoire dans
lequel on prouve que les Chinois sont une colonie égyptienne, proposing
that the Chinese were immigrants from Egypt, which, although
refuted by priests such as Jean Joseph Marie Amiot, was believed by
many it at the time. His son Christian Louis Joeph de Guignes
(1759-1845) continued his father’s research. He once served as a
consul of Guǎngdōng, and was rst ordered by Napoleon to write the
Chinese-French-Latin Dictionary. Published in 1813 (the eighteenth
year of Jiāqìng嘉庆), it was magni cent, a symbol and testimony to the
emperor’s achievements, only that is was actually based on the text
of Dictonarium Sinico-Latinum by the Italian Basilio de Gemona,
with the French translation attached.

e Ecole spéciale des langues orientales vivantes o cially

opened on June 2nd, 1796 (the rst year of Jiāqìng嘉庆 of Qīng清). e
founder of the school was Louis Mathieu Langlès (1763-1724). As a
professor, he taught Persian, Manchu, and Malay languages. A er
the Revolution, the nation’s strength withered. With di culty, he
built and cut out many talents, and established the foundation for the
development of Oriental research in France. His graduates were
hired by the Russian Emperor Alexander I to enter Russia and open a
branch of French Oriental Studies. Langlès wrote Alphabet tartare-
maudchou (1787), which was made with reference to Jean Joseph
Amiot’s manuscript. is was the begining of printing the Manchu
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 language with movable type. ere was also Notice des livres tartars-
mantchoux de la Bibliothèque royale, and Rituel des Tartars-
mantohoux, rédigé par l’Order de l’Empereur Kien -Long (Paris 1804)
and other books collected by the Royal Library. His level of
attainments in Manchu was actually quite super cial, and his works
were ridiculed by later generations. Only that the schools that were
founded were developing day by day. In 1844 (the 24th year of
Dàoguāng道光 of Qīng), a formal course on Chinese language was set
up. In 1884 (the seventh year of Guāngxù光绪 of Qīng), a course on
the history and geography of the Far East was set up. is was the
place where French researchers on Far East diplomacy was born.
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