© 1992 MUNKSGAARD

Diseases of the Callitrichidae: A review

Potkay S. Diseases of the Callitrichidae: A review. J Med Primatol Stephen Potka,
1992:21: 189-236. USPHS, NIH, Natior '1'", t, Research
Resources, Veterinar' 'i~,;,' ' 'Ct:.,"~ram,
The Callitrichidae contains four genera that embrace up to 50 species and Bethesda, MD, U.S"'\.
subspecies found in neotropical habitats. Certain members have either
naturally occurring or induced conditions that serve as important models
of human disease. They include viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections, Key words: tamarins - marmosets - calli-
nutritional deficiencies, neoplasia, and various other conditions. The trichids - Saguinus - Callithrix - Cebuella -
spontaneous diseases of captive caIIitrichids and those to which these spe- Leontopithecus
cies are experimentally susceptible were reviewed. Stephen Potkay, Office for Protection from
Research Risks, Building 31, Room 5B59,
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
20892, U.S.A.
Accepted for publication April 1, 1992.

Introduction
Callitrichids have long been kept in zoological ex-
hibits and as pets both in their countries of origin
and abroad. There are a number of reports concern-
ing the difficulty of maintaining and breeding them
in captivity that date back 50 or more years
[159,194-199,308], and their use in research, par-
ticularly parasitology, is longstanding. It was not
until the 1960s, however, that the potential of calli-
trichids for helping to understand infectious dis-
eases and for cancer research began to be recog-
nized [294). Subsequently, numerous research and
breeding colonies were established for studying
both specific human diseases and other biological
phenomena. This review is concerned primarily
with the spontaneous infections and noninfectious
diseases identified in callitrichids and secondarily
with experimentally-induced diseases. The review
does not cover a number of publications dealing
with other aspects of the captive callitrichid. Topics
of this other literature include husbandry [7,33,
52,159,205,206,215,228,267,294,316,324,420,
443,450,453,523] reproduction [33,39,52,56,57,
70,135,159,182,206,207,209,210,214,228,273,
277,280,294,295,307,310,329,365,366,377,387,
4t8,430,466,469,472,487,497,510,522] body
weights and measurements [189,223,228,303,491,
519], gnotobiology [129,237), hematology [9,58,
133,211,212,228,315,323,328,340,492,519), blood
chemistry [43,74,89,95,96,133,148,239,298,492],
blood vitamin values [327,435], bi00d groups
[508], genetics [22,31,181,295], behavior [37,38,
97,130,131,132,236,257,266,326,339,363,386,
453], and conservation and ecology [63,80,81,98,
105,171,179,281,337,343,361,391,399,442,446,
455:477,493]. .,
Source material for this review came from zoo-
logical, wildlife, research, and veterinary medical
publications. Although many of the studies were
well conducted, some were incomplete and others
seemed to be casual observations. The large gaps
in our understanding of the cause, prevention, and
cure of the diseases of the callitrichids should stim-
ulate further study.
Callitrichid taxonomy
Callitrichids are small, arboreal neotropical mon-
keys (suborder Platyrrhini, family Callitrichidae)
commonly known as pygmy marmosets (genus
Cebuella), true marmosets, or ouistis (genus Cal-
Iithrix) , tamarins (genus Saguinus), and lion tama-
rins (genus Leontopithecus). The genera are differ-
entiated principally on the basis of size, dentition,
and genital morphology. Within genera, more sub-
tle differences in the above characteristics, as well
as differences in color, distribution and length of
hair, behavior, and geographic and ecologic distri-
bution serve to define species and subspecies. De-
tailed descriptions of the various callitrichids have
been published by Hershkovitz, and the listing of
species covered in this review (Table I) is arranged
according to his classification (222). Table 1 also
indicates earlier scientific names found in the litera-
ture cited in this review, as well as some of the
common names of these species [72].
Transition from the wild to captivity
Many of the disease states to be described were
associated with newly imported animals, and virtu-
ally all of them occurred under conditions of con-
finement. The process of bringing a callitrichid

189
Table I. Taxonomic classification of the family Callitrichidae
Classification Selected synonyms Common name
Pygmy Marmosets (Cebuella) Callithrix pygmaea, Hapale pygmaea,
C. pygmaea Jacchus pygmaeus Pygmy marmoset
True marmosets (Callithrix)
A. Tufted-ear marmosets
C. jacchus penicillata C. penicillatus, Hapale penicillata Black-tufted-ear marmoset
C. jacchus geoffroyi C. geoffroyi, C. leucocephala Geoffroy's tufted-ear marmoset
C. jacchus jacchus C. jacchus, C. albicollis, Hapale jacchus Common marmoset
C. jacchus aurita C. aurita Buff-tufted-ear marmoset,
White-eared marmoset
B. Bare-ear marmosets
C. argentata melanura Hapale melanura Black-tail marmoset
C. argentata argentata C. argentata, Mico argentata, Mico mela- Silvery marmoset
nurus
C. Tassel-ear marmosets
C. humeralifer humeralifer C. santaremensis, Hapale santaremensis, Black and white tassel-ear marmoset, San-
H. humeralifer tarem tamarin, Silky tamarin
C. humeralifer chrysoleuca C. chrysoleuca Golden-white tassel-ear marmoset
Tamarins (Saguinus)
A. Hairy-face tamarins
1. White-mouth (S. nigricollis) group
a. Black-mantel (S. nigricollis) tam- Leontocebus nigricollis, Tamarinus nigri- White-lipped tamarin,
arins collis Black and red tamarin
b. Saddle-back (S. fuscicollis) tam-
arins
S. fuscicollis fuscicollis Spix's saddle-back tamarin
S. fuscicollis inustus
S. fuscicollis illigeri Illiger's saddle-back tamarin
S. fuscicollis lagonotus Red-mantel saddle-back tamarin
S. fuscicollis leucogenys Andean saddle-back tamarin
S. fuscicollis nigrifrons Geoffroy's saddle-back tamarin
S. fuscicollis weddelli Weddel's saddle-back tamarin
2. Moustached tamarin group
a. Red-chested moustached tamarin
S. labiatus Leontocebus labiatus Geoffroy's moustached tamarin,
Rufiventer marmoset, Red-bellied tamarin
b. Black-chested moustached
tamarin
S. mystax mystax Leontocebus mystax, Tamarin mystax, Spix's moustached tamarin,
Mystax mystax Moustached tamarin
c. Emperor moustached tamarin
S. imperator Emperor moustached tamarin,
Emperor tamarin
3. Midas tamarin group
a. S. midas midas Tamarinus midas Golden-handed tamarin
b. S. midas niger Mystax ursulus, Saguinus tamarin, Black-handed tamarin
Tamarin tamarin, Cercopithecus tamarin,
Leontocebus ursulus, Tamarin midas
B. Bare-face Tamarins
1. Brazilian bare-face (S. bicolor)
group
S. bicolor bicolor Marikina bicolor, Seniocebus bicolor Pied bare-faced tamarin
2. Colombian and Panamanian bare
face (S. oedipus) group
a. Silvery-brown bare-face tamarin
S.leucopus
b. Crested bare-face tamarins
S. oedipus geoffroyi Leontocebus geoffroyi, Oedipus spixi, Red-crested bare-face tamarin, rufous-
Saguinus spixi, Marikina geoffroyi naped tamarin
S. oedipus oedipus Oedipominas oedipus, Leontocebus oedipus Cotton-top tamarin
Lion tamarins (Leontopithecus)
L. rosalia chrysomelas Leontocebus chrysomelas Golden and black lion-tamarin
L. rosalia rosalia Leontocebus rosalia, Midas rosalia, Golden lion-tamarin, Golden marmoset
Leontideus rosalia
L. rosalia chrysopygus Mystax chrysopygus, Leonideus Golden-rump lion-tamarin
chrysopygus
Other species cited, but not identified
Callithrix nigrifrons and
Callithrix personata
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - --------

190

from the forest to the laboratory entails capture by
any of several methods [445,480] followed by load-
ing, off-loading, and transportation procedures in-
volving boats, motor veh'icles, and aircraft. During
these transportation procedures, the callitrichid may
be relocated several times. The changes in location
may be swift (a few weeks) or prolonged (several
months), and are usually associated with exposure
to other animals and a variety of people, changes
in diet, changes in ambient temperature, elimina-
tion of social groups, changes in circadian rhythms,
exposure to new and different sounds and odors,
confinement, and individual isolation. Such condi-
tions are sometimes conducive to stress, which, for
the purposes of this paper, we understand to mean
the physiological, immunological, hormonal, and
metabolic response to physically or psychologically
disturbing situations [62,432]. Under extended or
repeated stress, depressed inflammatory and im-
mune responses may render an animal more suscep-
tible to the effects of infection and parasitic agents
that may be present in its body or to which it may
become exposed. It would seem that reports of mor-
tality and morbidity among imported callitrichids
must be interpreted with those events in mind, and
that particular attention should be directed toward
reducing stress related to capture, transportation
and maintenance in captivity.
Viral diseases
The susceptibility of callitrichids to a host of viral
agents has been demonstrated by the results of sero-
logic surveys and virus isolations from both captive
and wild populations as well as by experimental
studies. Among captive animals, the most impor-
tant naturally occurring infections are caused by
herpes, pox, influenza, and parainfluenza viruses.
The viral infections described below are catego-
rized according to the taxonomic scheme estab-
lished by the International Committee on Taxon-
omy of Viruses [322].
DNA viruses
Adenoviridae
Antibodies to adenovirus group antigen, adeno-
virus-12 tumor antigen or SA 7 were not detected
in surveys of captive Cebuella pygmaea, Saguinus
sp, and Leontopithecus rosalia [108,259,260].
Although adenovirus type 12 administered to Sagu-
in us sp did not result in infection [398], adenovi-
ruses SqM-I and SqM-2 were infective for marmo-
sets [219].
Herpesviridae
Callitrichids are the reservoir host for at least one
herpesvirus, and are susceptible to natural or exper-
Callitrichid diseases
imental infection by herpesviruses of other New
World monkeys, Old World monkeys and people
[21,249,331,334] .
Alphaherpesvirinae (Herpes simplex virus group)
Human herpesvirus (Herpes simplex or H. hominis) types 1
and 2. While natural infection with herpesvirus type
2 has not been reported in callitrichids [260], type
I was isolated from the lung of a Saguinus sp [354].
A live vaccine made from small plaque viruses iso-
lated from tissue cultures of the wild type 1 was
nonpathogenic and protected marmosets against
otherwise fatal infections [93].
Cercopithecid herpesvirus 1 (Herpesvirus simiae or Herpes-B
virus). This naturally occurring, largely latent infec-
tion of Old World monkeys, which is usually fatal
for human beings, has not been reported in New
World monkeys. The significance of serum neu-
tralizing antibody in one of 42 marmosets surveyed
was not clear [259).
Herpesvirus tamarinus (Herpesvirus-T or H. platyrrhinae).
The reservoir host for this virus is Saimiri sciureus,
which may develop ulcers of the lips and oral mu-
cosa. Lagothrix sp, Cebus sp, Callithrix sp, and
Ateles sp were found to carry antibody, but no clini-
cal manifestations have been recorded [259]. This
agent, however, produces serious disease in calli-
trichids [108,238,336,352). Among captive Sagui-
nus oedipus, S. mystax, and S. nigricollis, for ex-
ample, infection was associated with a very high
mortality rate. The incubation period was seven to
ten days, and clinical signs consisted of vesicula-
tion and often severe ulceration of the lips and oral
mucosa, occasional ulcerative dermatitis, sneez-
ing, serous nasal discharge, anorexia, depression,
and pruritus. Death ensued in two to three days.
Gross necropsy findings were extensive and in-
cluded splenomegaly, ulceration, and hemorrhage
throughout the alimentary system, and hemorrhage
and focal necrosis of lymph nodes, adrenal cortices,
liver, and lungs. Microscopically, these lesions
were typified by focal necrosis and the presence of
intranuclear inclusion bodies; multi-nucleated giant
cells with intranuclear inclusions were also present
in mucocutaneous lesions. While encephalitis was
sometimes present, it was usually not extensive.
Although the causative agent of hepatitis oc-
curring in six S. fuscicollis Uagonotus?) that died
suddenly was not identified, the observation of
many gray-opaque, circumscribed hepatic foci char-
acterized microscopically by cytomegaly, necrosis,
and large intranuclear inclusions was consistent
with herpesvirus, possibly H. tamarinus, infection
[424].
H. tamarinus has also been isolated from 5% of
191
Potkay
216 imported S. nigricollis and S. mysta:x:. none of
which died unless concurrently infected with Sen-
dai virus [354]. Mortality among the doubly in-
fected animals was 100%. Antibody was present in
apparently healthy S. fuscicollis and S. nigricollis
(25 of 144) and S. mysta:x: (2 of 14), but in none of
24 S. oedipus [108].
Prevention of infection consists of maintaining a
policy of strict separation of species from the time
of capture through their maintenance in quarantine,
conditioning, breeding, and research· colonies. It is
especially important to segregate callitrichids from
Saimiri. Ateles. Cebus. and Lagothrix, which are
demonstrated or potential reservoirs for this virus.
In addition, a vaccine has been developed and used
to protect Saguinus and Aotus, which are equally
susceptible to infection [93].
Herpesvirus saguinus. This virus, isolated from an S.
oedipus kideny cell culture, has not been reported
to cause disease in any species [332].
Gammaherpesvirinae (Lymphoproliferative group)
Herpesvirus saimiri. H. saimiri (HVS-ll) exists as a
latent infection in Saimiri sciureus. but, with one
exception [475], has not been associated with natu-
rally occurring disease in this or other species
[247]. H. saimiri is the first nonhuman primate vi-
rus shown to be oncogenic in primates. Experi-
mentally, inoculation of cell-free virus or viable
tumor cells induced malignant lymphoma in C.
jacchus. S. oedipus, S. mysta:x:. and S. fuscicollis
[248,333,335,398,514]: Neutralizing antibodies
were detected two weeks after infection. Typically
there was proliferation of reticulum cells in the kid-
neys, liver, spleen, lymph nodes, thymus, lungs,
and adrenal glands that invaded or replaced the nor-
mal tissue. Inclusions and virus particles were not
demonstrated in affected animals. Signs of upper
respiratory disease and marked lymphocytosis were
sometimes observed, and affected animals gener-
ally died within three to six weeks of infection.
Vaccines consisting of attenuated and killed H.
saimiri have been developed and tested in callitrich-
ids [2,290,514]. The attenutated virus, adminis-
tered to C. jacchus. produced a clinically inappar-
ent, persistent infection characterized by mild
hyperplasia of lymph node follicles [516]. Immune
animals were resistent to subsequent challenge with
an oncogenic strain. S. oedipus. similarly treated,
was not protected by this vaccine. A heat and for-
malin killed vaccine protected S. oedipus against
the oncogenic effect of untreated virus and pro-
duced high serum antibody levels [289], but did not
protect against tumor development after tumor cell
transplantation [291].
192
Herpesvirus ateles. The strains of H. ateles (HVA-73,
HVA-93, and HVA-94) obtained from Ateles pa-
niscus induced lymphomas following inoculation
into S. oedipus, S. fuscicollis, and S. nigricollis
[250,334]. Animals became moribund or died
within 14-32 days. The lymphomas were charac-
terized as being poorly differentiated, and no sig-
nificant hematologic changes were observed [143].
Varicella zoster. Inoculation of C. pygmaea with wild
and attenuated forms of the OKA strain was associ-
ated with a low antibody response: Clinical signs
were not observed, and virus could not be isolated
[ 13]. Subsequent challenge with the wild strain re-
sulted in production of antibody at a higher level
in marmosets previously inoculated with the wild
as compared with the attenuated forms. Inoculation
of C. jacchus with strains KMcC and OKA/Merck
by the oral, nasal, and conjunctival routes evoked
peak antibody responses within 6-11 weeks that
persisted for over a year. The delayed appearance
of antibody was consistent with the time needed for
viral replication, which occurred primarily in the
lungs [394].
Human herpesvirus 4 (Epstein-Barr). Epstein-Barr virus
(EBV) is the causative agent of infectious mononu-
cleosis and may be associated with the development
of Burkitt's lymphoma and nasopharyngeal carci-
noma in man. In S. oedipus. S. fuscicollis. and
C. jacchus. inoculation of EB V strains B95-8
and Kaplan usually induced malignant lymphoma
and death within one to two months [148,256,
360,436,461,462,514]. Affected animals had
lymphadenopathy and enlarged spleens and thy-
muses; microscopically, lymphoreticular cells were
seen to replace normal tissues in these organs. In-
clusions have not been observed, and virus particles
have not been recovered from tissues, but antibody
to several EB viral components was detected. In
one of six S. fuscicollis, EB V strain B96-8 induced
malignant lymphoma: Viral antigen and early anti-
gen (EA) appeared two weeks after inoculation and
persisted [465]. In another study, the M81 strain
of EBV induced lymphocytosis and a heterophile
antibody response in five C. jacchus, which devel-
oped no signs of disease [500]. Viral capsid anti-
gens were evident 15 weeks after infection and per-
sisted, and two marmosets produced antibody to
the R component of EA infection beginning six
weeks after exposure. The similarity of these find-
ings to EBV infection in people suggests that C.
jacchus may be useful in studying cofactors in
EB V-associated malignancies. In S. oedipus. com-
plete protection against lymphogenic doses of EBV
was afforded by immunization with small quantities
of the EBV major envelope glycoprotein (gp 340)
incorporated into immune-stimulating complexes

and administered subcutaneously [349]. Similar
protection was obtained using a vaccinia virus (WR
laboratory strain) recombinant expressing the gp
340 gene administered by dermal scarification or
intradermal injection [350]. The mechanism of pro-
tection may have been cell-mediated, since no cir-
culating antibody against gp 340 was detected. No
protection was achieved when the Wyeth vaccine
recombinant was used. Interaction between EBV
and Plasmodium infections are discussed under
Protozoan Diseases, Plasmodiidae.
Herpesvirus papio (HVP). Strains of Epstein-Barr-like
herpesvirus were isolated from baboons with
lymphomas (HVP-L) and from normal baboons
(HVP-N) [ 106]. Inoculation of adult S. oedipus and
S. f. nigr{frons with HVP-L resulted in develop-
ment of marked, often lymphoproliferative disease,
whereas neonatal tamarins and C. jacchus had only
transient signs of inguinal lymph node enlargement.
Antibody to viral components was produced by
adults, but no antibody was detected in neonates.
HVP-N was found to infect adult callitrichids based
on their antibody responses, but disease did not
develop.
Poxviridae
Orthopoxvirus (Vaccinia subgroup)
Vaccinia. Smallpox-like lesions appeared at cutane-
ous inoculation sites four to six days after adminis-
tration of human vaccinia virus vaccine to Saguinus
sp [108]. Healing was complete in 12-20 days. In a
serologic survey of 20 captive S. oedipus, antibody
against vaccinia was found in two 1260J.
Monkeypox. Nonfatal monkeypox was diagnosed in
one S. oedipus during an outbreak in a Dutch zoo-
logical garden [157,235,371]. In other studies, 4
of 35 presumably healthy marmosets and 4 of 20
S. oedipus had HI titers to monkeypox virus,
though the significance of this finding has not been
determined [258,260].
Poxvirus. An unspecified poxvirus was the cause of
an epizootic among C. jacchus that began three
weeks after import and lasted for six months [191].
Thirty-six percent of 80 marmosets developed cuta-
neous erythematous papules, particularly on the
tail, scrotum, and abdomen, that progressed within
ten days to elevated plaques with scab formation,
and later to punctate hemorrhagic ulcers. Coinci-
dentally, multiple plaques with dark umbilicated
centers and grey borders were seen on the palms
and soles. The duration of the clinical disease was
four to six weeks. Deaths that occurred were attrib-
uted to intercurrent diseases (anemia and chronic
pancreatitis). Histologically, the lesions were in i-
Callitrichid diseases
tially characterized by moderate to extensive acan-
thosis, and later by full-thickness epidermal necro-
sis and ulceration; dermal inflammatory changes
were associated with advanced lesions. Occasion-
ally, degenerating keratinocytes contained granular
intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies. A poxvirus was
identified electron microscopically from negatively
stained direct skin scrapings; it was not related sero-
logically to vaccinia, and was morphologically dif-
ferent from tanapox and benign epidermal mon-
keypox. The significance of this viral infection is
not known.
RNA viruses
Reoviridae
Reovirus. Type 3 was isolated from the throats and
feces of newly imported Saguinus sp [108], S.
nigricollis, and S. mystax [354]. There was no
seasonal incidence, and no signs of disease were
associated with infection. Serologic surveys
demonstrated the presence of antibodies to reovi-
ruses types I, 2, and 3 in captive colonies of mar-
mosets [259], S. sp [108], and S. oedipus [260].
The incidence of type 3 (35%, 64%, and 79% re-
spectively, in these colonies) was the most preva-
lent of these viruses. No antibody was detected
against SV 12.
Rotavirus. The results of a survey of 14 captive Cal-
lithrix sp for antibody to the SA II strain of rotavi-
rus indicated that 92% were positive [261]. This
incidence suggests that infection was with the SA
11 strain or a closely related virus. It is possible
that infections probably occur more commonly in
captivity than in the wild, but the role of rotaviruses
in the gastroenteritides of monkeys has not been
established.
Orbivirus. A serologic survey of captive marmosets
and S. oedipus failed to demonstrate the presence
of antibodies against Colorado tick fever virus
[259,260).
Orthomyxoviridae
Influenza. Influenza virus type A2 was isolated from
the throat and lung of a captive tamarin (Saguinus
sp) which died with bronchopneumonia [108]. It
was in a colony exposed to personnel carrying anti-
genically identical agents and suffering from flu-
like respiratory symptoms. Of 216 S. nigricollis
and S. mystax 4% carried influenza A2/Hong Kong
68 [354]. No morbidity or mortality attributable to
this virus was seen, and the tamarins had antibody
when tested two months later. No antibody against
influenza A was found, although serologic evidence
193
Potkay
of influenza Band A2 infections was demonstrated
in S. oedipus [260] and marmoset [259] colonies.
Paramyxoviridae
Parainfluenza. Parainfluenza virus type 1 (Sendai)
was isolated from 29 of 216 S. nigricollis and S.
mystax that were newly imported [354]. The only
clinical sign of infection was fever (40.5°C), but
there was a wide range in mortality. At necropsy
several had pulmonary lesions. Tamarins having
concurrent infection with Herpesvirus tamarinus.
however, invariably died. Sendai virus was isolated
at a breeding colony from C. jacchus with clinical
signs consisting of rapid respiration, dyspnea, de-
pression, anorexia, sneezing, ocular and nasal dis-
charge, and piloerection [160]. Most cases occurred
in marmosets between one and nine years old and
were self-limiting. Infections in infants were some-
times fatal and characterized by extensive pneumo-
nia. An outbreak of parainfluenza type 1 infection
was also reported in 69 of 91 domestically produced
C. jacchus whose clinical signs were similar to
those described previously, and whose lesions con-
sisted of interstitial pneumonia [463]. Intranasal in-
oculation of S. mystax with passaged parainfluenza
virus type 1, Sendai strain, was associated with
sneezing, coughing, nasal discharge, and puffy
eyelids [213]. The incubation period was about five
days and antibody was detected two to three weeks
after infection. Infections were readily transmitted
to cage mates, and tamarins lost significant weight
within 2 weeks of exposure; fever was not a consis-
tent finding. Parainfluenza types 2 (1 %) and 3 (6%)
were isolated from 6 of the 216 imported animals
mentioned above, but no clinical signs were ob-
served. Parainfluenza virus type 3 infection was
found in six S. sp that died from bronchopneumonia
1-15 days after delivery from suppliers at whose
facilities it was thought infection may have oc-
curred [108]. S. mystax experimentally infected
with passaged parainfluenza virus 3, strain HA-I,
had transient, mild clinical signs consisting of
sneezing, puffy eyelids, nasal discharge, and
weight loss [213]. Virus was isolated from their
throats for seven to ten days, and antibody was
detected two to three weeks after exposure. Sero-
logic surveys for parainfluenza virus (types I, 2,
and 3) in captive callitrichids have demonstrated
antibodies, principally against type 3 [108,259]
and, to a lesser extent, type 2 [260].
Morbillivirus. Measles (rubeola) is a highly conta-
gious disease that has been described in captive C.
jacchus. S. oedipus. and S. Juscicollis. associated
with high morbidity [296]. Clinical signs include
edema of the upper eyelids and progressive lethargy
culminating in death within 8-18 hours. Some ani-
194
mals developed a mucous nasal discharge, facial
erythema and edema, and maculopapules on the
lips. Infrequently, there was epilation of the ventral
abdominal and thoracic skin and a maculopapular
exanthem. Koplik's spots were not observed. Inap-
parent infections also occurred evidenced by the
high neutralizing antibody titers found in callitrich-
ids that survived. Significant gross lesions of mea-
sles infection were not found at necropsy. The prin-
cipal histologic finding was interstitial pneumonia;
occasionally bronchopneumonia was present. Alve-
olar walls were thickened and there were focal areas
of giant cell formation. The nuclei of some of these
cells contained eosinophilic inclusion bodies.
Warthin-Finkeldey type giant cells were seen in
the lungs, mesenteric lymph nodes, spleen, and
lymphoid tissue of the colon. Histologic findings
and clinical signs can be used to make a presump-
tive diagnosis of rubeola, but virus isolation is nec-
essary to rule out other paramyxoviral agents. In
another colony of C. jacchus. S. Juscicol/is. S. ni-
gricollis. and S. oedipus. measles was thought to
have affected 40% of the animals, 70% of which
died [74]. Clinically, incoordination, apparent
blindness, and rapid death were observed. Some
giant cells were observed in the livers and spleens,
but rubeola was not isolated. The severe effects of
measles on callitrichids have resulted in the imposi-
tion of procedures in some colonies to minimize
exposure to potentially infected nonhuman and hu-
man primates. In addition, human measles vaccine
[4,5,404] and human gamma globulin [74] have
been used prophylactically. Immunized callitrichids
develop measles antibody titers, and the results of
one challenge and control study indicated that pro-
tection was conferred by both killed and attenuated
live virus vaccines [304].
Paramyxovirus saguinus. A disease caused by a para-
myxovirus distinct from measles caused high mor-
tality in a colony of C. lacchus and S. oedipus
[ 170]. Affected animals had anorexia, diarrhea, and
dehydration and usually died within 24 hours of the
onset of signs. Other epidemiological features of
the outbreak were not described. Gross lesions con-
sisted of congestion and varying degrees of hemor-
rhagic gastroenterocolitis and enlargement of the
spleen, Peyer's patches, and mesentric lymph
nodes. Prominent microscopic lesions were necro-
sis and inflammatory cell infiltration. The gastroin-
testinal mucosa was thin, and giant cells with intra-
nuclear inclusions were present. Giant cells were
also observed in the pancreatic ducts and acini, he-
patic cords, and renal tubules. Intracytoplasmic and
intranuclear inclusion bodies were found only in
syncytial cells in the bile ducts. Hyperplasia of the
lymph nodules and necrosis of germinal centers
were observed in lymph nodules, spleen, and

Peyer's patches. Four s. oedipus were experimen-
tally infected using the agent (Paramyxovirus sag-
uinus) isolated from splenic lymphocytes of a spon-
taneously infected tama'rin. They died or were
moribund 8-14 days after intramuscular intrave-
nous inoculation, and their lesions were character-
ized as being more acute, necrotic, and hemor-
rhagic than in natural infections. In addition, each
had interstitial pneumonia.
A serologic survey for P. saguinus antibodies
showed that 26 of 69 captive S. sp were positive,
but the characteristics of the population studied
were not described. It was postulated that callitrich-
ids are not the natural hosts for this virus, and that
infection occured as a result of contact with another
species.
Mumps. Attenuated mumps virus, administered to
S. sp intranasally and subcutaneously, evoked anti-
body production similar to that seen in people, but
no evidence of disease. In serologic surveys, anti-
body against human mumps virus was detected in
captive S. oedipus [260) and 23 of 63 marmosets
[259).
Other Paramyxoviruses. In two surveys of captive mar-
mosets [259) and Saguinus sp [108), serologic evi-
dence of infection with the following antigens was
not found: FM 1, respiratory syncytial, SV5, SV41,
and mumps "s" and "V" antigens.
Picornaviridae
Enteroviruses. The results of serologic surveys
showed the presence of antibodies 'against the fol-
lowing viruses in marmosets: Coxsackie 9; Echo 7,
11, 12, and 13; SV 19; and SV 45 [259). In S.
oedipus, Coxsackie A 20; Echo 7, II, 12, and 13;
SV 16; and SV 45 antibodies were present [260).
Negative findings were reported in surveys of mar-
mosets and Saguinus sp for: Coxsackie group B,
Echo 3 and 4, Polio, and SV 4 [108,259,260). Cox-
sackie B2 virus was isolated from multiple tissues
of three dead S. labiatus. When inoculated into se-
ronegative S. labiatus the agent produced infec-
tions, but no signs of disease [28).
Hepatitis A virus (HAV). Although HAV antibody was
found in three of six C. jacchus [128], viral hepati-
tis A is not considered a spontaneous disease of
callitrichids. Their susceptibility to experimental
HAV infection, however, has been demonstrated
repeatedly. Susceptible species are S. nigricollis
[107,127,372], S. oedipus [107,127,395], S.fusci-
collis [107,372,395], S. m. mystax [127,208,234,
284,305,393,394], C. jacchus, and C. argentata
[394]. The most satisfactory of these species, based
on results of testing using the CR-326 strain of
Callitrichid diseases
HAV, however, appeared to be S. mystax and S.
/abiatus because the initial recovery of virus was
high, and they produced more antigen suitable for
use in immune adherence assays [232,394,462].
The least satisfactory were C. jacchus, C. argen-
tata, S. oedipus, and S. fuscicollis weddelli. The
incubation period following inoculation with hu-
man acute illness phase hepatitis A serum was ap-
proximately 30-40 days, but serial passage in tam-
arins resulted in a diminished incubation period
[127,240,241,271). HAV infection did not evoke
clinical signs of illness in tamarins: Body weight,
temperature, and hematocrit were unaffected. Diag-
nosis of infection was based on serum chemical and
liver biopsy findings. Serologic responses consisted
of three- to tenfold elevations in serum alanine ami-
notransferase (ALT), serum aspartate aminotrans-
ferase (AST), and serum isocitrate dehydrogenase
(SICD). Anti-HA V antibody was also produced as
a consequence of infection. Histologic findings in-
cluded hepatic necrosis with lymphocytic infiltra-
tion in periportal areas and prominence of Kupffer
cells. Hepatitis A antigen was identified in livers
during the acute phase of infection by immunofluo-
rescence and electron microscopic and enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assay techniques [284,311,
321). HA V was excreted in quantity in the feces for
10-30 days, usually before elevations in transferase
levels, and was detectable in the feces for 48 days
after inoculation [372]. In one study, glomerulone-
phritis and arteritis, associated with hepatitis, were
reported in S. oedipus and S. labiatus [353]. Stud-
ies demonstrated that multiple injections of the for-
malin inactivated CR 326 strain of HA V evoked a
specific anti-HA V response, and was effective in
protecting S. labiatus from infection by live HA V
[393]. The same strain passaged in cell cultures,
yielded F and FI variants, both of which stimu-
lated antibody responses and protected S. labiatus
against infection [392]. The F variant was partially
virulent, and infection was associated with in-
creased ALT levels, while the FI variant showed
no evidence of virulence. These studies indicated
the feasibility of developing a live attenuated hepa-
titis vaccine for use in humans.
Arenaviridae
Callitrichid hepatitis virus (CHV). Naturally occurring
hepatitis in one British and several U.S. zoological
collections of callitrichids have resulted in the death
of at least 50 animals [309,378,400). More than
half were L. rosalia, the remainder being L.
chrysome/as, S. fuscicol/is, S. nigricollis, S. impe-
rator, S. oedipus, C. jacchus, and C. a. me/anura.
Disease onset was acute, and the clinical course
was rapid. Clinically, there was dyspnea, anorexia,
adipsia, and lethargy; in many cases, however, the
195
Potkay
animals died without premonitory signs. At nec-
ropsy, the lungs were congested and pale areas
were seen on the serosal and cut surfaces of the
slightly swollen livers. Other findings includedjaun-
dice, subcutaneous and intramuscular hemorrhage,
splenomegaly, and pleuropericardial effusions. Mi-
croscopically, the hepatic architecture was disorga-
nized; there was swelling and necrosis of hepato-
cytes throughout the lobules and some infiltration
by lymphocytes and neutrophiles. Acidophilic bod-
ies were also observed in the cytoplasm of degen-
erated hepatocytes. Less significant degrees of in-
flammation and necrosis were present in the spleen
and lymph nodes. Experimental inoculation of three
C. jacchus with cell-free filtrate obtained from an
affected S. imperator produced anorexia and weak-
ness within a week: alkaline phosphatase, aspartate
aminotransferase, and serum bilirubin levels were
elevated [347]. The pathologic findings were the
same as in the naturally occurring cases, and virus
particles (85-105 nm in diameter) were present
within vesicles of the RE reticulum and Golgi com-
plex of hepatocytes. Immunological assays indi-
cated that the causative agent belonged to the Old
World family of arenaviruses and that it was closely
related antigenically to lymphocytic choriomeningi-
tis virus [454]. Although the source of callitrichid
hepatitis was not determined, it was suggested that
the reservoir may be indigenous wild rodents,
which are relatively common in zoos, or exotic
Old World rodents (e.g., Mastomys and Paromys)
maintained in zoological exhibits. Two veterinari-
ans who worked with CHV -infected callitrichids
subsequently developed titers to the agent, but there
were no signs of associated illness.
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Antibody to this
agent was found in one of 66 captive marmosets
1259) and none of 50 Saguinus sp 1108) or four S.
oedipus [260].
Junin virus. Susceptibility of C. jacchus to the caus-
ative agent of Argentine hemorrhagic fever has
been determined experimentally [174,188,502,
503). Infections were characterized by progressive
depression; anorexia, weight loss, and death; some
animals had hemorrhages (petechiae and ecchymo-
ses), erythematous skin rash, muscular tremors,
and clonic muscle spasms terminally. Viremia oc-
curred one to three weeks after intramuscular in-
oculation; hematologic findings were normocytic
normochromic anemia, reticulocytosis, erythro-
blastosis, thrombocytopenia, and leukopenia. Vi-
rus was present in blood, urine, and all tissues
sampled at necropsy. Lesions consisted of mul-
tifocal hemorrhages, principally in the abdomi-
nal cavity, gums, pharynx, esophagus, and lymph
nodes. The histologic appearance was predomi-
196
nantly hemorrhagic and included interstitial pneu-
monia, meningoencephalitis, hepatic and lymph
node necrosis, and decreased numbers of erythro-
blasts and megakaryocytes in the bone marrow. The
use of homologous immune serum was found to
reduce mortality in C. jacchus infected with the XJ
strain from 100% to 25%, but survivors displayed
late neurological signs including hyperkinesis or
hind limb paralysis [15]. Use of the antiviral agent
Ribavirin also reduced the mortality rate and de-
layed the time of death [504]. Marmosets given
the attenuated XJCI3 strain of Junin virus had no
morbidity or mortality, and were protected from
challenge with virulent virus [14]. Infection with
Tacaribe virus completely protected C. jacchus that
were subsequently challenged with the XJ strain of
Junin virus for up to 240 days [422]. The spread
of Junin virus in tissues was minimal; subclinical
meningitis, lymph node hyperplasia, and pulmo-
nary, pancreatic, and renal glomerular inflamma-
tory changes were observed. The findings sug-
gested a potential role for live Tacaribe virus as
a vaccine against Argentine hemorrhagic fever in
humans. Evidence of naturally occurring Junin vi-
rus infection in callitrichids has not been reported.
Machupo virus. The causative agent of Bolivian hem-
orrhagic fever produces illness and death when
given subcutaneously or by skin scarification to S.
geoffroyi [495]. Results following corneal installa-
tion were variable, and no clinically apparent infec-
tions were seen following oral administration of the
virus. Depending on the dose, death occurred II to
21 days later. Animals became inactive, weak and
anorexic one to three days before dying. Virus was
recovered from their brains, spleens, hearts, livers,
kidneys, urine, and throat swabs. The significance
of tamarins in the epidemiology of this disease is
not known.
Tacaribe virus. Experimental infection of C. jacchus
with this agent produced no signs of disease, vire-
mia, or alterations in the hemogram, but neutraliz-
ing antibodies appeared three weeks after infection
1505].
Togaviridae
Simian hemorrhagic fever virus. This agent, a possible
togavirus, was found in none of 14 captive S. oedi-
pus surveyed [260].
Alphaviruses. (Arbovirus Group A) Antibody has
been found against several alphaviruses in captive
marmosets, which include Chikangunya, Semliki
Forest, and Sindbis 1259). Tests for Eastern and
Western equine encephalitis were negative in the
above and other surveys of Saguinus sp [108] and
S. oedipus [259,260].

Flaviviruses (Arbovirus Group B)
Yellow fever. Yellow fever occurs naturally among
wild marmosets and tam'arins [176,288,473,485].
Alamada strains I, 2, and 3 and the Bomfin strain
of virus were isolated from C. j. penicillata in
Bahia, Brazil, and undesignated strains were recov-
ered from S. o. geofJroyi in Panama. Numerous
studies using South American strains have been
performed that establish the susceptibility of caIIi-
trichids to experimental yellow fever infection. The
O.C. strain was easily maintained by alternate
marmoset-mosquito (C. j. aurita-Aedes aegypti,
C. j. aurita-Hemagogus equinus, and C. j.
penicillata-H. equinus) passages [488,490]. A. ae-
gypti was found to be a more effective vector than
H. equinus. Similar ease of maintenance was de-
scribed for the Alamada strain using C. j. penicil-
lata and L. r. chrysomelas with A. aegypti [489].
Infections were generally fatal for Callithrix, while
?one of the Leontopithecus succumbed. Naturally
Infected H. spegazzini were also able to transmit
virus to C. j. aurita in the laboratory [488]. Subcu-
taneous inoculation of blood from rhesus (Macaca
mulatta) monkeys infected with J.F., N.A.J., J.Z.,
O.C., A.C. Martinez, and A.C. Bolivian strains
into C. jacchus, C. j. geoffroyi, and L. rosalia
?enerally produced lethal infections [287 J, Similar
Inoculations of the Asibi and French strains, which
are of African origin, into C. jacchus and L. rosalia
resulted in low death rates, but these strains were
fatal for C. j. geoflroyi and C. j. aurita [302].
Deaths occurred in C. j. aurita and S. midas niger
f?lIowing intraperitoneal and subcutaneous injec-
tIons of infected blood and liver emulsions as well
as from transmission of the Asibi strain by A. ae-
gypti [94,488]. Virus of this strain could also be
transmitted from C. j. jacchus to M. mulatta by
Stegomyia mosquitoes [941.
Deaths among callitrichids attributable to yellow
f~ver occurred within four to eight days of infec-
tIon. Clinical signs of illness were variable; weak-
ness was the most consistent observation, and a
few animals developed fevers, but jaundice rarely
occu~red. Gross hepatic lesions were variable de-
pendmg on the strain of virus and species involved
[94,287]. Generally, there was congestion and in-
creased friability; surface coloration was reddish-
~rown to red-yellow, and cut surfaces were some-
tImes yellow. Infrequently there was splenic
~nlargement and renal congestion. When present,
Icterus was evident in the tarsal plates, kidneys and,
less ~requently, in the aortic intima. Congestion of
the lIvers of Callithrix infected with South Ameri-
can .strains had parenchymal necrosis, fatty degen-
eratIon, and cloudy swelling throughout the liver
lobules. In L. rosalia infected with the African
strains, hepatic lesions were more restricted to the
CalIitrichid diseases
midzonal region. Councilman's bodies similar to
those observed in human cases were observed only
in L. rosalia. Intranuclear inclusions were observed
in animals infected with certain of the South Ameri-
can strains, but were consistently found associated
with Asibi and French strain infections.
Although cebids, notably Alouatta, serve as
principal vertebrate hosts of sylvatic yellow fever
in Central and South America, callitrichids can
function in this capacity in their absence [177].
Consequently, yellow fever should be considered
as a potential source of mortality among captive
specimens in endemic areas. While the human vac-
cine may afford protection against infection, there
are no reports of its use in callitrichids. Failure to
identify yellow fever in imported laboratory mar-
mosets and tamarins may be related to the short
interval between infection and death (four to eight
days) compared to the time required to trap and
export them to the laboratory.
IIheus. This virus, which is transmitted by mosqui-
tos, was infective for C. jacchus and C. j. penicil-
lata [2821. Viremia persisted for five to seven days
following intracerebral, intraperitoneal, or subcuta-
neous inoculation; signs of encephalitis were ob-
served.
Dengue 1 and 2. Antibody to these agents was tested
for, but not found, in marmosets [259],
St. Louis encephalitis. Neither captive marmosets nor
S. oedipus were found to have antibody against this
agent [259,260].
Uganda S. Marmosets were found to harbor antibody
against this virus [259].
Rubiviruses
Rubella. Antibody to rubella (German measles) was
detected in 7 of 73 captive marmosets [259], but
none of 24 S. oedipus [260].
Bunyaviridae (Bunyamwera supergroup)
Bunyaviruses. In 24 of 44 captive marmosets main-
tained in Panama, Venezuela, and the United
States, antibody was detected against the following
viruses [259]: Bunyamwera group-Bunyamwera;
California group-California encephalitis, Key-
stone, LaCrosse, Tahyna, and Trivittatus; Simbu
group-Buttonwillow; Turlock group-Turlock.
Coronaviridae
Coronavirus. Coronavirus-Iike particles have been de-
tected electron microscopically in bowel contents
[479] and in the feces of one adult S. oedipus, but
197
Potkay
not in those of single specimens of S. fuscicollis or
C. jacchus [439]. The significance of the findings
is not known.
Rhabdoviridae
Vesiculovirus. Neutralizing antibody was found
against vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV)-Indiana in
75% of 12 and 9% of 96 S. geoffroyi tested in
Darien and Panama Provinces, Panama [448].
Tamarins with VSV complement fixing antibodies
were also found in Darien Province. It was sug-
gested that there may be a cycle of VSV infection
among arboreal wild animals, including nonhuman
primates, in addition to that which is normally
found in domestic livestock. Phlebotomine sand-
flies, and perhaps other insects, harbor VSV and
may be involved in transmitting the virus. No clini-
calor pathologic findings associated with VSV
have been reported in tamarins or in cebids which,
as a group, have a much higher percentage of ex-
posed individuals.
Lyssavirus. Rabies has been diagnosed in single
specimens of S. nigricollis and Leontopithecus
sp from Peru and Guatemala, respectively [1,408,
409]. Although the disease could have been con-
tracted by natural means in the source countries, it
was more likely the result of vaccination of these
pets using a live, attenuated rabies vaccine, since
clinical signs appeared within two weeks of immu-
nization. None of the rabies vaccines currently
available in the United States are licensed for use
in wildlife species. Should antirabies prophylaxis
be considered necessary, consideration may be
given to using one of the killed virus vaccines de-
veloped for use in people and tested for efficacy in
nonhuman primates.
Retroviridae
Oncornavirinae. The numerous experimental studies
conducted in callitrichids to study the oncogenic
effects of type C viruses have been reviewed in
detail [398,513] and are briefly summarized below.
Type 0 viruses have not been identified in calli-
trichids [158].
Type C oncornaviruses. Callitrichids were used to
study the oncogenicity of one avian and five mam-
malian viruses in this group, and were found to
be quite susceptible to tumor formation following
experimental infection.
Rous sarcoma virus (RSV). S. nigricollis, S. oedipus
and possibly C. jacchus are highly susceptible to
the Schmidt-Rupert strain (SR-RSV) [297,364,
398,514]. The types of tumors induced following
198
1M or SC inoculation included fibrosarcomas, and
mixed fibro- and rhabdosarcomas. Tumor develop-
ment was generally evident 23-90 days after inocu-
lation, and both the latency period and regression
rate were inversely related to the age of the host.
About 50% of infected callitrichids developed se-
rum neutralizing antibody, but Type-C virus parti-
cles were not recovered from induced tumors. Tu-
mors induced by SR-RSV in S. nigricollis younger
than three months were not transplantable to alloge-
neic hosts [318]. Virus (RSV-M) rescued from
these tumors by cocultivation with chic embryo fi-
broblasts, however, did induce neoplasms that en-
larged rapidly, metastasized, and killed young, but
not adult, tamarins within 29-59 days. These trans-
plantable marmoset cell lines were suitable for in-
vestigation of malignant transformation. Suscepti-
bility of S. fuscicollis and S. oedipus to the Bryan
(Br-RSV) and Carr-Zilber (CZ-RSV) strains ap-
peared to be lower than to SR-RSV.
Feline sarcoma virus (FeSV). This virus induced highly
invasive, ultimately fatal tumors that could be de-
tected 28-46 days after intraperitoneal inoculation
in neonatal S. fuscicollis [514]. Older tamarins
were progressively less susceptible. The Snyder-
Thielen strain (ST-FeSV) was associated with undif-
ferentiated or poorly differentiated fibrosarcomas,
and the Gardener-Arnstein strain (GA-FeSV) with
well-differentiated sarcomas. Type C particles were
found in tumors induced by tumor cell inoculation,
but not by viruses alone. Most tamarins in which
tumors formed developed antibody against FeSV.
Woolly monkey sarcoma virus. This agent, called simian
sarcoma virus, type I (SSV-I) and Gibbon ape leu-
kemia virus, induced tumors with various histologic
characteristics depending on the site of inoculation
in neonatal S. fuscicollis, S. oedipus, and S. mystax
[398,514]. The latent period was three to six
weeks, and well-differentiated, slowly progressive
fibrosarcomas or fibromas, which regressed in three
to six months, resulted from intramuscular inocula-
tion. Intracerebral inoculation was associated with
glioma or astrocytoma formation.
Baboon oncovirus. Intramuscular and intraperitoneal
inoculation of baboon endogenous virus (BaEV) in
S. oedipus, S. fuscicollis, and C. jacchus failed to
produce clinical signs of infection or lesions [220].
S. fuscicollis, but not C. jacchus developed serum
neutralizing antibodies to this agent.
Murine sarcoma virus (MSV). S. oedipus, S. fuscicollis,
and C. jacchus developed tumors one week after
inoculation with the Kirsten murine sarcoma-BaEV
pseudotype [220]. Although rare for a malignant
neoplasm to do so, the fibrosarcomas subsequently

regressed; they were thought to be the result of the
growth of inoculated tumor cells. Saguinus devel-
oped serum neutralizing antibodies to this agent,
but Callithrix did not. .
C-type virus HL-23VC. This agent, isolated from hu-
man myelogenous leukemia cells and cultured in
canine thymus cells, produced fibromas following
intramuscular, but not intraperitoneal, inoculation
into neonatal S. f nigrifrons and S. f illigeri [35].
Virus isolated from the tumors was indistinguish-
able from woolly monkey sarcoma virus type 1
(SSV-I). All treated tamarins developed antibody
against HL-23V, but showed no abnormalities in
their peripheral blood.
Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). C. jacchus and S.
oedipus were susceptible to infection with SIV MND'
which was originally isolated from a mandrill
[344]. Both species developed low antibody titers
within two weeks of inoculation, and virus was re-
covered from Saguinus from two to nine weeks
after inoculation. No clinical signs of infection
were evident.
Other. Examination of C. jacchus uteri collected 13,
16, 19, 23, and 31 days after ovulation revealed
that C-type viral particles were consistently present
in large numbers on the plasma membranes of the
syncytiotrophoblast where it was in contact with
the cytotrophoblast [438]. It was suggested that that
particles, which were found only at this site, may
?e endogenous components of the genome having
Immunosuppressive properties that permit cell fu-
sion during syncytiotrophoblast development and
locally suppress the maternal response in the pla-
centa. The viral particles were not considered to be
horizontally transmitted infective agents.
Slow viruses
Kuru. Intracerebral inoculation of brain preparations
from human kuru patients induced disease in S.
oedipus. S. fuscicollis. and S. nigricollis after a
26-94 month incubation period [183,374,375J.
The incubation period was markedly reduced subse-
quent to serial passage in neonatal tamarins. Clini-
cal signs of infection were progressive and included
tremor, incoordination and ataxia, reduced tactile
res~onse, aggression, and impairment of vision;
theIr.duration was about two weeks. Typical micro-
SCOpIC lesions consisted of spongiform polioen-
cephalopathy of the cerebrum and spinal cord, and
cerebellar spongiosis, with loss of Purkinje and
granular cells.
Creutzfeld-Jacob disease (CJD). S. oedipus and S. fusci-
collis (or nigricollis) were susceptible to infection
CalIitrichid diseases
by brain preparations from CJD patients given
intracerebrally [374,375]. The initial incubation
periods (43-54 months) were reduced (18-34
months) in subsequent serial passages. Signs of in-
fection and histologic features were similar to those
described for kuru.
Gerstmann-Straussler syndrome. Spongiform encepha-
lopathy, indistinguishable from that observed in
Creutzfeld Jacob disease, was seen in C. jacchus
20-23 months after inoculation with brain prepara-
tions from affected patients [415J.
Syncytium-forming virus
Peripheral lymphocytes and skin explant cultures
obtained from C. jacchus yielded a syncytium-
forming virus that produced cytopathogenic effects
in fibroblastic cell cultures [317J. Serum antibody
against this agent was present in 55% of C. jacchus.
but in none of the S. oedipus maintained in the
colony.
Hepatitis
Hepatitis virus B. Results of a serologic survey of six
captive C. jacchus and 12 S. oedipus were negative
for hepatitis B surface antigen [128 J.
Hepatitis non-A, non-B. S. nigricollis and S. fusci-
collis. inoculated with marmoset-passaged GB
strain of non-A, non-B human hepatitis, developed
elevated SGPT levels and histologic evidence of
hepatitis after a mean incubation period of 17 days
[3721. Infections lasted for two or three weeks but
none of the tamarins seroconverted. S. labiatus
responded to intravenous inoculation of infected
human blood products with an increase in alanine
aminotransferase (ALT), which began 7 days and
peaked 15 days after injection [263,464 J. Hepatic
necrosis was limited to small intralobular foci asso-
ciated with mononuclear cell infiltrates. S. mystax
and S. labiatus were also susceptible to Strains F
and H derived from acute and chronic cases of
non-A, non-B, but the incubation periods varied
widely and were prolonged [147J. Microscopically,
liver cells were characterized by degeneration, bal-
looning, and cytoplasmic clumping. Unlike the
case in lesions of hepatitis A, inflammation was
more evident in portal as compared to intralobular
areas. Lesion development was closely associated
with increases in serum AL T and isocitrate dehy-
drogenase (SICD) levels. Electron microscopic ex-
amination of hepatocytes of S. mystax and S. /a-
biatus with acute hepatitis induced by inoculation
with infected human sera demonstrated attached,
membrane-like structures in the cytoplasm [494].
They enclosed electron dense material between
them.
199
Potkay
Enterically-transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis. Enterically
transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis (ET-NANBH)
is an emerging form of viral hepatitis with a particu-
larly high incidence in parts of Africa and Asia
[50,51]. Intravenous inoculation of S. mystax with
acute phase stool suspension from patients with
ET-NANBH resulted in liver lesions characteristic
of acute viral hepatitis and elevated serum ALT
and SICD levels. Virus-like particles (27-34 nm)
similar to those found in human cases were excreted
in early acute phase stools of infected tamarins.
Because disease production was more consistent
and the incubation period was shorter in M. Jascicu-
laris and M. mulatta than in tamarins, the former
species were considered better models [517].
Marburg virus
None of 14 captive S. oedipus carried antibody
against this agent [260].
Encephalomyelitis
A filterable, presumably viral agent was isolated
from Callithrix sp with clinical signs of saliva-
tion, convulsions, strabismus, and paresis [6]. It
produced similar signs in marmosets and mice
inoculated intracerebrally. Microscopic findings
including lymphocytic perivascular cuffing, micro-
hemorrhages, and glial proliferation. Gross lesions
were absent.
Bacterial diseases
Bacterial infections are common in captive calli-
trichids, and some are major contributors to illness
and death. Much of the information available about
the bacterial flora of captive species is derived from
surveys of tamarins conducted soon after importa-
tion [108,354]. Very little is known of the inci-
dence of bacterial infection in free-living callitrich-
ids. Bacteria that have been identified are arranged
according to Bergey [34] and discussed below.
Eubacteriales
Achromobacteriaceae
Alcaligenes. A. faecalis was isolated from the stools
of both recently imported (7%) and acclimated
(4%) Saguinus sp [108].
Bacillaceae
Bacillus. Bacillus sp isolations from the throats of
newly imported Saguinus sp were low (8%), and
there were none following a period of acclimatiza-
tion [108].
200
Clostridium. Twenty-nine deaths in a C. jacchus col-
ony were attributed to Clostridium perJringens A
overgrowth following extensive prophylactic treat-
ment against Shigella with gentamycin and furox-
one: Large numbers of the organisms were isolated
from the gastric contents of 25 marmosets that were
examined [449]. Clinical signs were anorexia and
intermittent diarrhea for three to five days before
death. The ventral abdominal and cervical subcu-
ticular tissues were edematous and contained gas.
The gas-filled gastrointestinal tracts contained light
brown fluids, and the mucosa of the jejunum and
ileum was hyperemic. Microscopically, the intesti-
nal lesions consisted of hyperemia, loss of mucosal
epithelium and thickening of the lamina propria.
Individual deaths, unassociated with antibiotic ther-
apy, may also result from C. perJringens [46]. C.
perJringens was isolated from the throats of 8% of
recently imported Saguinus sp, but not from accli-
mated tamarins [108].
Bacteroidaceae
Bacteroides. Bacteroides pseudotuberculosis roden-
tium and Bacteroides aertrycke were associated
with deaths at parturition in two C. jacchus [308].
Brucellaceae
Bordetella. Bordetella bronchiseptica caused sudden
death in 16 marmosets, all but one of which was
less than one year old, in a breeding colony of C.
jacchus [27]. The colony had been established as
B. bronchiseptica-free three years earlier. Clinical
signs were minimal and consisted of mucopurulent
nasal discharge and fever (I-2°C); some animals
became dyspneic when handled. At necropsy, vari-
able pulmonary congestion and consolidation were
noted, and six marmosets had fibrinopurulent vis-
ceral pleurisy and thickened pericardia. Micro-
scopic lesions were acute purulent bronchopneumo-
nia and edema of the bronchial lymph nodes. Less
frequently, rhinitis, fibrinopurulent pericarditis,
and necrotic laryngitis were observed. B. bronchi-
septica was isolated from the lungs of all animals
that died; Proteus sp and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
were also isolated from several of them. Coloniza-
tion of the nasal mucosa by B. bronchiseptica oc-
curred in 71 of 156 marmosets in this susceptible
popUlation. Treatment with oxytetracycline halted
the progression of clinical signs in adults, but did
not eliminate the organism from the nasal passages.
An autogenous B. bronchiseptica vaccine has been
used in C. jacchus colonies, but there were no re-
ports of its efficacy [69].
Franciscella. Tularemia was observed in one C. j.
geoffroyi at a California zoo, and in four of nine

Saguinus nigricollis maintained in a Canadian zoo-
logical garden [357]. Three of the tamarins were
found dead or moribund; ,one showed signs of de-
pression and responded to parenteral treatment with
oxytetracycline, ampicillin, and B vitamins. Le-
sions consisted of splenomegaly, enlargement of
mesenteric lymph nodes, slight hemorrhage into the
intestines, and a fibrinous peritoneal exudate. Small
white spots in the spleen and liver were foci of
caseous necrosis. Varying degrees of lymphadeni-
tis, enteritis, acute glomerulitis, and pneumonitis
were also present. F. tularensis was isolated from
the Franklin's ground squirrels (Spermophilus
Jranklinii) trapped near the primate facility. The
agent was also identified in a ground suspension of
fleas (Orchopeas sp) collected from the squirrels.
The importance of rodent and vector control is ex-
emplified by this outbreak, and the occurrence of
tularemia in a veterinarian, bitten while examining
the sick tamarin, emphasizes the public health sig-
nificance of this disease.
Pasteurella. Because of its importance in other New
World monkeys, Pasteurella multocida was consid-
ered to be a potential pathogen in callitrichids
[247].
Corynebacteriaceae
Corynebacterium. Coryn. equi was isolated from a
pulmonary abscess in I of 15 wild-caught S. oedi-
pus [452]. Clinical signs included anorexia, labored
respiration, weight loss, and general unthriftiness.
Treatment with tetracycline (PolyoticTM, Soluble
POWder American Cyanamid Co, Princeton, NJ),
parenteral fluids, and liquid diet was ineffective.
Histologically, the lesion was characterized as pyo-
granulomatous bronchopneumonia and necrotic
pleuritis. Granulomatous pancreatic serositis and
fibrinopurulent epicarditis were also present.
ErySipelothrix. Acute, fatal Erysipelothrix rhusiopath-
iae infection was reported in an eight-month-old S.
nigricollis [235]. Clinical signs were depression,
dehydration, weakness, and hyperthermia; pain was
elicited by abdominal palpation. Bacteria were ob-
served in skeletal and cardiac muscle, lymph nodes,
and kidneys, but not in the liver or lungs; there was
little or no tissue reaction. The source of infection
was not identified, but the tamarin had been housed
in the enclosure with chickens and other primates
(Erythrocebus patas, Hylobates lar, and Saimiri
sciureus). The organism was not found in samples
of soil from the cage, water, or food.
Enterobacteriaceae
~itrobacter. A low incidence of Citrobacter sp isola-
hon from stool specimens and throat swabs was
Callitrichid diseases
observed in S. mystax and S. nigricollis shortly
after importation [354).
Enterobacter (Aerobacter). Enterobacter sp was com-
monly isolated from the throat and feces of newly
imported S. nigricollis and S. mystax, but signs of
disease were not observed (354).
Escherichia. Coliforms were routinely isolated from
the feces of Saguinus sp during quarantine, but the
isolation incidence of E. Jreundii diminished mark-
edly in acclimated tamarins [108,354]. Among
Saguinus, hemolytic strains of E. coli were consid-
ered to be important pathogens, causing a watery
diarrhea [274]. Lesions consisted of congestion,
edema, and necrosis of the mucosa of the ileum
and colon. The efficacy of routine immunization
against E. coli practiced in C. jacchus colonies has
not been described (69).
Klebsiella. Klebsiella pneumoniae is an important
pathogen in callitrichids [28,33,74,109,247,287).
Among newly arrived, wild-caught Saguinus sp,
Klebsiella was isolated from the throats of 64% and
was associated with pneumonia, septicemia, and
enteritis [\08]. The organism has also been recov-
ered from skin lesions [109]. Thirteen percent of a
Callithrix j. jacchus breeding colony succumbed to
Klebsiella sp infection in Brazil [60]. Clinical signs
included diarrhea and hypothermia, and young ani-
mals were affected more often than adults. Nec-
ropsy observations included gaseous distension of
the small intestine, which was also congested. The
liver in some cases was enlarged and the surface
had diffuse yellow areas. All of the lesions exam-
ined histologically were characterized by intense
congestion with the presence of mono- and poly-
morphonuclear leukocytes, indicating that septice-
mia was the cause of death. The outbreak was
halted after instituting strict hygienic measures and
treatment with kanamycin, chloramphenicol, and
cephalosporin-aminoglycoside intramuscularly for
8-12 days. An autogenous Klebsiella sp vaccine
has been used in C. jacchus colonies, but there are
no reports of its efficacy [69].
Proteus. The incidence of Proteus sp isolation from
the throats (28%) and stools (81 %) of newly im-
ported Saguinus sp was high [108]. Evaluations
conducted 3-12 months later showed a markedly
reduced incidence of pharyngeal isolations (12%)
and a small decrease in fecal isolations (78%). In
another study, Proteus sp was also found in S. mys-
tax and S. nigricollis with some regularity [354].
While it is often difficult to determine the role of
this genus as a cause of enteritis, P. rettgeri and P.
morgani have been identified as pathogens in cap-
tive Saguinus [274 J.
201
Potkay
Serratia. This organism was isolated from the throats
of 0.80% of recently imported Saguinus sp [108].
Salmonella. Numerous species of Salmonella have
been identified in fecal specimens from Callithrix
sp imported into the United States. These species
include S. typhimurium, S. anatum, S. seftenberg,
S. newington, S. oranienburg, and S. habana
[265]. Salmonella was also isolated from the feces
of 19% of newly imported Saguinus sp [108], and
3% of S. nigricollis [354]. Salmonella species ob-
tained from normal tamarins were: S. derby, S.
stanley, S. st. paul, S. oranienburg, and Arizona
sp. The types that were found associated with dis-
ease included S. california, S. heidelberg, S. oslo,
S. stanley, S. derby, S. thompson, S. javiana, S.
panama, and S. typhimurium. Two isolates of Ari-
zona sp were obtained from callitrichids during an
outbreak of shigellosis [85]. Salmonellosis may oc-
cur as a mixed infection with Shigella. The results
of a survey of 27 S. mystax from a breeding colony
in Peru were negative for Salmonella [421].
The primary clinical finding in salmonellosis
is enterocolitis, characterized macroscopically by
congestion, hemorrhage, and edema of the mucosa.
Microscopic lesions also include focal necrosis of
the intestine and, sometimes, the liver and spleen
[274].
In the laboratory, infections, particularly in
younger animals, may be associated with contami-
nation of commercial feed, and have been treated
with kanamycin (KantrexTM, Bristol Laboratories,
Division of Bristol-Meyers Co, Syracuse, NY),
chloramphenicol (ChloromycetinTM, Parke, Davis
& Co, Detroit, MI), and ampicillin (Omnipen TM,
Wyeth Laboratories, Philadelphia, PA) [74]. The
frequency with which Salmonella can be isolated
from clinically normal callitrichids is of zoonotic
significance for individuals who handle them.
Shigella. Shigellosis is an important pathogen in cal-
litrichids and may occur as a mixed infection with
Salmonella. An extensive outbreak of shigellosis
involving a laboratory colony of 50 C. jacchus and
S. nigricollis has been described [85]. Acute or per-
acute illnesses were characterized by depression,
lethargy, anorexia, hunched posture, and bloody
diarrhea, and by subnormal temperatures and pale
mucous membranes prior to death. Affected ani-
mals were generally in good condition, though de-
hydrated. Principal lesions were seen in the cecum
and colon. The cecum contained ulcers (0.5-3.0
mm) and pinpoint hemorrhages, and some animals
had small erosions and petechiae of the colon.
Blood and fluid feces were seen in the cecum, co-
lon, and rectum. Regional lymph nodes were edem-
atous and sometimes hemorrhagic. Lesions in other
organs were mild, consisting mainly of hepatic and
202
pulmonary congestion. Histologically, the periph-
ery of the ulcers were hemorrhagic, and the intesti-
nallamina propria contained mononuclear cells and
neutrophiles. Shigella sonnei was isolated from
9.2% of the fecal samples tested, and from 44% of
the animals necropsied. Containment and elimina-
tion of the disease was accomplished by imposing
quarantine procedures and providing neomycin sul-
fate (Neobiotic™, Upjohn, Ltd, Crawley, Sussex,
England) (6 ml per 310 ml of drinking water) for
ten days. S. sonnei was also found in 11% of 60
Callithrix sp, and was fatal in 7% of newly im-
ported S. mystax and S. nigricollis [354]. It was
identified as the cause of death in four C. jacchus
maintained in a British zoo associated with gastro-
enteritis and septicemia [153] and from one Cal-
lithrix sp imported into the United States [265].
Shigella fiexneri [103] was recovered from one
Saguinus leucopus, which died with dysentery at a
zoo [232]. No Shigella were isolated from a breed-
ing colony of 27 S. mystax in Peru [421].
Yersinia. Y. enterocolitica was reported in twelve
wild-caught C. jacchus and C. j. penicillata main-
tained in a Brazilian zoo for one to seven months
[184,345] and in three C. jacchus, one C. ar-
gentata, and one S. oedipus in European zoos
[270,384]. Affected animals generally died acutely
and briefly showed signs of lethargy; profuse diar-
rhea was observed in one. Typical findings at nec-
ropsy were splenomegaly, multiple splenic and he-
patic abscesses (approximately 0.5 em in diameter),
ulcers, and necrosis in the jejunum, ileum, and co-
lon, and enlargement of the mesenteric lymph
nodes. Histologically, there were large foci of
hepatic inflammation; bacteria were seen at the
periphery of the lesions. Necrosis in the colon
was sometimes extensive. Y. pseudotuberculosis,
thought to be introduced in contaminated feed,
caused the death of 6 of 35 S. labiatus in a breeding
colony [465]. Clinical signs and necropsy findings
were similar to those described for Y. enteroco-
litica.
Lactobacillaceae
Streptococcus. Strep. (Diplococcus) pneumoniae was
cited as a potential pathogen of callitrichids because
of its ability to cause pneumonia and meningitis in
other New World monkeys [247]. Recovery of
Strep. sp from pharyngeal swabs of Saguinus sp
shortly after importation and 3-12 months later,
respectively, was: ex Strep., 84% and 90%; 13
Strep., 11 % and 3%; and 'Y Strep., 41 % and 45%
[108]. S. I. labiatus had poor antibody responses
to experimental infection with Strep. pneumoniae
(serotype 7F) and to pneumococcal capsular poly-
saccharide vaccine [73]. Preopsinization of Strep.

pneumoniae with human immune globulin or ad-
ministration of the globulin 30 minutes prior to giv-
ing a lethal challenge wjth serotype 7F afforded
protection.
Streptococcus zooepidemicus septicemia was the
cause of death in S. labiatus and Callimico goeldii
housed in zoological exhibits [426]. Clinical signs
included abdominal distension, submandibular
swelling, diarrhea, fever, and elevated white blood
cell count. Lesions consisted of suppurative sub-
mandibular and retropharyngeal lymphadenitis,
splenitis, and suppurative hepatitis. Beta-hemolytic
Strep. zooepidemicus was isolated from the liver,
spleen, ascites fluid, and heart blood, as well as
from cultures of horse meat products and containers
used to feed three-banded armadillos, which were
part of the exhibit. It was recommended that un-
cooked horse meat be routinely cultured and that
~trict sanitation practices be implemented when it
IS necessary to feed this product to exotic species.
Enterococcus. The isolation rate of this agent from
~he throats of Saguinus sp was 3% among recently
~mported tamarins, and 0% among acclimatized an-
Imals [108].
Micrococcaceae
Micrococcus. Twenty-three percent of recently im-
ported S. fuscicollis and S. oedipus carried this or-
ganism in their throats and continued to harbor it
for 3-12 months [108].
?~aphYlocOccus. S. oedipus and S. fuscicollis had pos-
ItIve throat cultures for coagulase positive (16%)
~nd coagulase negative (28%) Staph. shortly after
Importation; the incidence declined (to 12% and
10%, respectively) after acclimatization [108].
Staph. sp was isolated from the lungs of a Saguinus
sp that died of bronchopneumonia [109].
Actinomycetales
Mycobacteriaceae
Mycobacterium. Tuberculosis is uncommon in calli-
trichids, which have been said to be highly resistant
to infection [169,199 J. The disease has been seen
at European zoos in two C. jacchus [143,245,484],
two L. rosalia [90] and one C. penicillata [231]
that had resided in collections from 14 to 48
months. Both avian and bovine types of M. tuber-
culosis were identified. Abdominal lesions were ob-
served in two cases, and a pulmonary lesion in one.
The source of infection in one case was thought to
be from raw eggs.
Mycoplasmataceae
Ureaplasma (T-mycoplasma). Ureaplasmas were iso-
lated from the throats of both newly captured and
Callitrichid diseases
acclimatized C. jacchus of both sexes [175]. Or-
ganisms were present in the throats of all 41 mar-
mosets; 27% of prepucial and 26% of vaginal cul-
tures were positive. Of 30 infants from infected
family groups, 8% had mycoplasmas in their oro-
pharynges within 24 hours of birth, and all had the
organism by one week of age. Ureaplasms have
also been isolated from the kidneys and urinary
bladder of Saguinus sp and Callithrix sp [43]. Ex-
perimental intravaginal inoculation of C. jacchus
with Ureaplasma urealyticum (strain G-37) of hu-
man origin produced infections in four of six ani-
mals [473]. Organisms were recovered for 10-21
weeks, and although no frank vaginal discharge
was observed, a polymorphonuclear leukocyte re-
sponse was seen two to four weeks after inocula-
tion, and antibody titers increased fourfold.
Mycoplasma. Antibody against Mycoplasma pneu-
moniae was detected in I of 15 captive S. oedipus
at a zoo [260J. Experimental intravaginal inocula-
tion of S. mystax and C. jacchus with M. genitalium
(Strain G-37) resulted in low-level infections of the
genital tracts that persisted for at least two months
and evoked serum antibody responses [474,475,
483]. Intraoviductal inoculation in C. jacchus pro-
duced salphingitis and an antibody response [483].
Neisseriaceae
Neisseria. The incidence of Neisseria sp isolations
from the throats of Saguinus sp was 57% during
and 77% after quarantine [108].
Pseudomonadaceae
Pseudomonas. A high incidence of Pseudomonas sp,
isolated from rectal swabs (23%) and throat cultures
(II %) was reported in newly imported Saguinus sp
[108], and from the same sites in S. nigricollis
[354]. The organism is considered to be an impor-
tant cause of bronchopneumonia, particularly in de-
bilitated animals, and cannot be eliminated even
from conditioned colonies [74,108,265]. Empy-
ema, vegetative endocarditis, pancarditis, and sep-
ticemia have been reported in association with
Pseudomonas infection [I 09J. Pseudomonas sp was
also isolated from five callitrichids during an out-
break of shigellosis (q. v.) [85]. Carbenicillin
(Geopen TM, Roerg, Division of Pfizer Pharmaceuti-
cals, New York, NY), gentamicin (Garamycin™,
Schering Corp, Kenilsworth, NJ), and colistin
(Coly-Mycin™, Bristol Laboratories, Division of
Bristol-Myers Co, Syracuse, NY) have been used
to treat infections [74].
Legionellaceae
Legionella. Aerosol infection of C. jacchus with Le-
gionelia pneumophila, the agent of Legionnaire's
203
Potkay
disease, resulted in clinical signs consisting of fe- kanamycin) and sulfonamide treatment was unsuc-
ver, anorexia, and lethargy for one to six days [25]. cessful, but one tamarin responded within ten days
One of four marmosets had respiratory distress and to topical applications of emacridine lactate (Riva-
became moribund. Lesions were found only in the nol™, Chinosolfabrik der Riedel de Haen AG,
lungs and consisted initially of pinpoint hemor- Seelze, Germany).
rhages that became consolidated and affected two-
thirds of the lung tissue. Characteristic microscopic Leptospira
findings were bronchopneumonia involving ter-
Leptospira. Spontaneous leptospirosis has not been
minal and respiratory bronchioles; alveoli were
observed in New World primates, but experimental
edematous and contained fibrin, red blood cells,
Leptospira icteroides infections in S. oedipus and
and polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Within 10-17
S. o. geoffroyi were characterized by inappetence,
days, lesions began to resolve spontaneously. Re-
fever, jaundice, convulsions, and death [362]. Nec-
sults of a serologic survey of S. oedipus indicated
ropsy findings included minimal hemorrhagic le-
that 1 of 15 had antibody to L. pneumophila, but
sions in the lungs, heart, small intestine, and colon.
the significance of this finding was not clear [216].
Result of serologic surveys of 35 captive S. oedi-
pus, S. mystax, and S. nigricollis showed that only
Spirillaceae
one S. oedipus had antibody against L. bal/um
Campylobacter. Sixteen of 38 marmosets examined [341]. It was believed that this tamarin acquired the
in one colony harbored Campylobacter fetus subsp infection after importation, probably from exposure
jejuni in their intestinal tracts [262], and C. jejuni to infected wild mice.
was isolated from 10 of 15 S. mystax with diarrhea
in a Peruvian colony [421]. C. jejuni was also iso-
Rickettsial and chlamydial diseases
lated from one of three C. penicillata and none of
six Saguinus sp in a Brazilian zoo; there was no Rickettsiales
associated illness [149]. Sensitivity testing of C.
Rickettsiaceae
jejunilcoli obtained from captive S. oedipus indi-
cated that erythromycin was most effective, fol- Coxiella (Rickettsia) burnetti. Of 15 S. oedipus exam-
lowed by doxycycline and chloramphenicol, but ined at a zoo, 40% carried antibody against C. bur-
therapy should be based on the results of isolation nefti, the causative agent of Q-fever [260]. Anti-
and sensitivity testing [167]. body was not found in the sera of 55 newly
imported S. sp [108].
Spirochetales
Rickettsia akari. None of 23 captive S. oedipus carried
Treponemataceae antibody to this agent, which causes rickettsialpox
in man [260].
Borrelia. Naturally occurring infection of S. o. geof-
froyi with spirochetes, presumably Borrelia recur-
Rickettsia prowazekii. Antibody against the agent of
rentis, was studied in a relapsing fever area of Pan-
epidemic typhus, R. prowazekii, was absent in zoo-
ama [78]. The agent was morphologically similar
logical specimens of S. oedipus [260J.
to the human spirochete, and did not grow in cul-
ture. It produced transient infections in Cebus ca-
Rickettsia rickettsii. Antibody against this agent,
pucinus, Ateles geoffroyi, and Aotus trivirgatus,
which causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever, was
and more severe infection in Saimiri sp, rats, and
not demonstrated in a survey of newly imported
mice. Disease was produced in humans inoculated
Saguinus sp [108], or in wild-caught S. oedipus
with blood from infected monkeys.
residing at a zoo [260].
Noma. Noma (Cancrum oris, stomatonecrosis) was
Rickettsia typhi. In a survey of captive S. oedipus,
described in two captive S. oedipus [46J. Lesions
none had antibody against the causative agent of
consisted of ulcers that appeared suddenly on the
endemic (murine) typhus [260].
cheek and corner of the mouth and quickly involved
underlying soft tissue. Each animal had preexisting
gingivitis, periodontitis, and calculi on the canine Chlamydiales
and incisor teeth. Histologically, there was exten-
Chlamydiaceae
sive coagulation necrosis of the affected labial and
gingival tissue that extended into the maxilla. Nu- Chlamydia. Naturally occurring chlamydial infection
merous fusiform and spirilliform bacteria were ob- has not been reported in caIlitrichids, but the exper-
served, and micrococci, streptococci, and Proteus imental susceptibility of C. jacchus to Chlamydia
sp were isolated. Antibiotic (chloramphenicol and trachomati has been demonstrated [253,254,255].

204

Vaginal inoculation with strains 78 alpha (serotype
DIG) and UW4 (serotype H) resulted in an acute
polymorphonuclear leucocytic reaction within three
days, and the appearance of small numbers of in-
tracytoplasmic chlamydial inclusions in epithelial
cells from vaginal smears within eight to ten days.
Chlamydiae were isolated for 10-42 days, and IgM
and IgG antibody levels increased significantly
within 24-27 days of inoculation. Infections lasted
only three to seven days in animals reinoculated
with the same or different strains; the anamnestic
~esponse was not serotype specific. The infection
In marmosets was similar to that produced by chla-
mydiae in women.
PSittacosis. Antibody against the agent of psittacosis
Was not detected in a serologic survey of 22 captive
s. oedipus [260].
Protozoan diseases
Infections by protozoans, particularly trypanoso-
mas, are frequently seen in captive callitrichids, but
clinical illness and mortality are rarely attributed to
them.
Mastigophora
Hexamitidae and Trichomonadidae
Giardia and Trichomonas. Giardia sp and Trichomonas
sp are frequently cited as inhabitants of the intesti-
nallumen of call it rich ids [108,218,247,252). They
do not incite an inflammatory response, and while
large numbers may be found in animals with diar-
rhea, they are not necessarily the cause of the diar-
rhea [55]. Giardiasis may be treated with quinacrine
or chloroquine; environmental sanitation is required
to prevent reinfection [156).
Trypanosomatidae
Trypanosoma. Chagas' disease (American trypanoso-
miasis) is a major health problem in areas of Latin
America. The causative agent is the hemoflagellate,
Trypanosoma cruzi, whose vertebrate hosts, in ad-
dition to man, include several genera of neotropical
n?nhuman primates. Triatomid bugs act as interme-
diate hosts, and infection may be acquired from
their bites or feces, or by ingesting them. Try-
~anosomas are sometimes observed during rou-
tme examinations of callitrichid blood, but because
parasitemias are usually low, infections may be
ove~loo~ed unless parasites are sought or in vitro
cultIvatIOn or xenodiagnostic techniques are used.
Identification of Trypanosoma species is often dif-
ficult. b~cause their morphologic and mensural char-
actenstIcs vary depending on the hosts from which
they are recovered. Using established criteria [ 124],
Callitrichid diseases
most of the trypanosomas reported in callitrichids
are probably T. cruzi and T. minasense. T. cruzi
has been identified in wild C. jacchus, C. j. geof-
froy, c. argentata melanura, c. j. penicillata, S.
midas niger, S. mystax, and L. rosalia in Brazil
[92,99,100,112,124,306,337,406,456]; S. nigri-
collis in Peru [124]; S. midas in French Guiana
[124]; Cebuella pygmaea, S. fuscicollis, S. mystax,
S. oedipus, and S. /eucopus in Colombia [319];
S. geoffroyi in Panama [124]; and in captive S.
nigricollis, S. oedipus, S. fuscicollis, and S. /a-
biatus [108,268] and Leontopithecus sp [268]. Nat-
ural hosts for T. minasense included: C. j. penicil-
lata in Argentina and Paraguay [456); C. j. jacchus
and C. j. geoffroyi in Brazil [212,356,407]; S. oedi-
pus in Colombia; S. nigricollis and C. pygmaea
in Peru [124]; and S. geoffroyi in Panama [178].
Undesignated trypanosomes have also been ob-
served in captive C. humeralifer [200J, S. o. geo.r
froyi, S. nigrico/lis, S. mystax [305], and C. jac-
chus (83).
Isolates of T. cruzi were pathogenic for suckling
mice. The time between infection and the appear-
ance of parasites in the blood (prepatent period)
was short, followed by parasitemia, development
of tissue leishmanial forms, and variable mortality
[ 121 ,406), and they developed normally in the vec-
tor, Triatoma protracta [124]. Mice that recovered
from infection had a high resistance against reinfec-
tion by the Y strain of T. minasellse. T. cruzi, on
the other hand, was not pathogenic for mice and
did not develop in T. protracta [124).
Although clinical signs of trypanosomiasis have
not been observed in callitrichids, this may be re-
lated to the paucity of surveys in which callitrichids
have been identified and examined in acute stages
[10 1]. Latent T. cruzi infections in animals that
are stressed, however, may produce effects [124].
Lesions in affected callitrichids are usually inciden-
tal findings at necropsy and include foci of leish-
mania in the heart, liver. spleen. brain. and intes-
tine [10 I). Focal infiltrations of monocytes were
also seen in the livers of tamarins with heavy try-
panosomal infections [109].
The public health significance of T. cruzi infec-
tions in callitrichids is twofold. Since their rate
of natural infection is high and because they are
commonly kept as pets in areas where triatomid
bugs exist. C. jacchus may be involved in the trans-
mission of trypanosomiasis to human beings [406].
Naturally infected animals are also potential
sources of infection to persons who work with them
in laboratories and zoos [124).
Leishmania. Leishmania brasiliensis was isolated
from a wild S. geoffroyi in Panama using skin culti-
vation techniques [178]. There were no lesions or
clinical signs of disease. The agent produced typi-
205
Potkay
cal dermal lesions when inoculated into hamsters,
and blood from the tamarin was infective for Phle-
botomus sanguinarius. Experimental infection with
L. brasiliensis resulted in nodule development at
the injection site in seven of eight inoculated C.
jacchus, ulceration in six of seven, and metastatic
lesions in three animals [91]. All developed posi-
tive skin tests and IgG antibody.
Sarcodina
Entamoebidae
Entamoeba. Entamoeba coli has been identified in C.
jacchus, S. oedipus, S. fuscicollis, and S. nigri-
collis, but is apparently nonpathogenic [157,286].
It has been transmitted experimentally to man and
macaques, and strains of E. coli from the latter are
infective for C. jacchus [313]. Entamoeba histolyt-
ica, however, may cause varying degrees of hem-
orrhagic ulcerative colitis, typhlitis, and ileitis in
callitrichids [113]. Infection with an unidentified
species of Amoeba (not histolytica or coli) was as-
sociated with diarrhea and terminal lethargy in S.
oedipus [168]. In macaques, the following drugs
have been used to treat E. histolytica infections:
carbasone (7.5 mg/kg for ten days via stomach
tube), diodopquin 0.2 mg/day for eight days by
stomach tube), fumagillin (50-125 mg/day for five
to ten days), and emetine [55]. Use of these agents
has not been reported in callitrichids.
Sporozoa
Eimeriidae
Eimeria and Isospora. Coccidiosis is not reported fre-
quently as a clinical entity in callitrichids. Eimeria
sp was seen occasionally in captive S. oedipus, S.
fuscicollis, S. nigricollis [108] and C. jacchus
[157], and Isospora arctopitheci has been identified
in C. jacchus [417]. Experimental infection of S.
geoffroyi with the latter sporozoan produced a pre-
patent period of six to eight days, and an oocyst
patency period of 17-55 days [217]. Hemorrhagic
diarrhea occurred five days after infection, followed
by death two days later in 2 of 13 animals [367].
I. arctopitheci was found only in epithelial cells of
the small intestine, particularly the jejunum; 00-
cysts were shed unsporulated. Histologic lesions in-
cluded necrosis and subsequent loss of epithelial
cells at the tips of villi.
Besnoitia. The coccidian parasite Besnoitia was orig-
inally classified as Sarcocystis because its parasitic
cysts resembled those of the latter. Although natu-
rally occurring infections have not been reported
in nonhuman primates, experimental inoculation of
Besnoitia darlingi produced an acute, rapidly fatal
206
infection in S. geoffroyi [427]. Clinical and patho-
logic findings were not given. In other species,
however, white, spherical cysts (approximately 1
mm in diameter) are frequently found in the heart,
lungs, kidneys, tongues, skin, and skeletal muscle.
Besnoitia-like. Coccoid oocysts were described in a
single, Besnoitia-like, subcutaneous cyst in a S. oe-
dipus [388].
Cryptosporidium. Oocysts of Cryptosporidium sp
were identified in the feces of a captive S. oedipus
with diarrhea [225].
Toxoplasmidae
Toxoplasma gondii. This intestinal coccidian parasite
is widely distributed throughout the world, and fe-
lids are its final hosts. Although other vertebrates
serve as intermediate hosts, they are not necessary
for the parasite to complete its life cycle. In addi-
tion, certain insects can serve as transport hosts.
Oocysts are shed and subsequently develop into two
sporocysts containing four sporozoites each. Infec-
tions are acquired by ingestion of sporulated 00-
cysts, ingestion of infected animals that contain
bradyzoites, or transplacental transmission.
Based on serologic surveys, toxoplasmosis ap-
pears to be common among wild cebids in Brazil
[150,444), and spontaneous infections have been
described in five genera of captive Cebidae [20].
Results of surveys of C. jacchus, C. j. penicillata,
and C. j. geoffroyi maintained at Brazilian research
and zoological facilities [359], wild-caught S. oedi-
pus in Colombia [506) and both wild-caught S.
mystax and S. fuscicollis and colony maintained S.
mystax in Peru [421], however, were negative.
Spontaneous fatal toxoplasmosis has been reported
in the United States in single specimens of S. oedi-
pus imported from Colombia [32], and in captive
L. rosalia and S. illigeri [20].
Toxoplasma infections experimentally induced
in S. oedipus [505], S. o. geoffroyi [416] and C.
jacchus [255] resulted in severe and uniformly fatal
disease. Signs of illness occurred three to five days
after infection by various routes and consisted of
decreased appetite and sluggishness that progressed
to anorexia, severe depression, a crouched posture,
coma, and death within 1-11 days. Some animals
developed cough shortly before dying. Pathologic
changes consisted of splenomegaly, hepatic con-
gestion, and erosion or extensive duodenal ulcer-
ation. Pulmonary involvement ranging from con-
gestion to bronchopneumonia was a consistent
finding [32,416]. Microscopic lesions were associ-
ated with the development of rapidly multiplying
tachyzoites in the liver, spleen, lung, intestines,
lymph nodes, heart, kidneys, adrenals, and other

organs, and were characterized by focal necrosis,
petechial hemorrhage, and the presence of inflam-
matory cells. Some authors have concluded, based
on their own work and that of others, that catarrhine
monkeys are more resistant to experimental toxo-
plasmosis than platyrrhini, and that resistance ap-
pears to be absent in the callitrichids [359]. Ex-
treme susceptibility of the latter group could
account for failure to find seropositive animals in
nature.
Hammondia. H. hammondi is a coccidian parasite of
the domestic cat and requires an intermediate host
to complete its life cycle. It is antigenically and
morphologically similar to Toxoplasma and, like
Sarcocystis, produces cysts principally in the skele-
tal mUscle of its intermediate host [118]. It is not
known if H. hammondi occurs naturally in nonhu-
man primates, but its infectivity for S. nigricollis
Was demonstrated experimentally. Following oral
administration of sporulated oocysts obtained from
cats, antibody titers to T. gondii were low and tran-
sient. There were no clinical signs, and lesions-
small foci of necrosis and monocellular infiltration
in the heart and skeletal muscles-were not sig-
nificant. H. hammondi was, however, isolated from
cats fed infected tamarin tissue.
Sarcocystidae
Sarcocystis. Numerous species of Sarcocystis have
been identified in a variety of wild and domestic
animals. Life cycles of those that have been studied
are of the predator (final host)-prey (intermediate
host) type in which the sexual stages are in the
intestinal cells of the predator, and' asexual repro-
duction occurs in the vascular endothelium and
mUscles of the prey. Although the two-host cycle
appears to be obligatory, monkeys may serve as
final or intermediate hosts for different species of
Sarcocystis [330]. Sporulation of Sarcocystis 00-
cysts (unlike those of Toxoplasma and Isospora)
occurs in the host's intestine. Meronts (sarcocysts),
which are formed during the asexual stage, have
been described in skeletal muscle fibers of S. oedi-
pus from Colombia [330[ and S. fuscicollis and
S. nigricollis from the upper Amazon region
[108,264,358]. Sarcocystis was also identified in
cardiac muscle fibers of a captive-born L. chrysopy-
gus in Brazil [29]. The inner part of the sarcocyst
~all is produced by the parasite, and the outer por-
tIon by the host, but there is no inflammatory re-
sponse around affected muscle fibers. Clinical signs
hav~ ~ot been reported in association with San'o-
CYStlS Infection.
Plasmodiidae
Plas,:,odium. With one exception [17], naturally oc-
CUrrIng malarial infections have not been reported
Callitrichid diseases
in the Callitrichidae [20,103,104,123]. The excep-
tion was 1 S. o. geoffroyi of 2,330 examined in
Panama that carried Plasmodium brasilianum. Cer-
tain species, however, are susceptible to experi-
mental infection with P. brasilianum and P. sim-
ium, whose natural hosts are cebids, and to P. vivax
and P. falciparum of man. Experimental infection
with P. simium resulted in a mild parasitemia last-
ing 8-22 days in C. aurita, and low parasitemias
were observed in C. jacchus following infection
with P. brasilianum [102]. Prior passage of this
organism in Aotus and splenectomized C. jacchus,
however, resulted in persistent (30 weeks), low
grade parasitemias and lymphocytosis [501]. Mar-
mosets developed fever and anemia, ate less and
lost weight, but did not succumb to infections.
Two to 17 days after infection with P. brasilianum,
tamarins developed peak parasitemia which per-
sisted for 4-20 days [468]. P. falciparum infections
were induced in 4 of 32 S. geoffroyi [390]. The
prepatent period was one to two days and the dura-
tion of patency was 4-15 days; a high parasitemia
was observed in only one tamarin. P. knowlesi in-
fection in two C. jacchus was associated with leu-
kocytosis due to an increase in mononuclear cells
[148]. Two of ten S. geoffroyi were susceptible to
P. vivax infection, having a one-day prepatent and
seven-day patent period [389], but this organism
was not infective for C. jacchus [102]. Some strains
of P. vivax produce high levels of parasitemia that
persist for a month or more if they are first passaged
in a host such as Aotus, and prior splenectomy or
immunosuppression enhances susceptibility [520].
Splenectomized S. mystax developed hi?h levels. of
parasitemia following passage of P. V1Vax (ASIan
strain ONG/CDC) in Aotus [84). Infected blood
from these tamarins produced high parasitemias in
S. fuscicollis for extended periods, and recrudes-
cence occurred. Virulence of the Vietnam Palo Alto
line of P. vivax in intact C. jacchus was increased
after passage in Aotus and splenectomized CaL-
lithrix [342). Parasitemias were high and patency
persisted for at least 74 ~a~s. Facial .edema ~nd
proteinuria were evident chmcally. P. VIVax, unhke
P. falciparum, was infective for. Anopheles albi-
mans mosquitoes, which fed on mfected S. geof-
froyi [18).
Experimental simultaneous infection of C. jac-
chus with P. brasilianum and Epstein-Barr virus
(EBV) markedly increased the severity of the ma-
larial infection [499). Animals given EBV before
Plasmodium developed high parasitemias; in those
receiving these agents in the reserve order the para-
sitemias resolved earlier. Animals with simultane-
ous infections had edema involving the face, neck,
and abdomen. Lassitude, shivering, anemia, and
proteinuria were evident, and four of six of them
succumbed. Pathologic changes included extensive
207
Potkay
renal tubular damage and proliferative glomerulo-
nephritis. It was suggested that double infections in
people may be associated with the quartan malarial
nephrotic syndrome seen in the tropics, and that
the marmoset may be a useful model for further
studies.
Ciliata
Balantidiidae
Balantidium. Balantidium sp was reported in a single
captive C. jacchus [271]. There were no associated
clinical or pathological findings.
Other protozoan infections
Pneumocystis. P. carinii, first observed in C. jac-
chus, was more recently reported associated with
interstitial pneumonia in C. aurita [383]. Few para-
sitic cysts (5 to 7 mm in diameter) containing eight
intracystic nuclei were seen, and death was more
likely the result of coexisting bacterial infection and
helminthiasis. In a retrospective histologic survey
of the lungs of 441 S. oedipus and S. fuscicollis,
50 tamarins (11.3%) were found to have P. carinii
infections [244,412]. The incidence was highest in
7 -12-month-old colony-born animals and long-
term colony residents, but only two of the cases
were judged to be of possible clinical significance.
It was suggested that pneumocystosis is probably
not common in wild tamarins. Infections may have
been acquired in captivity, or the conditions of con-
finement may have contributed to the infectivity of
this agent.
Babesia. An unidentified piroplasma was reported in
a captive C. jacchus that died of malnutrition and
secondary anemia [230].
Mycotic diseases
Few mycotic infections were described in callitrich-
ids. It has been suggested that this may be related
to a lack of study and reporting of these conditions
[247].
Dermatomycoses
Piedraia. One imported Callithrix sp carried P. hor-
tai, a common fungus in the tropics that affects the
hair on the head [265]. Also called black piedra,
it typically results in the formation of hard, brown
to black nodules that surround the hair shafts [222].
Other. A fungus described as strictly endothrix and
characterized by the presence of single or doubly
branched spores was detected in captive C. jacchus
and Saguinus sp [108,109]. The animals had vary-
208
ing degrees of alopecia, and treatment consisted of
griseofulvin (12.5 mg/day).
Systemic mycoses
Candida. The incidence of Candida sp isolation from
the throats of imported Saguinus sp was 30%, and
2% from acclimated tamarins; isolations from feces
were low (1 %) [108]. Glossitis and esophagitis as-
sociated with Candida sp infections were also ob-
served in debilitated captive C. jacchus [69]. Clini-
cal signs of moniliasis were not reported in these
tamarins, but others have found the organism asso-
ciated with ulcers in the mouth, esophagus, and
gastrointestinal tract [28,247], and Candida has
been reported as a cause of death.
Cryptococcus. Spontaneous cryptococcosis was diag-
nosed at necropsy in three immature, captive S.
o. geoffroyi in Panama [467]. The tamarins were
emaciated and had severe, generalized pneumonitis
and splenomegaly and enlarged mesenteric lymph
nodes. Microscopically, plasma cells, lympho-
cytes, and extravasated red cells were seen in the
pulmonary alveoli. Cryptococcus (neoformans) was
present singly or in small groups in inflammed areas
of the lungs and in germinal centers of the spleen.
There was patchy loss of mucosa in the small intes-
tine, and the architectural structure of lymph nodes
was destroyed.
Experimental infection of three S. o. geoffroyi
with massive oral doses of Cryptococcus neo-
formans resulted in transient anorexia and list-
lessness [465]. Three days before death (19 and 32
days postinoculation) more profound clinical signs
developed: irritability, muscular tremors of the
limbs, and paralysis which progressed to opisthoto-
nos. The principal necropsy finding was segmental
distension of the small intestine, and microscopi-
cally there were focal lesions of necrosis in the
brain, myocardium, and mesenteric lymph nodes.
The causative agent was cultured from the brain,
meninges, liver, spleen, and spinal cord.
Nutritional diseases
Although this is not a review of the nutritional re-
quirements of callitrichids, it may be noted that
their requirements are poorly understood and some-
times difficult to meet. This seems apparent from
the large numbers of diets that have been developed
and used in zoo and research environments [83].
Formulations varied and included numerous com-
binations of fresh fruits and vegetables, cereals,
bread, eggs, dairy products, adult and larval in-
sects, mice, reptiles and vitamin-mineral supple-
ments fed in precise quantities or ad libitum. Baked
biscuits and commercially available pellets of vary-

ing hardness, pastes, commercial semi-soft prepa-
rations, gruels and purified diets were also utilized.
Many diets were formulated not only to provide
nutrition, but also to enhance palatability and serve
as an environmental stimulus for captive animals.
Nevertheless, nutrition-related morbidity and mor-
tality were often reported in callitrichids both on
a.rrival from source countries and after varying pe-
~Iods following acclimatization [33,133,433]. Stud-
Ies to better elucidate nutrient requirements and re-
lated considerations in the feeding of these species
are ongoing [23,24,40,82,83,133,161,165,276,
370,414,420,470,471,513,523] .
Hypoglycemia
~a~tive callitrichids were reported to have a high
IncIdence of hypoglycemia, contributory factors
being their high metabolic rates and the frequency
of feeding [74]. Early signs of hypoglycemia-
muscle tremors and unsteadiness-could be re-
versed by feeding fruits immediately, while for
more severe cases, 20% dextrose given by stomach
tube and insulin (1-2 units, intraperitoneally) was
recommended. Small quantities of feed containing
sugar given several times a day were said to reduce
or eliminate the problem [74]. The results of a di-
etary study indicated that a liquid with a high sugar
Content given in conjunction with a staple ration
Was acceptable to C. jacchus as a source of energy,
and that these marmosets gained more weight than
control groups [289). It was suggested that the
preparation resembled tree-exudated nectars that
Callithrix utilize in the wild.
AVitaminosis C
Experimental Vitamin C deficiency in C. jacchus
was associated with loss of appetite, weight, and
activity; swollen joints and puffy eyelids; muscle
tenderness; anemia; and petechial and ecchymotic
hemorrhages in the skin of the face, abdomen, and
extremities [I 15,295 [. Signs appeared within two
to f?ur months and were progressive. Lesions of
monbund marmosets (92- 167 days) were subperi-
osteal hemorrhages involving ribs and long bones
and hemorrhages around joints, vertebral bodies,
Costochondral junctions, and in the muscles of the
extremities; acute or chronic pneumonitis was fre-
quently present. The teeth were loose, and micro-
sCopically there were hemorrhages of the alveolar
segment of the periodontal ligament. In another
study C. jacchus fed a vitamin C deficient diet for
~our months showed no clinical signs of deficiency,
ut had markedly elevated plasma cholesterol levels
and decreased levels of circulating thyroid hormone
[325].
The daily ascorbic acid requirement of C. jac-
Callitrichid diseases
chus was determined to be 15 mg/kg metabolic
body weight, while that of S. fuscicollis. although
not precisely determined, was considerably higher
[162]. It was found that exposure to short-term
stressors such as annoyance, flashing lights, and
noise increased the requirement for this vitamin.
Avitaminosis D
The requirement of nonhuman primates for vitamin
o to prevent rickets was first understood in the
1930s and was recently reviewed [222). Subse-
quently, it was found that New World primates re-
quire vitamin 03, which enhances calcium absorp-
tion better than vitamin 02, to maintain normal
bone metabolism [246]. Failure to supply vitamin
D3 to growing animals results in rickets, and in
adults, osteomalacia. Osteodystrophia fibrosa is
considered to be a descriptive term for these condi-
tions [221. Formerly, rickets and osteomalacia were
commonly diagnosed in callitrichids, the clinical
signs being lethargy, inappetence, weight loss,
skeletal deformities, pathological fractures (in
adults) and paralysis of the hind legs; death was
often the direct result of pneumonia [36,41,229,
269,429,507). S. fuscicollis. experimentally de-
prived of vitamin D for 215 days, developed hyper-
parathyroidism characterized by high parathormone
levels and partial skeletal demineralization (164).
The advent of diets with adequate vitamin D3, ap-
propriate calcium-phosphorus ratios, and adequate
protein has made the occurrence of rickets and os-
teomalacia rare, but has not eliminated it [66]. In
the absence of such diets, supplementation with vi-
tamin D3 (500 IU/day) and 25% protein and expo-
sure to ultraviolet light was recommended to pre-
vent occurrence [2061. Other studies indicated that
the daily requirement for vitamin D3 in S. fusci-
collis was 33 IU per animal [164], while that of C.
jacchus was 110 Iunoo gm body weight [460].
Daily oral administration of 1,000 IU of vitamin D3
was reported to cure C. jacchus with osteomalacia
within one month [206]. Normal circulating levels
of I ex, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 were reported to
be four to ten times higher than in apes or catarrhini
and may be related to a reduced concentration of
receptors for this metabolite in target tissues
[3,434). C. jacchus has been recommended as a
model for studies of vitamin O-dependent rickets,
type 2 [460].
Avitaminosis E
High mortality (66%) among 157 imported S. /a-
biatus was associated clinically with weight loss,
rough hair coats, anemia, weakness, and lethargy;
in a few, incoordination or paralysis of the hind
limbs was observed [28]. The tamarins were ob-
209
Potkay
tained in three groups at different times, and clini-
cal signs became apparent six to ten weeks after
arrival. Laboratory findings varied between groups
and over time, but hemolytic anemia, leukopenia,
and decrease in serum vitamin E levels were gener-
ally seen. At necropsy, emaciation, dehydrati?n,
anemia, and atrophy of the lumbosacral an~ hmd
limb musculature were found in many ammals.
Bronchopneumonia was present in 20%, more than
50% had splenomegaly, and livers were pale. Nu-
merous microscopic lesions were observed; more
than 70% of the animals had swelling and the pres-
ence of pigment granules in hepatocytes, atrophy
of pancreatic acinar cells, coliti~, gastritis, a~d
nephrocalcinosis. Muscle necrosIs was seen ~n
57% and 15% had steatitis. Efforts to treat anemic
anim'als with parenteral vitamin E and seleni~m
were unsuccessful. Vitamin E given per os and vita-
min E with selenium administered intramuscularly
to tamarins from the time of their arrival, however,
was associated with a reduced incidence and sever-
ity of anemia, muscle necrosis, and mo~ality as
compared with untreated groups. Among I~ported
and domestically bred C. jacchus. mortalIty a~d
morbidity characterized by Heinz body hemo}ytIc
anemia and hemosiderosis were also associated
with low serum vitamin E levels [69).
Folic acid deficiency
Provision of a folic-acid-free diet to C. jacchus re-
sulted in anorexia, loss of weight, alopecia, [assi-
tude, diarrhea, and death in 59- [36 days [57,295).
Reduced white blood cell counts and granu[ocyto-
penia were also observed, as wer~ progressive s.to-
matitis and inflammation of the lIps and ulceratIon
of the mouth and intestines. Histo[ogic findings in-
cluded altered cell maturation and impaired kerati-
nization. Affected animals had increased suscep-
tibility to secondary infections. Develop~e~t of
lesions and deaths were accelerated by admlmster-
ing a folic acid antagonist (methotrexate) to th~se
animals. Marmosets given diets supplemented wIth
folic acid developed no signs of deficiency or [e-
sions.
Histidine and arginine deficiency
In C. jacchus a reduction in dietary pro.tein to [e~s
than 6% led to coprophagy, as did dIets deVOId
of histidine or arginine or both [163]. Marmosets
preferred soft, pasty feces, rejecting those that were
firm. Consumption of diets that were free of these
amino acids was associated with weight loss, and
it was suggested that either or both of them were
essential.
210
Nicotinic acid deficiency
S. oedipus fed diets devoid of nicotinic acid for
52-104 weeks developed clinical signs of weak-
ness, lethargy, diarrhea, and dermatitis [114,368].
Necropsy findings were ulcerative enteritis, necro-
tizing gingivitis, and ulceration of the tongue. Mi-
croscopically, there was significant loss of lingual
papillae and necrosis involving ~he gingiv~l epit~e­
lium and lamina propria, whIch sometImes m-
vo[ved the periodontal ligaments and was associ-
ated with alveolar bone resorption. Tamarins fed
diets containing 5 mg of nicotinic acid did not de-
velop these signs and lesions.
Zinc deficiency
At varying intervals after importation, spontaneous
zinc deficiency was observed in S. mystax that were
fed a commercial diet containing 150 mg/kg of zinc
[65]. Clinical signs were alopecia, sca[iness, and
thickening of skin of the tail, perineum, limbs and
trunk; ulceration sometimes occurred. Addition of
zinc (40 mg/kg) to the drinking water resulted in
improvement of the condition of the skin and hair
coat. Since deficiencies of trace elements can be
related to dietary nutritional imbalances, vitamin
content of ingredients, source of dietary protein, or
absolute shortage of these elements, the cause of
zinc deficiency was not determined.
Wasting
The term "wasting marmoset syndrome" (WMS)
was initially used to describe generalized weakness
and failure to thrive in recently weaned marmosets
[308). Subsequent[y. its use expanded to include
all callitrichids of all ages [277 ,35 [ ). Affected ca[-
litrichids were reported to have skeletal muscle at-
rophy. marked weight [os~, and a[ope~ia, e~pecially
of the tail. Associated sIgns sometImes mcluded
weakness or paralysis of the hind legs, anemia, and
chronic or intermittent diarrhea; the fur may appear
wet or greasy. Among weanings, hypoa[bumin-
emia elevated serum aspartate aminotransferase,
and ~nemia have been reported [308], and nephri-
tis, pancreatitis, hepatic lesions,. and pa~asitism were
observed in adults [49,376]. Hlsto[oglcally the gut
may appear normal, but thin [478], ~r there may
be chronic colitis [351]. Changes m the fecal
microflora of marmosets with WMS included a
marked increase in the numbers of putrefactive or-
ganisms (Bacteroides-jusobacte:ia) and Clostrid-
ium, and significant decreases m the numbers of
lactobacilli [299]. Populations of lactose nonfer-
menting organisms such as Proteus sp, Pseudomo-
nas aeruginosae and Alcaligenes jecalis were also
found to increase.

WMS appears to encompass a variety of illnesses
~hat ~re not understood and that have no specifically
identifiable causes. That it is not a specific syn-
drome or disease is suggested by the variety of fac-
~ors ~hat have been put forth as causing or inftuenc-
mg its development; these include helminthiasis
~nd other infections, inadequate exercise, dietary
tnadequacies resulting from food formulation or
competition, and palatability of feed [351,385,
~34,478]. Likewise, recommended treatments have
tncluded providing a high protein diet [49,277,
385,387,434], administering lactobacilli [479],
modifying methods for feeding animals housed in
groups [471] and improving diet palatability [513].
Neoplastic diseases
Spontaneous neoplasms occur occasionally in calli-
trichids and are described below. With few excep-
tions little information was available concerning
them. For a discussion of neoplasia caused by vi-
ruses see Gamma herpesvirinae and Oncornaviri-
nae. Among newly imported S. sp, one fibrochon-
droma of the larynx and one benign adenoma of the
adrenal cortex were seen [109]. Of five S. sp with
tumors of the eyelids, one was examined and found
to be a melanized papilloma [59]. A squamous cell
carcinoma originating in the skin below the in-
tertragic notch of the ear was seen in an aged S. f.
leucogenys [411]. Associated clinical signs were
facial palsy and paralysis of the orbicularis oculi
muscle. The tumor grew rapidly from a small, lo-
cal, slightly elevated lesion to amass that even-
tually involved the buccal cavity. Squamous cell
carcinomas involving the head have also been ob-
served in nine C. jacchus, as has been one reticu-
lum cell carcinoma [227]. Adrenal myelolipomas
[369] and a juxtarenal myelolipoma [451] were de-
s~ribed in three aged S. oedipus and may have con-
tnbuted to their poor body condition; the mass was
palpable through the abdominal wall of one. Neph-
roblastoma [257], uterine tumor [348], and renal
papillary adenoma [47] were reported in individual
S. oedipus, and thyroid adenocarcinoma was de-
tected in one S. nigricollis [509].
Leukemia was listed as the cause of death in a
C. jac:hus [168], lymphatic leukemia was diag-
nos~d m C. argentata, and S. midas [230,231] and
mahgnant lymphoma was seen in C. jacchus [49].
Myeloproliferative disease in a three-and-one-half-
rear-Old S. o. oedipus was characterized by en-
arg~d lymph nodes, liver, and spleen [278]. Micro-
~cOpically, tissues of the gastrointestinal tract were
~nfiltrated by blast cells of undetermined origin and
immature granulocytes, and these cell types largely
~eplaced the lymphoid tissue of the lymph nodes,
pleen, tonsils, and thymus.
Callitrichid diseases
Spontaneous adenocarcinomas of the intestinal
tract have been diagnosed in at least five colonies
of wild-caught and colony-bred S. o. oedipus [42].
These neoplasms were found, for example, in 12
S. o. oedipus and one colony-bred S. juscicollis
maintained in a large research colony for 13-74
months (average = 47.5 months) [311]. In all but
the S. juscicollis, which had a mild-ileal neoplasm,
the tumors involved the colon or cecum or both.
They were highly invasive, originated in multiple
primary sites, and, in most cases, were associated
with metastases to the paracolonic and mesenteric
lymph nodes. Microscopically, the tumors were
characterized by PAS-positive epithelial cells that
disrupted or displaced the normal colonic mu-
cosa, and invaded the submucosa, lymphatics, and
nearby lymph nodes. The immediate cause of death
was intestinal obstruction in ten of these tamarins.
The others died of ulcerative colitis, ascites, and
anemia associated clinically with inanition and
wasting. In other colonies, significant numbers of
S. oedipus died of adenocarcinoma of the colon,
and there was a strong association between this neo-
plasm and the presence of colitis [42,45,66,76,
119,279,413]. A radiographic technique has been
described for use in identifying and following the
course of colonic tumors in such animals [75]. The
similarities between colitis and adenocarcinoma of
the colon in man and in S. o. oedipus suggested
that this species may serve as a model for gastroin-
testinal disease, a topic which was explored exten-
sively at a recent symposium [77].
Diseases of specific organ systems
Lesions of specific organs or systems described in
callitrichids are shown in Table II. They were not
described as being associated with specific diseases
dealt with elsewhere in this review. Affected ani-
mals were usually from zoological collections or
research colonies, and lesions varied from clinical
observations and incidental findings at necropsy to
causes of death. Data concerning total populations
were not often available. Diseases for which a sig-
nificant amount of information was available are
described briefly below.
Oral pathology
The occurrence of dental and periodontal disease in
wild C. pygmaea, Callithrix sp, and Saguinus sp
has been extensively reviewed by species, and a
reference list was published [222]. Missing, cari-
ous, and abscessed teeth were seen in 10-20% of
the specimens studied, canines being most com-
monly affected (18.1%). As might be expected, the
incidence of dental diseases increased with increas-
211
Potkay
ing age. Their occurrence appeared to be more
common in animals obtained from certain areas and
may have been related to the types and quantities
of foods consumed. Infection of the roots of canine
teeth was common in captive C. jacchus, usually
associated with broken or badly worn teeth [26].
Clinically there was sudden swelling, abscessation,
and external drainage of pus within 24-48 hours.
Occasionally, on the affected side, there was in-
creased lacrimation, conjunctivitis, and mucopuru-
lent nasal discharge, but affected· animals did not
evidence signs of pain or discomfort. Organisms
associated with the condition were Serratia sp, Pro-
teus sp, Eikenella corrodens. Diagnosis was based
on clinical signs and radiography, and treatment
consisted of extracting the affected tooth and treat-
ing with oxytetracycline. Crazing, the presence of
discolored fine-lined fracture patterns of the dental
enamel, was consistently observed in L. rosalia and
Saguinus sp, less frequently in Callithrix and not
at all in Cebuella [222). It was usually seen in older
animals, but the relationship of this phenomenon to
dental disease is not known.
Among captive callitrichids, periodontal disease
with associated tooth loss was reported in C. j.
jacchus [308,433), and dental calculi were fre-
quently seen in C. jacchus, S. oedipus, S. fusci-
collis and S. nigricollis [26,46,71,173). The maxil-
lary canines and premolars were most commonly
involved; calculi and plaque recurred about six
weeks after removal. Gingivitis [8,36,71) and mal-
occlusion [433) have also been reported in captive
marmosets and tamarins.
Anomalies were rarely observed and included
cleft palate in C. jacchus [231) and S. fuscicollis,
[283], supernumerary teeth, and congenitally miss-
ing teeth.
Bloat
Acute bloat (gastric dilatation) is usually associated
with macaques, but has been reported in callitrich-
ids [74). Bloat has a rapid onset with minimal pro-
dromal signs, and death ensues unless the animal
is treated immediately by gastric lavage, restoration
of blood volume, correction of acid-base imbal-
ance, and supportive therapy for shock. The etiol-
ogy of the disorder is not known, but its incidence
can us~ally be reduced by increasing the frequency
of feedmg, and by offering small quantities of food
during those parts of the day when the animals are
active. Gastric dilatation has also been reported in
a.ssociation with infection by gas-producing bacte-
na [449] (See Clostridium under Bacillaceae.)
Jejunal lipodystrophy
Saguinus oedipus, given a high cholesterol-high
coconut oil diet, developed voluminous, fatty-
212
looking, light colored diarrhea within ten days, and
after 24-42 weeks, had altered serum magnesium
and alkaline phosphatase levels, abnormal Ca: P ra-
tios and evidence of osteomalacia [116]. Micro-
scopically, the cytoplasm of the jejunal columnar
epithelial cells was seen to have been displaced by
large vacuoles containing fat.
Colitis
Colitis was a common finding in colonies of
S. oedipus [66,76,311,373,419] and C. jacchus
[66,419]. Microscopically it was characterized by
abscesses of the crypts and inflammation in the lam-
ina propria. Irregularities of the mucosal epithelial
and crypt morphology and a decrease in the number
of goblet cells were observed in advanced cases.
Cachexia was seen in tamarins with colitis, proba-
bly as a result of their reduced capacity to absorb
nutrients. The colitis in S. oedipus was similar to
ulcerative colitis in human subjects [66], and was
often associated with colonic adenocarcinoma (see
under Neoplastic Diseases). Observations that the
incidence of colitis was high in all of the S. oedipus
colonies studied, but not in colonies of related tam-
arin species that were housed in a similar manner
suggested that the high risk borne by S. oedipu;
likely had a genetic basis [373). It has also been
shown that certain conditions of captivity such as
isolation, confinement, and low ambient tempera-
ture can promote the occurrence of colitis in this
species [515). Diagnostic methods for this disease
included colonoscopy and contrast radiography;
examination of multiple biopsies gave a good as-
sessment of disease status [512). Treatment with
sulfasalazine (50 mg/kg/day, orally) resulted in in-
creased body weight and serum albumin levels and
diminished disease activity as determined histologi-
cally in S. oedipus with acute colitis, but was inef-
fectual in those with chronic colitis [314).
Idiopathic ulcerative ileocolitis with thrombocytopenia
Rapidly fatal focal ulcerative ileocolitis was re-
ported in five captive-born S. oedipus, aged 4-12
months [441). Clinical signs included diarrhea or
dark, tarry stools, weakness, inappetence, and pale
mucous membranes. Hematology revealed severe
acute or nonregenerative hemolytic anemia and
thrombocytopenia associated with widespread hem-
orrhage. Other lesions, confined to the ileocolic
junction, consisted of sharply demarcated ulcers
with pus and variable hemorrhage. Of the variety
of pathogenic bacteria isolated from these animals
or their feces, strong consideration was given to
anaerobes and pathogenic strains of E. coli as the
etiology of this condition.
 Callitrichid diseases

Table II. Specific anatomical lesions observed in callitrichids

Lesion Species No. of cases· References

Integumentary
Alopecia Saguinus nigricollis 8/422 129
Dermatitis Callithrix jacchus 7/422 481
Ulceration Callithrix jacchus 481

Respiratory
Bronchopneumonia Callithrix jacchus, C. j. penicil/ata, C. 109,152,190,
humeralifer, Saguinus midas niger, 200, 201,
S. sp 202, 311
Empyema Cal/ithrix jacchus 410
Foam cells (alveoli) Cal/ithrix jacchus 9/422 4B1
Lymphoid cuffing Callithrix jacchus 27/422 481
Pneumonia Callithrix jacchus, Cebuel/a pygmaea, 74/355 35, 49, 74, 109,
Saguinus oedipus, S. fuscicollis, S. 5/78; 2/18 153,155,265,
nigricollis, S. sp, Leontopithecus 10/422; 1 275, 285, 287,
rosalia, "callitrichids" 481
Pneumonia, aspiration Saguinus oedipus 1/267 275
Pulmonary congestion, edema and Saguinus sp 109
hemorrhage
Pleuritis Saguinus sp, Cal/ithrix jacchus 1+ 69, 74, 109
Tracheiti's Saguinus sp 7 + /422 109, 481

Hematopoietic
Anemia Cal/ithrix jacchus, Saguinus sp, 175 + /422 69, 74, 168,
Leontopithecus rosalia, "calli- 230
trichids"
Reactive lymphoid hyperplasia Cal/ithrix jacchus 33/422 481
Thymic atrophy Callithrix jacchus 15/422 481
Splenic extramedullary hematopoiesiS Callithrix jacchus 18/422 481

Cardiovascular
Ascites Saguinus o. geoffroyi 198
Endocarditis Callithrix jacchus, Saguinus fuscicollis 1/18 45,49
Pericarditis Callithrix jacchus, Saguinus sp 109, 151, 155
Ventricular dilatation Callithrix jacchus 30/335 69
Myocardial fibrosis, fibrofuscinosis Cal/ithrix jacchus 15/335; 19/438 69, 486
Myocarditis Cal/ithrix jacchus, Saguinus mystax 9/483 385, 481
PUlmonary thrombosis Callithrix jacchus 1/335 69
Digestive
Dental abscess Callithrix jacchus 19/64 26, 227
Esophagitis Callithrix jacchus 4/335 69
ESophageal obstruction Callithrix jacchus 1 69
Gastritis Callithrix jacchus 4/335; 7/422 69, 481
Gastric trichobeozar Saguinus fuscicol/is 2 192
Gastroenteritis Saguinus mystax 25/49 385
Enteritis, acute and chronic Callithrix jacchus, Saguinus midas, S. 1/18; 63/422 1,29,156,
sp, Leontopithecus rosalia, L. 230, 481
chrysopygus, "callitrichids"
Enteritis Cal/ithrix jacchus 100/335 69
Enteritis, bacterial Cal/ithrix jacchus 7/178 74
Intestinal obstruction Cal/ithrix humeralifer 200
Intussusception Callithrix jacchus 428
Callithrix jacchus 197
TYPhlitis, acute gangrenous
Hepatic extramedullary hemato- Callithrix jacchus 42/422 481
poiesis
Hepatic mononuclear cell infiltrates Callithrix jacchus 15/422 481
Hepatic parenchymal cell necrosis Callithrix jacchus 8/422 481
Hepatitis, chronic Callithrix jacchus 9/335 69
Biliary hyperplasia Callithrix jacchus 4/335 69
Hepatic abscess Callithrix jacchus 1/335 69
Cholecystitis Callithrix jacchus 3/335; 27/422 69, 481
Hemosiderosis Callithrix jacchus 151/335 69
Pancreatitis Callithrix jacchus 46
Pancreat!~ fibrosis, exocrine atrophy Callithrix jacchus 35/336 69, 142
Pancreatitis, subacute to chronic Callithrix jacchus, "marmosets" 7/18 49,168,410
Peritonitis Callithrix jacchus, Saguinus sp, "calli- 7/18 1, 49, 74,
trichids" 414
Rectal prolapse Callithrix jacchus 2/335 69
Continued.
213
Table II. Continued
Lesion Species No. of cases" References

Urogenital
Cystitis Callithrix jacchus, Saguinus nigricollis 2/178 74, 410
Cystic ovarian follicles Callithrix jacchus 10/222 481
Renal extramedullary hematopoiesis Callithrix jacchus 40/456 481, 482
Metritis Callithrix jacchus 2+ 69, 151
Nephritis Callithrix jacchus, Saguinus mystax 4/178 74,385
Nephritis, chronic Callithrix jacchus 70/200 482
Nephritis, purulent Saguinus oedipus 1/267 275
Pyleonephritis Saguinus fuscicollis, S. oedipus, 43, 220, 410,
"callitrichids" 481
Glomerular fibrotic nephritis . Callithrix jacchus 307
Glomerular neph ritis, acute Callithrix jacchus 46
Renal tubular mineralization Callithrix jacchus 7/178 74, 482
Renal tubular necrosis, acute Callithrix jacchus 5/178 74
Renal tubular dilatation/casts Callithrix jacchus 89/456 481, 482
Tubulo-interstitial nephritis Callithrix jacchus 46
Interstitial nephritis Callithrix jacchus 2/335 69
Renal interstitial infiltrates Callithrix jacchus 284/456 481, 482
Nephrosis "callitrichid" 408
Testicular atrophy Callithrix jacchus 1; 33/195 69, 481
Obstetric conditions Callithrix jacchus, C. jx. C. j. peni- 3 233
ciliata, C. humeralifer
Musculoskeletal
Cleft lip and palate Callithrix jacchus, Saguinus fuscicollis 2 231, 283, 397
Ectrodactyly Callithrix jacchus 1 172
Diaphragmatic hernia Leontopithecus rosalia 8/90 401
Dwarfism Saguinus oedipus 1; 1/267 67, 275
Lobster claw deformity Callithrix jacchus 1 396
Myopathy Callithrix jacchus 116/335; 8/422 69, 481
Osteodystrophy Callithrix jacchus 30/335 69
Polydactyly Callithrix jacchus, Saguinus oedipus 2; 1/267 67, 275, 397
Scoliosis Saguinus fuscicollis 1 67
Septic arth ritis Callithrix jacchus 1/335 69
Syndactyly Callithrix jacchus, Saguinus nigricollis, 3 67,172,224
S. oedipus
Umbilical hernia Saguinus oedipus 2/267 275
Nervous
Meningitis Callithrix jacchus, Saguinus oedipus, 3 +; 4/267 69, 168, 275
"marmoset"
Meningoencephalitis, purulent Callithrix jacchus 46
Pachymeningitis Callithrix jacchus 405
Hydrocephalus Callithrix jacchus 2/235 69
Cerebral extramedullary hemato- Callithrix jacchus 10/483 481
poiesis
Cerebral hemorrhage Saguinus oedipus 12/267 275
Endocrine
Parafollicular cell hyperplasia Callithrix jacchus 44/422 481
Ectopic thymic tissue Callithrix jacchus 25/422 481
Thyroid enlargement Callithrix jacchus 19/335 69
Thyroiditis, chronic Callithrix jacchus 1/335; 48/422 69, 481
Adrenals; inflammatory cell infil- Callithrix jacchus 31/335 69
tration
Adrenals; extramedullary hemato- Callithrix jacchus 1071422 481
poiesis
Colloid gOiter Callithrix jacchus 9/422 481
Organs of Special Sense
Eye
Cataract Saguinus fuscicollis illigeri x 59
S. f. lagonotus, S. sp
Cellulitis, periorbital Callithrix jacchus 410
Conjunctivitis with blindness Callithrix jacchus 204
Obstructed meibomian ducts Saguinus o. oedipus, S. sp 59
Other: Anisocoria; corneal pig men- Callithrix j. jacchus. Cebuella pygmaea, 59
tation; distichiasis; entropion; ec- Saguinus f. fuscicollis, S. f. lagono-
tropion; iris cyst; keratitis; lagoph- tus, S. f. leucogenys, S. f. nigri-
thalmos; lens pigmentation; optiC collis, S. f. nigrifons, S. o. oedipus
disc ectasis
Other
Neonatal conditions Saguinus oedipus 9, 56/156 10, 272
--------
"Number of cases reported, or number of cases/total population.

Atherosclerosis
Spontaneous atherosclerosis is rare in callitrichids
[12,45,49,79]; it has been induced in S. oedipus by
feeding a 5% cholesterol, 23% lard diet for 47-73
weeks [117]. Atheromas were found distributed
through the aortas of tamarins that ate this diet for
69-73 weeks· all animals had atherosclerotic le-
sions of the c;ronary and lingual arteries and arteri-
oles, and blood cholesterol levels were markedly
elevated. C. pygmaea was also reported to develop
hYpercholesterolemia when maintained on a diet of
eggs and milk [443].
Thyroiditis
~hronic thyroiditis has been observed at necropsy
In 10-60% of colony born C. jacchus [295,481].
The incidence appeared to be lower in wild-caught
Callithrix and Saguinus, however [295]. Lesions
varied from minor to extensive lymphocytic infil-
trations with follicular destruction. The findings
Were incidental and their significance was un-
known.
Mesangial nephropathy
Inflammatory renal lesions, which occurred in more
than 90% of the members of a callitrichid colony,
Were directly related to the deaths of 10-20% of
them [43,44]. The species involved were S. oedi-
pus, S. fuscicollis, S. labiatus, S. mystax, S. bi-
color, L. rosalia, Callithrix j. jacchus, C. j. geof-
f~oYi, C. penicillata, and C. pygmaea. Clinical
Signs were nonspecific, consisting of transient or
Continuous hematuria, proteinuria, and urinary
Casts. Histologically, the typical lesions were mes-
angial sclerosis, proliferation, and sclerosis of
BOwman's capsule, and glomerular sclerosis. In the
mesangium, lesions were strongly associated with
IgM. deposits, which appear to have occurred ac-
cordIng to classical complement activation path-
:vays. There did not appear to be any genetic or sex
Influence on the frequency or occurrence of this
progressive disease.
Obesity
S. fuseicollis and S. oedipus whose body weights
e~ceeded 460 g and 450 g, respectively, were con-
sidered to be obese [48]. In these animals, the most
frequently found lesions were acute pancreatic ne-
crosis and steatonecrosis. These findings, and the
~bservation that affected tamarins had glycosuria
hut not .ketonuria, led to the speculation that they
ad an insulin resistant diabetes similar to human
tYpe II diabetes.
Callitrichid diseases
Helminth parasites
Internal parasitic infections are common in calli-
trichids (Tables III, IV, and V). The following dis-
cussion is restricted to those which are particularly
common, injurious to their hosts, or of public
health significance.
Trematoda
Trematodiasis appeared to occur almost exclusively
in tamarins, there being only one report of infection
in Callithrix (Table III). Life cycles of the digenetic
flukes are complex and largely unknown. They
may, depending on the species, require intermedi-
ate hosts, which could include insects, mollusks,
amphibians, reptiles, or fish. Infection of the final
host is acquired by ingesting either intermediate
hosts in nature or feed contaminated with trematode
cercariae. Diagnoses of trematodiasis based on the
observation of eggs in feces are generally not de-
finitive; examinations of adult trematodes is prefer-
able [285].
The biliary tract was most commonly reported
as a site of fluke infection. The genera involved
were Athesmia and Platynosomum, the average
number of flukes per host being 11 and 5, respec-
tively [388]. Flukes were usually found at nec-
ropsy, sometimes causing distension of the biliary
tract. Microscopically, their presence may be asso-
ciated with biliary epithelial hypertrophy and hy-
perplasia, pericholangial fibrosis, and a mixed in-
flammatory cell reaction [246].
While several flukes (Neodiplostomum, Phaner-
opsolus, and Echidnostoma) inhabit the small intes-
tine, the incidence of infections was low and no
clinical or pathologic findings have been reported.
S. f. illigeri was susceptible to experimental in-
fection with Schistosoma mansoni cercariae [110].
Their subcutaneous administration produced high
(31 %) infection nites and lesions, which included
hepatosplenomegaly, necrosis, and hemorrhage of
the intestine and ascites. In animals infected percu-
taneously, infection rates were low (2.6%) and le-
sions consisted of hepatic granulomas. Adult Schis-
tosoma were recovered from the inferior mesenteric
veins.
Cestoda
Tapeworms were occasionally found in the small
intestines of imported tamarins; marmosets were
seldom affected (Table IV). Of these worms,
the most commonly reported were Atriotaenia
and Paratriotaenia, while Bertiella, Raillietina,
and Hymenolepis were observed infrequently. The
number of parasites was small, averaging about five
per host, and no apparent pathology was associated
215
Table III. Trematode parasites of callitrichids

Parasite Host Habitat Location References

Trematoda
Dicrocoeliidae
Athesmia (Heterolecithodes) Saguinus geoffroyi, S. fuscicollis, Gall bladder, bile ducts Panama Prov., Panama; 28, 86, 87,
foxi S. nigricollis, S. labiatus, S. New Orleans, LA; Oak 205, 206,
oedipus, S. leucopus, S. sp Ridge, TN; Coving- 285, 286,
ton, LA 388, 476
Platynosomum amazonensis Saguinus fuscicollis, Callithrix Gall bladder, bile ducts Oak Ridge, TN 87, 285,
jacchus 388
Platynosomum marmoseti Saguinus nigricollis Gall bladder, bile ducts Oak Ridge, TN 87, 285
Platynosomum sp Saguinus sp, Leontopithecus sp Gall bladder a 87, 286
Zonorchis gOliath Saguinus geoffroyi, Leonto- Bile ducts Panama Province and 286, 476
pithecus sp Canal Zone, Panama
Dicrocoelium sp Saguinus sp Liver Chicago, IL 108
Diplostomidae
Neodiplostomum tamarini Saguinus nigricollis, S. fusci- Small intestine Oak Ridge, TN 87, 285
collis
Neodiplostomum sp Saguinus sp, Leontopithecus sp Intestine 86, 108
286
Lecithodendriidae
Phaneropsolus orbicularis Saguinus fuscicollis, S. sp Intestine 86, 285,
388
Phaneropsolus sp Saguinus fuscicollis, S. sp Small intestine Oak Ridge, TN 87, 286
Echidnostomatidae
Echidnostoma aphylactum Saguinus geoffroyi Small intestine Panama Prov., Panama 476
Trematodes Saguinus nigricollis Liver, biliary tract Oak Ridge, TN 358
------ .------------- - ------------ - -

aGeographic location was not reported.

Table IV. Cestode parasites of callitrichids

Parasite Host Habitat Location References

Cestoda
Anaplocephalidae
Atriotaenia (Oochoristica) Saguinus nigricollis, S. tamarin, Small intestine Brazil; Colombia; 16,87,108,
(Matheovataenia) S. bicolor, S. midas, S. sp, Guyana; Peru 120,286,
megastoma Callithrix argentata melaura, 452
Leontopithecus sp
Bertiella mucronata Saguinus leucopus, Callithrix Small intestine Minas Gerais, Brazil 16,388
nigrifrons
Davaineidae
Para trio taenia oedipomi- Saguinus oedipus Small intestine New Orleans, LA 458
datus
Para trio taenia (Oochoristica) Saguins fuscicollis, S. leucopus, Small intestine Oak Ridge, TN 74, 87, 286,
sp S. illigeri, S. oedipus, S. sp 388
Raillientina sp Saguinus nigricollis, S. sp Small intestine Chicago, IL 74, 108
Diphyllobothriidae
Diphyllobothrium erinacei Saguinus sp Subcutaneous 166, 222
(larvae)
Spirometra mansonoides Saguinus geoffroyi Subcutaneous in Panama Prov., Panama 388, 476
(larvae) scapular region
Spirometra rep tans (larvae) Callithrix argentata Subcutaneous South America 120, 456
Spirometra sp (larvae) Saguinus fuscicollis, S. nigri- Subcutaneous in Loreto, Peru 87, 388, 437
collis, S. oedipus, S. illigeri, scapular and lumbar
S. mystax, S. sp, Callithrix sp region, axilla
Hymenolepididae
Hymenolepis cebidarum Saguinus nigricollis, Callithrix Intestine Minas GeraiS, 16, 120, 286
nigrifrons (?) Brazil; Colombia;
Peru
Vampirolepis sp Callithrix sp 355
Cestodes Callithrix jacchus, Saguinus oe- London Zoological 196, 197,
dipus, S. nigricollis, S. sp Gardens, England 205, 206
Cestode larvae Saguinus labiatus Subcutaneous Covington, LA 28
aHabitat was not reported.
bGeographic location was not reported.

216
Table V. Helminth parasites of callitrichids
Parasite Host Habitat Location References
----~ --- - .. _ - - - - - - - ------.~

Nematoda
Oxiuridae
Enterobius callithrieis Caflithrix jaeehus, Cecum, large intestine London Zoological 432, 447,
Saguinus oedipus Gardens, England; 518
South America
Enterobius vermieularis Cebuella pygmaea 518
Enterobius sp Callithrix jaeehus, Small intestine London Zoological 197, 286
Cebue/la pygmaea, Gardens, England;
Leontopitheeus sp
Primasubulura jacehus Callithrix jaeehus, Cecum, small intestine, Oak Ridge, TN: 87, 108,
Cebue/la pygmaea, colon Brazil; South 111, 388
Saguinus labiatus, America
S. fuscieo/lis,
S. leueopus, S. oedipus,
S. mystax
Subulura jaeehus Callithrix penicillata, Cecum, large intestine Panama Prov., 61,64
C. jaeehus, C. argentata Panama; Rio de 243, 456,
C. aurita, Saguinus Janeiro, Brazil; 476,518
geoffroyi, S. oedipus, Colombia; Loreto,
S. bieolor, Cebue/la Peru; Mato Grosso,
pygmaea Brazil
Subulura distans Callithrix jacehus, C. Intestine, cecum London Zoological 456, 486
argentata, Saguinus Gardens, England;
bicolor Mato Grosso, Brazil
Subulura sp Caflithrix jaeehus, London Zoological 191, 286
Leontopitheeus sp, Gardens, England
Cebue/la pygmaea
Trypanoxyuris eallithrieis Callithrix jacehus, Colon Panama Prov., 245, 251,
Saguinus nigrieollis Panama; Brazil; 476
South America
Trypanoxyuris (Enterobius) Saguinus oedipus Colombia 386
minutis
Trypanoxyuris oedipi Saguinus oedipus Colombia 251
Trypanoxyuris tamarini Saguinus nigrieollis, Cecum, colon Oak Ridge, TN; 87, 108
S. fuscieollis Peru; South 245, 251
America
Trypanoxyuria sp Callithrix jaechus, Large intestine South America 286, 388
Saguinus fuseieollis,
S. iIIigeri,
S. oedipus, S. sp,
Leontopitheeus sp
Spiruroidea
Protospirura murieola Callithrix jaeehus, Stomach South America 388
Saguinus fuseieollis
Pterigodermatites nyetieebi Leontopitheeus r. Small intestine, colon, Washington, DC 346
rosalia cecum, rectum, stomach
Pte.rygodermatites sp Saguinus oedipus Small intestine Topeka, KS 300
SPlfura guianensis Saguinus fuscieollis, Esophagus, stomach Panama Prov., 87, 243,
(== tamarin) S. mystax Panama; Loreto, 358, 388,
Peru; South 476
America
b
SpJrura sp Saguinus sp 286
Tnehospirura leptostoma Callithrix jacehus, Pancreatic ducts Brazil; Colombia; 28, 29, 30
Saguinus oedipus Oak Ridge, TN; 69,87
Covington, LA; 376, 440
Macclesfield,
England; Sisseln,
Switzerland
Triehospirura sp Cebuella pygmaea, 286
Callithrix sp
Gnathostomatidae
Gnathostoma weinberg Saguinus sp French Guiana 456
b
Gnathostoma sp Leontopithecus sp, 286, 456
Saguinus sp
PhYSalopteridae
Physaloptera sp Saguinus geoffroyi, Stomach Panama Prov., 286, 456,
Callithrix jacchus, Panama; Brazil 476
Leontopithecus rosalia,
Cebuella sp
Retieularia sp Cebuella, sp, 286
Leontopitheeus sp
Continued.
217
Table V. Continued

Parasite Host Habitat Location References

Metastrongylidae
Angiostrongylus costaricensis Saguinus mystax Ileum, intestinal Iquitos, Peru 437
mesentery
Filariopsis (Filaroides) Callithrix jacchus, Lung Rio de Janeiro, 403, 446,
barretoi Saguinus nigricollis Brazil 518
Filariopsis (Filaroides) Cebuella pygmaea Lung Leticia, Colombia 301, 403
cebuellae 498
Filariopsis (Filaroides) Callithrix jacchus, Lung 498, 518
gordius Saguinus nigricollis
Filaroides sp Saguinus fuscicollis, Lung Upper Amazon River 87, 285,
Cebuella pygmaea basin; Oak Ridge, 358, 388
TN; South America
Metastrongyles Saguinus oedipus New Orleans, LA 206
Trichostrongylidae
Longistriata dudia Saguinus fuscicollis Duodenum, jejunum South America 388
Longistriata sp Saguinus fuscicollis, Small intestine Oak Ridge, TN 87, 286
S. sp
Molineus vexillarius Saguinus fuscicollis, Duodenum, jejunum Oak Ridge, TN 87, 108,
S. leucopus, S. oedipus, 388,518
S. nigricollis
Molineus tortulosus Saguinus oedipus Colombia 388
Molineus elegans Saguinus mystax Small intestine Loreto, Peru 243
Molineus sp Saguinus sp b c 286
Pithecostrongylus (Cooperia) Cebuella pygmaea 286,518
alatus
Rhabditidae
b
Strongyloides stercoralis Cebuella pygmaea, 455, 518
Saguinus m. midas
Strongyloides sp Saguinus oedipus, Small intestine New Orleans, LA; 87, 205,
S. fuscicollis, S. sp Oak Ridge, TN 206, 286
Strongylidae
Oesophagostomum sp Saguinus oedipus New Orleans, LA 205, 206
Ancylostoma sp Saguinus sp c 286
Ascarididae
Ascaris sp Saguinus sp 286
a
Ascridids Peritoneal cavity, Colon and Darien 476
large and small Provs., Panama
intestines
Thelaziidae
b
Riticularia alphi Callithrix jacchus, 518
Leontopithecus rosalia
Onchocercidae
Dipetalonema caudispina Saguinus midas niger, Blood South America 68,122,
S. midas, S. bicolor, 456, 496
S. mystax, Leonto-
pithecus rosalia
Dipetalonema gracile Callithrix jacchus, C. Microfilariae-blood; Loreto, Peru; 19, 28, 87
argentata, Saguinus Adults-serous Colombia; Oak 108,122,
fuscicollis, S. mystax, cavities and adjacent Ridge, TN; Para, 205, 243,
S. nigricollis, S. midas connective tissues, Brazil; Covington, 385, 388
niger, S. bicolor, S. subcutaneous LA; French Guiana
midas, S. labiatus
Leontopithecus rosalia,
L. r. chrysopygus
Dipetalonema zakii Leontopithecus rosalia Intermuscular Eastern Brazil 77, 134
connective tissue
Dipetalonema sp Saguinus nigricollis, Microfilariae-blood; Upper Amazon River 358, 437
S. mystax Adult-peritoneal basin
cavity, subperitoneal
connective tissue and
lymphatics
Tetrapetalonema panamensis Saguinus oedipus, Microfilariae-blood South America 68
S. midas niger
Tetrapetalonema (Mansonella, Saguinus oedipus, Microfilariae-blood; Loreto, Peru; 19,68,122,
Dipetalonema) marmosetae S. fuscicollis, Adults-subcutaneous Panama Prov., 144, 338,
S. geoffroyi, in subcapsular Panama; Colombia; 425, 518
S. midas niger, connective tissue, South America
S. nigricollis intermuscular fascia,
and serous cavities
Tetrapetalonema mystaxi Saguinus m. mystax Microfilariae-blood; Brazil 126
Adults-subcutaneous
in subscapular
connective tissues
Continued.
 Callitrichid diseases

Table V. Continued

Parasite Host Habitat Location References

Tetrapetalonema tamarinae Saguinus midas niger, Blood and tissues Loreto, Peru; 68, 108,
S. nigricollis Colombia, South 122
America
Tetrapetalonema zakii Leontopithecus rosalia 518
Tetrapetalonema sp Saguinus nigricollis Microfilariae-blood; Upper Amazon River 358
Adults-subcutaneous basin
tissue, intermuscular
fascia of back
Parlitsoma sp Leontopithecus sp 286
Setaria sp Saguinus sp 286
Filariasis Callithrix jacchus, Blood, peritoneal London Zoological 69, 152,
Saguinus iIIigeri, cavity Gardens, England; 154
S. midas niger Macclesfield,
England
Microfilariae Callithrix jacchus, Blood, lymphatics London Zoological 193,194,
C. penicillata, Gardens, England; 195, 199,
Saguinus geoffroyi, Brazil; Guyana 203, 206,
S. oedipus, S. mystax, 221, 305,
S. tamarin, S. midas, 379,380,
S. m. midas, 381, 382,
Leontopithecus rosalia 416, 456,
518
Nematodes Callithrix jacchus, Cecum, colon, lung Upper Amazon River 196, 358
Saguinus fuscicollis basin; London
Zoological Gardens,
England
Nematode larvae Callithrix jacchus, South America 388
Saguinus fuscicollis,
S. iIIigeri, S. oedipus
Acanthocephala
Prosthenorchis elegans Callithrix j. jacchus, Lower ileum, cecum, Rio de Janeiro and 28,74,
C. j. geoffryi, proximal colon Para, Brazil; Oak 87, 108,
C. humeralifer Ridge, TN; Loreto, 205, 206,
chrysoleuca, Peru; New Orleans, 243,311,
Cebuella pygmaea, LA; Colombia; 312, 338,
Saguinus fuscicollis, Panama; South 358, 385,
S. leucopus, S. oedipus America; USSR 388, 410,
geoffroyi, S. midas ni- 425, 456,
ger, S. o. oedipus, 518
S. labiatus, S. mystax,
S. nigricollis, S. m.
midas, S. illigeri,
Leontopithecus r. rosalia
Prosthenorchis lenti Saguinus oedipus Proximal colon Panama(?); Espirito 312, 476
geoffroy;, Callithrix Santo, Brazil
"jacchus geoffroyi
Prosthenorchis sigmoides Callithrix jacchus, Small intestine Rio de Janeiro, 312, 518
C. humeralifer Brazil
chrysoleuca,
Leontopithecus rosalia,
Saguinus sp
Prosthenorchis spirula Callithrix j. jacchus, Ileum, cecum Estado do Rio, 120,312,
Cebuella pygmaea, Brazil . 388, 456,
Saguinus mystax, S. 518
midas niger, S. o. oedi-
pus, Leontopithecus
rosalia
Prosthenorchis sp Callithrix jacchus, C. sp, Ileum, cecum Para and Espirito 155, 194,
Saguinus fuscicollis, Santo, Brazil; 197, 286,
S. geoffroyi, S. oedipus, London Zoological 312, 388,
S. mystax, S. sp, Gardens, England; 402
Cebuella pygmaea, South America;
Leontopithecus rosalia Philadelphia
Zoological
Park, PA
Acanthocephalan larvae Callithrix jacchus, Subcutaneous tissue South America 388
S. fuscicollis, S. oedipus

"Host was not reported.

bHabitat was not reported.
cGeographic location was not reported.

219
Potkay
with their presence. Intestinal cestodes were con-
trolled by treatment with niclosamide (Yomesan ™ ,
Chemagro, Division of Baychem Corp, Kansas
City, MO) [74].
Larval forms (spargana or plerocercoids) of Spi-
rometra and Diphyllobothrium were occasionally
seen in subcutaneous and retroperitoneal tissues and
in the abdominal cavities of tamarins. The adults
are intestinal parasites of carnivores, and the first
stage larvae (procercoids) are found in animals such
as crustaceans, frogs, and snakes [120,274). Spar-
gana are found in small numbers (one to four),
encapsulated by connective tissues and cause little
inflammatory response. Sparganosis was also de-
scribed in S. f illigeri having nodules in its thoracic
cavity [180]. They consisted of fibrous cysts whose
walls, infiltrated with lymphocytes and plasma
cells, surrounded intact and degenerating cestode
larvae and an aggregation of inflammatory cells.
Numerous viral particles were present in the cyto-
plasm of the larvae; the proliferative nature of the
spargana was thought to have been related to the
viral infection.
Infection with larval forms of Taenia (cysticer-
cosis) was occasionally observed in Saguinus sp
and was characterized by the presence of cysts con-
taining single scolices [274). Various mammals
serve as definitive hosts, and ingestion of eggs shed
in feces results in cysticercosis.
Hydatid disease (echinococcosis) was rarely seen
in caIlitrichids [274). Hydatid cysts contain numer-
ous daughter cysts, brood capsules, and scolices.
The characteristic cyst wall is a nonnucleated lami-
nated structure delineated by a fibroid capsule laid
down by the host. Final hosts of Echinococcus mul-
tilocularis, observed in S. oedipus, are canids
[ 166]. Diagnosis of somatic cestodiasis is usually
made at necropsy. Clinical signs have not been re-
ported in affected tamarins, nor has treatment been
described.
Nematoda
Numerous species of nematodes occur in wild-
caught callitrichids and those raised in captivity
(Table V). Cecal worms (Primasubulura and Subu-
lura) and Trypanoxyuris were commonly present
in recently captured animals. Primasubulura was
located primarily in the large intestine, parasites
being found in the cecum and small intestine when
infections were heavy [Ill]. The numbers of para-
sites ranged from 4 to 981, and clinical signs in-
cluded inappetence, flatulence, and severe diarrhea.
Treatment with mebendazol (40 mg) for two con-
secutive days was successful. Neither lesions nor
clinical signs associated with Subulura or Try-
panoxyuris infections have been reported, even
220
though the numbers of parasites per host were
high.
Physaloptera and the spirurids, Spirura and Pro-
tospirura, were found attached to the mucosa of
the lower esophagus and stomach. Their presence
may be associated with lesions ranging in severity
from inflammation and fibrosis to perforation. Ex-
ceptionally large numbers may occlude the esopha-
gus [274,375], although the average number of par-
asites per infection was seven for Spirura and one
or two per animal for Protospirura and Physa-
loptera.
Pterygodermatites were observed attached to the
submucosa of the small intestine and may also be
found in its tunica muscularis and the pancreatic
ducts. Clubbing of the intestinal villi and the forma-
tion of a necrotic pseudomembrane were seen mi-
croscopically. Severe infections were manifested
by diarrhea, weakness, hypoproteinemia, and ane-
mia; hundreds of parasites may be present. Some
of these spirurids require intermediate hosts such as
cockroaches (for Pterygodermatites) , crickets, or
other insects to complete their life cycles, or infec-
tion may be by skin penetration [166,521). Ham-
sters, and perhaps other rodents, may serve as pos-
sible reservoir hosts [521]. When it is not possible
to eliminate intermediate hosts from the callitrich-
ids' environment, regular testing and treatment for
parasites should be considered. Mebendazol (Tel-
min Paste™, Pitman-Moore, Washington Crossing,
NJ; 40 mg/kg per os) [346] or mebendazol (Meben-
vet™ 5%, Janssen; 10 mg/kg given twice subcuta-
neously four days apart) [320] as well as ivermectin
(Ivermec™, Merck Sharp and Dohme-GUET;
0.2 mg/kg per os) [320) have been used success-
fully to treat and control Pterygodermatites infec-
tions.
Trichospirura leptostoma infections in C. jac-
chus produced mild to severe chronic pancreatitis
characterized by periductal fibrosis, ductular prolif-
eration, and atrophy of the exocrine pancreas [376].
The wasting disease-like syndrome present in af-
fected animals was thought to be the result of mas-
sive infections [30]. Cockroaches (Blatella german-
ica and SupeUa longipalpa) harbored larvae and
may be capable of serving as intermediate hosts.
Adult and larval Filaroides occur in the alveoli
and terminal parts of the bronchioles. These meta-
strongylids were found in masses (3-8 mm in di-
ameter) and were often evident as dark, slightly
elevated lesions on pleural surfaces. They were
sometimes associated with purulent pneumonitis
[388), but were not commonly encountered. Filari-
opsis was, in a few cases, located in the bronchi-
oles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli, forming fibrous
nodules visible as brownish-yellow spots on the
pleural surface [403].
Infections by Angiostrongylus were also appar-
 Callitrichid diseases

ently rare. Adult worms were found within mesen- Acanthocephalans

~eri.c arteries; their degenerating eggs and larvae
The most common and serious helminth infections
I~clted the development of large (0.75-2.5 cm in
encountered in caIlitrichids were caused by thorny-
diameter) weIl-encapsulated granulomas. Micro-
headed worms, Prosthenorchis elegans, and, less
?ranulomas were associated with eggs and larvae
frequently, P. spirula (Table V). Inhabitants of the
In the kidneys, liver, lungs, and heart. Slugs and
distal ileum, cecum, and proximal colon, they at-
fresh water snails serve as intermediate hosts for
tach to the muscular waIls by their proboscises and
~etastrongylids. A ngiostrongylus , unlike Filaro-
produce inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis. Ab-
Ides. and Filariopsis, is also a parasite of man; in-
scesses at the site of attachment were often visible
fectIOns are acquired by ingesting intermediate
through the serosal surface, ranging from a few
hosts or vegetables contaminated with infective lar-
millimeters to more than a centimeter in diameter.
vae [437].
Mesent.eric lymphadenitis was commonly associ-
?f the trichostrongylids, Molineus and Longi-
ated with acanthocephalid infections, and spleno-
:trzata were most commonly encountered. AI-
megaly occurred when large numbers were present.
hough the number of parasites per host averaged
Local or general peritonitis may be present, and
above seven, heavily infected animals may harbor
perforations can lead to fatal peritonitis and septice-
dozens. The pathogenicity of and treatment for
mia. Specific clinical signs have not been reported,
these parasites have not been described. Infections
although affected animals may be depressed or in-
probably result from ingesting infective larvae or
appetent. The number of worms per infection aver-
thro~gh skin penetration by larvae. Although Stron-
aged from eight [388] to more than 30 [120J. Exam-
g~lOl.des was said to be a common parasite of calIi-
inations of feces for eggs often give variable results
tnchlds, there were few specific reports of its occur-
because eggs may not be shed continuously, and
rence. It has been postulated that infections are
may not be reliable diagnosticaIly unless many tests
ac~uired at compounds where animals are held
are performed [351]. Capsules containing 0.1 gr
pnor t~ e.xport [388], or they may be acquired later
calomel, 0.05 gr santonin, and 2.0 gr milk-sugar
In captlVlty. The route of infection is oral or skin
followed by 1 teaspoon of castor oil per os were
pen~tration by larvae [166]. S. stercoralis is patho-
reported to be an effective treatment [54,205,294],
gemc for people. Oesophagostomum has been ob-
as was carbon tetrachloride [227], but these results
served only in tamarins housed in proximity to
have not been confirmed. The newer broad spec-
Macaca, which commonly harbor these nodular
trum anthelmintics, thiabendazole (25-35 mg/kg
~orms; infections are acquired by ingesting infec-
oraIly for four days) and mebendazol (15 mg/kg
tIve larvae.
orally for two days, or 3 mg/kg oraIly for ten days)
There was a high incidence of infection by one .
were said to be effective, but supporting data were
~r ~~re .s~ecies of fil.arial worms in wild-caught
not given [187]. More recently developed drugs
al~Itnchlds. Adult DIpetalonema were found in
such as ivermectin have apparently not been evalu-
pentoneal and pleural spaces where they may be
ated. Cockroaches and certain beetles serve as in-
~sSociated with inflammation and adhesions, or
termediate hosts, and unless they can be eliminated,
In subcutaneous tissues. Adult Tetrapetalonema
fou infections may become permanently established in
fa . ~ d In
. the subcutaneo~s tissue and intermuscular'
captive callitrichid colonies [459] .
. SCIa of the back and In subscapular connective
tIssue, evoke little inflammatory response. Adults
of these genera are generaIly present in smaIl (two Arthropod paraSites
~o four) numbers. Microfilariae are seen often
In Iarge numbers, in the vascular beds of' many There are few reports of parasitism by arthropods,
organs. Based on morphologic and histochemical although reduviid bugs, mosquitoes, midges, and
chara
. ctenstIcs,
" . . representing eight spe-
mlcrofilanae sandflies are known to transmit certain viruses
c~s ?f filarids have been described, but it has been and parasites such as Trypanosoma, Dipetalonema,
~orsslble to cor:relate o.nly fi~e. of .these with adult and Leishmania that have been identified in caIli-
bloillS [68]. ~Icrofilanal actlVlty In the peripheral trichids.
si od .has a dlU:nal peak that suggests that transmis-
on. IS by WInged, blood-sucking arthropods-
Mites
fosSlbly mosquitoes or midges-that bite most
requ.ently during daylight hours [122]. Infections Several species of mites (Table VI) parasitize cal-
~e diagnosed by finding microfilariae in peripheral Iitrichids, but the incidence of acariasis is rare.
C~o? sa~ples, at necropsy or histopathologically. Demodicosis in as. geoffroyi was characterized by
.mcal signs have not been reported in affected alopecia, cutaneous erythema, and papule forma-
ammals, nor have treatment regimens been evalu- tion on the head, tail, and limbs [226]. Microscopi-
ated and reported. caIly, there was focal degeneration and inflamma-

221
Potkay

tion of the skin around hair follicles, which
harbored mites identified as Demodex sp. Ronnel
(1 % solution) (EctoraI™, Pitman-Moore, Washing-
ton Crossing, NJ) and rotenone ointment (Good-
winal Ointment™, Goodwinal Products Corp, Hun-
tington Station, NY) were effective in treating the
condition. Other cutaneous mites parasitizing calli-
trichids may also produce moderate to severe der-
matitis [136,137] with hyperkeratosis and dermal
crusting [293], but the significance of Mortelman-
sia found in nasal passages is unknown [121].
Lice
Pediculus I. lobatus infection of captive S. nigri-
collis weddelli was considered to be the result of
close contact with infected Ateles paniscus [242).
Two mallophagan lice, Gliricola pinto and Har-
risonia uncinata, were described from museum
specimens of C. h. humeral(fer, and are thought to
be contaminants or accidental infections [242]. It
is unlikely that either anopluran or mallophagan lice
parasitize callitrichids in nature.
Fleas and Ticks
Ctenocephalides f. felis was reported from C. j.
penicillata and S. o. geoffroyi, and unidentified
fleas were listed as being associated with S. nigri-
collis, but most authors are of the opinion that fleas
do not normally parasitize callitrichids. Callithrix
sp was reported as a host for Amblyomma cajen-
nense in Brazil [II]; Amblyomma sp, Ornithodorus
talaje, and O. rudris were associated with S. o.
geoffroyi [78,125]; and immature Amblyomma sp
was reported from L. r. rosalia [511].
Midges
Culicoides espinolai and C. minasensis were re-
ported to bite C. penicillata and man [145,146].
Pentastomes
Porocephalus clavatus nymphs are commonly
found in tamarins (S. fuscicollis, S. nigricollis, and
S. mystax) and less frequently in marmosets (c.
jacchus), which serve as intermediate hosts of this
pentastome [28,66,87,196,274,358,384,431). P.
crotali and P. subcylindricum have also been re-
ported from L. r. chrysopygus in Brazil (455). Eggs
from adult P. clavatus are passed in the feces of
definitive hosts (large snakes such as boas) [304];
they hatch after ingestion by the intermediate host,
and the larvae migrate into internal organs where
they develop into infective nymphs. The nymphs
are wingless and legless, and have an annulated
appearance. They are found in semitransparent

Table VI. Parasitic mites of callitrichids

Name Host References

Demodicidae
Demodex sp Saguinus oepidus geoffroyi 226
Trombiculidae
Euschoengastia sp Leontopithecus r. rosalia 511
Eutrombicula alfreddugesi Saguinus oedipus geoffroyi 53, 511
Eutrombicula goeldii Saguinus oedipus geoffroyi 53
Microtrombicula brennani Leontopithecis r. rosalia 185,511
Pseudoschoengastia bulbifera Saguinus oedipus geoffroyi 53
Speleocola tamarina Leontopithecus r. rosalia 186,511
Listrophoridae
Listrocarpus hapalei Callithrix jacchus 141
Listrocarpus cosgrovei Saguinus fuscicollis 87, 141
Rhyncoptidae
Rhyncoptes anastosi Saguinus o. oedipus, S. sp, 139,511
Leontopithecus rosalia
Rhycoptes recurvidens Saguinus nigricollis, 292
Leontopithecus rosalia
Lemurnyssidae
Mortelmansia duboisi Callithrix j. jacchus 138, 286
Psoroptidae
Cebalgoides cebi Saguinus o. oedipus 136
Fonsecalges johnjadini Callithrix j. geoffroyi 136
Fonsecalges saimiri Saguinus nigricollis, 87, 140
(= Dunnalges lambrecchti) S. fuscicollis
Other
Mites Saguinus nigricollis 358
Mite eggs (in fecal specimens) Saguinus sp 108
.. --- - ----- - ----- - - ._-----

222

cysts (0.5 cm in diameter) in the lungs, liver and
meninges and under the parietal peritoneum and
pleura. The inner cyst wall, apparently produced
by the nymph, is thin, acellular, and surrounded by
lightly compressed host tissue. Tissue reaction to
living nymphs is minimal; dead nymphs induce an
intense chronic inflammatory response [88]. Clini-
cal signs have not been reported, and there is no
treatment for pentastomiasis.
References
I. AARON E: Probable vaccine-induced rabies in a pet
marmoset-California. Primate Zoonoses Surveillance.
Annual Summary 1973. Atlanta: Public Health Service,
Centers for Disease Control, March 1975, 8.
2. ABLASHI DV, EASTON JM: Preventive vaccination
against Herpesvirus saillliri-induced neoplasia. Cancer
Res 36:701-703, 1976.
3. ADAMS JS, GACAD M, BAKER AJ, GONZALES B, RUDE
RK: Serum concentrations of I ,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3
in platyrrhini and catarrhini: A phylogenetic appraisal.
Am J Primatol 9:219-224, 1985.
4. ALBERCHT p, LORENZ D, KLUTCH MJ, VICKERS JH,
ENNIS FA: Fatal measles infection in marmosets: Patho-
genesis and prophylaxis. Infect Immun 27:969-978,
1980.
5. ALBERCHT p, LORENZ D, KLUTCH MJ: Encephalitogcn-
icity of measles virus in marmosets. Infect Immun 34:
581-587, 1981.
6. ALICE FJ: Um virus filtravel, agente ctiologico dOl
cncefalo-mielite do Saguf (Nota previa). Rev Brasil BioI
II :85-89, 195 I.
7. ALVARES IN: Criacao e reproducao de saglii (Callilhrix
jacclllls) em cativeiro. Rev Bioterios 1:31-43. 1981.
8. AMMONS WF, SCHECTMAN LR, PAGE RC: Host tissue
response in chronic periodontal disease. I. The normal
periodontium and clinical manifestations of dental and
periodontal disease in the marmoset. J. Periodont Res
7:131-143, 1972.
9. ANDERSON ET, LEWIS JP, PASSAVOY M, TROBAUGH
EF: Marmosets as laboratory animals. II. The hematol-
ogy of laboratory kept marmosets. Lab Anim Care 17:
30-40, 1967.
10. ANVER MR, HUNT RD, PRICE RA: Simian neonatol-
ogy. II. Neonatal pathology. Vet PathoII0:16-36. 1973.
II. ARAGO H DE B: !xodides hrasileiras e de algunas paizes
limitrophes. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 31 :829-830, 1936.
12. ARMSTRONG ML, TRILLO A, PRICHARD, RW: Naturally
occurring and expeimentally induced atherosclerosis in
nonhuman primates. In Kalter SS (cd): "Use of Nonhu-
man Primates in Cardiovascular Disease." Austin: Uni-
versity of Texas Press, 1980,58-93.
13. ASANO y, ALBERCHT p, VICKERS JH: Immunogenicity
of wild and attenuated varicella-zoster strains in pygmy
marmosets. Proc Soc Exp Bioi Med 173:501-505,1983.
14. AVILA NM, FRIGERIO MJ, WEAVER EL, RONDINONE
S, SAMIOLOVITCH SR, LAGUENS RP, DEGUERRERO LB,
WEISSENBACHER MC: Attenuated Junin virus infection
in Callithrix jacchus. J Med Virol 15:93-100, 1985.
15. AVILA MM, SAMOILOVICH SR, LAGUENS RP, MERANI
MS, WEISSENBACHER MC: Protection of Junin virus-
infected marmosets by passive administration of immune
serum: association with late neurologic signs. J Med
Virol 21 :67-74, 1987.
16. BAER JG: Die Cestoden der Saligetiere Brasilliens. Ab-
Callitrichid diseases
handlungen der Senckbergischen Naturforschenden Ge-
sellschaft 40:375-386, 1927.
17. BAERG DC: A naturally acquired infection of Plasmo-
dium brasilianum in the marmoset Saguinus geo.lfroyi.
J Parasitol57:8, 1971.
18. BAERG DC, YOUNG MD: Susceptibility of mosquitos to
human malaria induced in Panamanian monkeys. Mil
Med 134:772-779, 1969.
19. BAIN 0, PETIT G, ROSALES-LoESENER L: Filaires de
singes sud-americains. Bull Mus Natn Hist Nat, Paris. 8
(section A):513-542, 1986.
20. BAKER JR: Protozoa of tissues and blood (other than the
Haemosporina). In T-W-Fiennes RN (ed): "Pathology
of Simian Primates, Part II." Basel: S Karger, 1972,
29-56.
21. BARAHONA H, MELENDEZ LV, MELNICK JL: A com-
pendium of herpesviruses isolated from nonhuman pri-
mates. Intervirology 3: 175-192, 1974.
22. BARKER MJM, HERVERT RT: Diseases of the skeleton.
In T-W-Fiennes N (cd): "Pathology of simian primates,
Part I." Basel: S Karger, 1972,433-519.
23. BARNARD D, KNAPKA J, RENQUIST D: Evaluation of an
open formula diet for Saguilllls mystax. Lab Anim Sci
34:504. 1984.
24. BARNARD D, KNAPKA J, RENQUIST D: The apparent
reversal of a wasting syndrome by nutrional intervention
in Saguilllls lIIystax. Lab Anim Sci 38:282-288, 1988.
25. BASKERVILLE A, FITZGEORGE RB, BROSTER M, HAM-
BLETON P: Histopathology of experimental Legionnaire's
disease in guinea pigs, rhesus monkeys and marmosets.
J Pathol 139:349-362, 1983.
26. BASKERVILLE M: Canine tooth root infection as a cause
of facial abscess in the common marmoset (Callithrix
jacchus). Lab Anim 18:115-118, 1984.
27. BASKERVILLE M, WOOD M, BASKERVILLE A: An Out-
break of Borde/ella bronchiseptica pneumonia in a col-
ony of common marmosets (Callilhrix jacchus). Lab
Anim 17:350-355, 1983.
28. BASKIN GB, WOLF RH, WORTH CL, SOIKE K, GIBSON
SV, BIERI JG: Anemia, steatitis and musele necrosis in
marmosets (Sagllil1l1s labiatus). Lab Anim Sci 33:74-80,
1983.
29. BATISTA DE CRUZ J, PISSINATTI A: Sarcocystis sp. em
Leol1/opilheclls chrysopyglls (Mikan, 1832). In Thiago
de Mello M (cd): "A Primatologia No Brasil-2: Anais
do 2 Congresso Brasileiro de Primatologia." Minas Ge-
rais. Brazil: Sociedade Brasileira de Primatologia, 1985,
479-481.
30. BEGLINGER R, ILLGEN B, PFISTER R, HEIDER K: The
parasite TricllOspirlira leptostollla associated with wast-
ing disease in a colony of common marmosets, Callithrix
j(l('('hll.\'. Folia Primatol 51 :45-51. 1988.
31. BENIRSCHKE K, BROWN HILL LE: Heterosexual cells in
testes of chimeric marmoset monkeys. Cytogenetics 2:
331-341. 1963.
32. BENIRSCHKE K, RICHART R: Spontaneous acute toxo-
plasmosis in a marmoset monkey. Am J Trop Med Hyg
9:269-273. 1960.
33. BENIRSCHKE K, RICHART R: The establishment of a mar-
moset breeding colony and its four pregnancies. Lab
Anim Care 13:70-83. 1963.
34. "'Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology." Vol 1.
1984 (Krieg NR, cd); Vol 2, 1986 (Sneath PHA. ed);
Vol 3.1989 (Staley JT. ed): Vol 4. 1989 (Williams, ed).
Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.
35. BERGHOLZ CM, WOLF LG, DEINHARDT F: Oncogenic-
ity of the C-type virus HL-23 in marmosets and charac-
terization of virus isolated from an HL-23V-induced mar-
223
Potkay
moset tumor: Comparison with simian sarcoma virus type
I. In Gengozian N, Deinhardt F (eds): "Marmosets in
Experimental Medicine." Primates in Medicine, Vol 10.
Basel: S Karger, 1978, 135-141.
36. BLAIR WR: Report of the veterinarian. Twelfth Annual
Report of the NY Zool Soc. New York: New York Zoo-
logical Society, 119-123, 1907.
37. Box H: Social behavior in the common marmoset mon-
key (Callithrixjacchus). Bioi Human Affairs 43:51-64,
1978.
38. Box HO: Social interactions in family groups of captive
marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). In Kleiman DG (ed):
"The Biology of the Callitrichidae." Washington:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1977, 239-250.
39. Box HO, HUBERCHT RC: Long-term data on the repro-
duction and maintenance of a colony of common marmo-
sets (Callithrix jacchus jacchus) 1972-1983. Lab Anim
21:249-260, 1987.
40. Box HO, MORRIS JM: Observaciones de la alimcntacion
cn parejas de Saguinus mystax mantenidas en la estaci6n
del projecto (AMRO 3171), Iquitos, Peru. In Castro-
Rodriguez NE (ed) "La Primatologia en el Peru: Investi-
gaciones Primatologicas." Lima, Peru: Projecto Peruano
de Primatologia, 1990, 539-546.
41. BOYD AG: Observations on diseases in captivc wild ani-
mals, with special reference to necrophorus infection in
snakes and turtles. Cornell Vet 19:33-39, 1929.
42. BRACK M: Colonic adenocarcinomas in Callitrichidae
(Saguinus oedipus. S. juscicollis). Gottingen: German
Primate Center. Primate Rep 22. 53-63, 1988.
43. BRACK M: IGM-Mesangial nephropathy in callitrichids.
Vet Pathol 25:270-276, 1988.
44. BRACK M: IGM-Nephropathie (-nephritis) bei krallenaf-
fen (Primates. Anthropoidea, Platyrrhini, Callitrichidac).
J Vet Med A37:692-707, 1990.
45. BRACK M: Intestinal carcinomas in two tamarins (Sagui-
nusjuscicollis. Saguinus oedipus) of thc German Primate
Center. Lab Anim 22:144-147, 1988.
46. BRACK M: Noma in Saguinus oedipus: A report of 2
cases. Lab Anim 16:361-363, 1982.
47. BRACK M: Renal papillary adenoma in a cotton-topped
tamarin (Saguinus oedipus). Lab Anim 19: 132-133.
1985.
48. BRACK M, GATESMAN TJ, OLFENBUTTEL T: Heavy
weight, obesity and pancreatic lesions in callitrichids.
Erkrankungen der Zootiere 29:217-224, 1987.
49. BRACK M, ROTHE H: Chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis
and wasting disease in marmosets (Callithrix jacchus).
Vet Pathol 18:45-54, 1981.
50. BRADLEY OW, KRAWCZYNSKI K, COOK EH JR,
MCCAUSTLAND KA, HUMPHREY CD, SPELBRING JE,
MYINT H, MAYNARD JE: Enterally transmitted non-A,
non-B hepatitis: Serial passage of disease in cynomolgus
macaques and tamarins and recovery of disease-
associated 27- to 34-nm viruslike particles. Proc Natl
Acad Sci 84:6277-6281, 1987.
51. BRADLEY OW, KRAWCZYNSKI K, COOK EH JR,
MCCAUSTLAND KA, ROBERTSON BH, HUMPHREY CD,
KANE MA, SPELBRING J, WEISFUSE I, ANDJAPARIDZE
A, BALAYAN M, STETLER H, V ALAZQUEZ 0: Enter-
ically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis: Etiology of
disease and laboratory studies in non-human primates. In
Zuckerman (ed): "Viral Hepatitis and Liver Disease."
New York: Alan R Liss, Inc., 1988, 138-147.
52. BRAND HM: Husbandry and breeding of a newly estab-
lished colony of cotton-topped tamarins. (Saguinus oedi-
pus oedipus). Lab Anim 15:7-11, 1981.
53. BRENNAN JM, YUNKER CE: The chiggers of Panama
224
(Acarina: Trombiculidae). In Wenzel RL, Tipton VJ
(eds.): "Ectoparasites of Panama." Chicago: Field Mu-
seum of Natural History, 1966,221-266.
54. BRUMPT E, URBAIN A: Une curieuse epizootie vermi-
neuse it acanthocephales, devenue endemique it la sin-
gerie du museum. Measures prophylactiques efficaces
prises pour en arreter les mefaits. Compt Rend Hebdom
Acad Sci 206:1927-1930, 1938.
55. BURROWS RB: Protozoa of the intestinal tract. In T-W
Fiennes RN (ed): "Pathology of the Simian Primates,
Part II." Basel: S Karger, 1972,2-28.
56. BURT DA, PLANT M: Observations on marmoset breed-
ing at Fisons. Anim Technol 34:29, 1983.
57. BUSCH LJ, DAVIS ML, STEIN FJ, MARTIN JE: Semen
collection and evaluation in the fertile adult marmoset
(Callithrix jacchus). Am J Primatol 1:334, 1981.
58. BUSH M, CUSTER RS, WHITLA JC, SMITH EE: Hema-
tologic values of captive golden lion tamarins (Leon to-
pithecus rosalia): Variations with sex, agc and health
status. Lab Anim Sci 32:294-297, 1982.
59. BUYUKMIHCHI N, RICHTER CB: Prcvalence of ocular
disease in a colony of tamarins and marmosets. Lab
Anim Sci 29:800-804, 1979.
60. CAMPOS MF. ALVARES IN, ARRUDA MF, DO VALE
NB: Surto epizo6tico por Klebsiella sp num nucleo de
reprodw;ao de sagiiis (Callithrix jacchus), em cativerio.
Rev Bioterios 1:95-99, 1981.
61. CANAVAN WPN: Nematode parasites of vertebrates in
the Philadelphia Zoological Garden and vicinity. Parasi-
tology 21 :63-102. 1929.
62. CANNON WB: "Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear
and Rage." 2nd Ed. New York: 0 Appleton and Co.,
1929.
63. CASTRO R, SOINI P: Field studies on Saguinus mystax
and other callitrichids in Amazonian Peru. In Kleiman
DG (cd): "The Biology and Conservation of the Calli-
trichidae." Washington: Smithsonian Institution Prcss,
1977.73-78.
64. CHABAUD AG, LAVOIPIERRE M: Cycle cvolutif d'un
Ascaridc: Subu/ura jan'hi (Marcel 1857) parasitc pri-
matcs. chcz la blattc 8/atte/a fusca. Compt Rend Soc
Bioi 149:1416-1419, 1955.
65. CHADWICK DP, MAY JC, LORENZ 0: Spontaneous zinc
dcficicncy in marmosets Saguinus mystax. Lab Anim Sci
29:482-485. 1979.
66. CHALIFOUX LV, BRONSON RT: Colonic adenocarci-
noma associated with chronic colitis in cotton-top mar-
mosets, Saguinus oedipus. Gastroenterology 80:492-
496, 1981.
67. CHALIFOUX LV, ELLIOTT MW: Congenital abnormali-
ties in two neonatal tamarins (Saguinus oedipus and Sa-
guinus fuscicollis). J Med Primatol 15:329-337, 1986.
68. CHALIFOUX LV, HUNT RD, GARciA FG, SEHGAL PK,
COMISKEY JR: Filariasis in New World monkeys: Histo-
chemical differentiation of circulatory microfilariae. Lab
Anim Sci 23:211-220, 1973.
69. CHALMERS DT, MURGATROYD LB, WADSWORTH PF:
A survey of the pathology of marmosets (Callithrix jac-
chus) derived from a marmoset breeding unit. Lab Anim
17:270-279, 1983.
70. CHAMOVE A, CAMERON G, NASH V: Primate disease
and breeding rates. Lab Anim 13:313-316, 1979.
71. CHASE JE, COOPER RW: Dental deposits and their con-
trol: An important aspect of preventive medical program
for laboratory animals. Lab Anim Care 18:186-191,
1969.
72. CHIARELLI AB: "Taxonomic Atlas of Living Primates."
London and New York: Academic Press, 1972,363.

73. CHUDWIN DS, ARTRIP SC, OGDEN JD, SCHIFFMAN G:
Tamarin model of pneumococcal bacteremia. J Med Pri-
matol 16:249-260, 1987.
74. CICMANEC JL: Medical problems encountered in a calli-
trichid colony. In Kleiman DG (ed): "The Biology and
Conservation of the Callitrichidae." Washington: Smith-
sonian Institution Press, 1977, 331-336.
75. CLAPP NK, HENKE MA, HOLLOWAY EC, TANKERSLEY
WG: Carcinoma of the colon in the cotton-top tamarin:
A radiographic study. J Am Vet Med Assoc 183:1328-
1330,1983.
76. CLAPP NK, HENKE MA, McARTHUR AH, CARSON
RL: Further observations on the relationship between thc
onset of acute colitis and spontaneous colonic carcinoma
devclopment in cotton top tamarins. Gastroenterology 96
(5 pt 2):A89, 1989.
77. CLAPP NK, VENER KJ (Co-chairman): Is thc marmosct
an experimental model for the study of gastrointestinal
disease? Dig Dis Sci 30 (December 1985 Suppl.), pp
IS-158S.
78. CLARK HC, DUNN LH, BENAVIDES J: Experimental
transmission of relapsing fever spirochete in a wild mon-
key in Panama-Leollfocebus ReojJroyi (Pucheran). Am
J Trop Med II :243-257, 1931.
79. CLARKSON TB: Atherosclerosis in New World monkeys.
In "First Inter-American Conference on Conversation
and Utilization of Amcrican Nonhuman Primates in Bio-
medical Research." Pan American Health Organization
Scientific Publication No. 317, 1976, 137-143.
80. COIMBRA-FILHO AF: Conservation and use of South
American primates in Brazil. Intcrnational Zoo Yearbook
12:14-15, 1972.
81. COIMBRA-FILHO AF: Natural sheltcrs of Leolltopitheclis
rosalia and somc ecological implications. In Kleiman
DG (cd): "The Biology and Conservation of thc Calli-
trichidae." Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press,
1977.79-90.
82. COIMBRA-FILHO AF. MITTERMEIER RA: Trce-gouging.
exudate-eating and the "short-tusked" condition in Cal-
lithrix and Cebllella. In Kleiman DG (cd): "The Biology
and Conservation of the Callitrichidac." Washington:
Smithsonian Institution Prcss. 1977. 105-115.
83. COIMBRA-FILHO AF, SILVA R, PISSIONATTI A: Sobre
a dieta de Callitrichidac em .eativiero. Rcv Biotcrios
1:85-93, 1981.
84. COLLINS WE. SKINNER JC: Development of Plasmo-
dium I'ivax in SaRuilllls mystax and S. fuscicollis mon-
keys. J Parasitol 68: 1183-1184. 1982.
85. COOPER JE, NEEDHAM JR: An outbreak of shigellosis
in laboratory marmosets and tamarins (Family: Callitrich-
idae). J Hyg (Cam b) 76:415-424, 1976.
86. COSGROVE GE: The trematodes of laboratory primatcs.
Lab Animal Care 60:23-39, 1966.
87. COSGROVE GE, NELSON B, GENGOZIAN N: Helminth
parasitcs of the tamarin, SaRlIilllls fuscicollis. Lab Ani-
mal Care 18:654-656, 1968.
88. COSGROVE GE, NELSON B, SELF JT: The pathology
of pentastomid infections in primates. Lab Animal Care
20:354-360, 1970.
89. COWIE JR, EVANS GO: Plasma aminotransferase mea-
surements in the marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Lab
Anim 19:48-50, 1985.
90. CRANDALL LS: "The Management of Wild Animals in
Captivity. " Chicago and London: University of Chicago
Press. 1964, 101-106.
91. CUBA CUBA CA, MARSDEN Po, NETTO EM, TORNO
0, MERCHAN E, VEXENAT A, MAGALHAES AV, FER-
REIRA V, BARRETTO AG: Leishmania brasiliensis bra-
Callitrichid diseases
siliensis infection in the marmoset (Callithrix penicil-
lata): Preliminary observations. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz
81 (Suppl):61, 1986.
92. D'ALESSANDRO A, EBERHARD M, DE HINCAPIE 0,
HALSTEAD S: Trypanosoma cruzi and Trypanosoma
ranReli in Saimiri sciureus and Saguinus mystax from
Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg 35:285-289, 1986.
93. DANIEL MD, BARAHONA H, MELENDEZ LV, FORBES
M: Vaccination of monkeys against fatal herpes infec-
tions. Fed Proc 35:569, 1976.
94. DAVIS NC: Susceptibility of marmosets to yellow fever
virus. J Exp Med 52:405-415, 1930.
95. DAVY CW, JACKSON MR, WALKER JM: The effect of
haemolysis on some clinical parameters in the marmoset
(Callithrix jacchlls). Lab Anim 18:161-168, 1984.
96. DAVY CW, JACKSON MR, WALKER JM: Reference in-
terval for some clinical chemical parameters in the mar-
moset (Callithrix jacchlls): Effect of age and sex. Lab
Anim 18:135-142, 1984.
97. DAWSON GA: The use of time and space by the Pana-
manian tamarin, Saguinlls oedipus. Folia Primatol 31:
253-284. 1979.
98. DAWSON GA: Composition and stability of social groups
of the tamarin. Saguinlls oedipus gec~lJroyi. in Panama:
Ecological and behavioral implications. In Kleiman DG
(cd): "The Biology and Conservation of the Callitrichi-
dae." Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. 1977,
23-38.
99. DEANE LM: Tripanosomideos de mamiferos da regiao
Amaz6nica. I. Alguns fiagelados encontrados no sangue
de maniferos do Estado do Para. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao
Paulo 3:15-28, 1961.
100. DEANE LM: Infec9ao natural do saglii Callithrixjacchus
por tripanosoma do tipo cruzi. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao
Paulo 4:225-229, 1962.
101. DEANE LM: Animal Reservoirs of Typanosoma cruzi
in Brazil. Rev Bras Malariol Doencas Trop 16:24-48.
1964.
102. DEANE LM: Monkey malaria in Brazil. A summary of
studies performed in 1964-1966. Rev Bras Bioi 22:
213-228, 1967.
103. DEANE LM: Plasmodia of monkeys and malaria eradica-
tion in Brazil. International Zoo Yearbook 12:56-60.
1972.
104. DEANE LM: Epidemiology of simian malaria in the
American continent. In "First Inter-American Confer-
ence in Conservation and Utilization of Nonhuman Pri-
mates in Biomedical Research." Pan American Health
Organization Scientific Publication No. 317, 1976,
145-163.
105. DE AVILA-PIRES FD: The survival of South American
primates. International Zoo Yearbook 12: 13-14, 1972.
106. DEINHARDT F, FALK L, WOLFE LG, SCHUDEL A,
NONOYAMA M, LAI p, LAPIN B, YAKOVLEVA L: Sus-
ceptibility of marmosets to Epstein-Barr virus-like ba-
boon herpesviruses. In Gengozian N, Deinhardt F (cds):
"Marmosets in Experimental Medicine." Primates in
Medicine. Vol I O. Basel: S Karger, 1978, 163-170.
107. DEINHARDT F, HOLMES AW, CAPPS RB, POPPER H:
Studies on the transmission of human viral hepatitis to
marmoset monkeys. I. Transmission of disease, serial
pasdage, and description of liver lesions. J Exp Med
125:673-689, 1967.
108. DENHARDT F, HOLMES AW, DEVINE J. DEINHARDT J:
Marmoset as Laboratory animals. IV. The microbiology
of laboratory-kept marmosets. Lab Animal Care 17:
48-70, 1967.
109. DEINHARDT JB, DEVINE J, PASSAVOY M, POHLMAN R,
225
Potkay
DEINHARDT F: Marmosets as laboratory animals. 1. Care
of marmosets in the laboratory, pathology and outline
of the statistical evaluation of data. Lab Animal Care
17:11-29,1967.
110. DEL PORTO HA, DAMIAN RT: Experimental Schisto-
soma mansoni infection in a New World monkey, the
saddle-back tamarin (Saguinu.l' juscicollis). Am J Trop
Med Hyg 35, 512-522, 1986.
III. DE MELO AL, PEREIRA LH: Sobre 0 parasitismo por
Primasubulura jacchi em Callithrix penicillata (Pri-
mates, Callithricidae). In Thiago de Mello M (cd): "A
Primatologia No Brasil-2: Anais do 2 Congresso Bra-
sileiro de Primatologia." Minas Gerais, Brazil: Socie-
dade Brasileira de Primatologia, 1985,483-487.
112. DE MELO ROCHA G, BARRETTO MP: Estudios sobre re-
servat6rios e vectores silvestres do Typano.l'oma cruzi.
XV. Infecc;iio natural do simio Callithrix ge(~[f'royi (Hum-
holdt, 1812) pelo T. cruzi. Rev Bras Bioi 37:419-424,
1977.
113. Do BELL C: Researches on the intestinal protozoa of mon-
keys and man. VII. An experimental study of some sim-
ian strains of "Entamoeba coli." Parasitol 28:541-593,
1936.
114. DREIZEN S, LEVY BM: Histopathology of experimen-
tally induced nutritional deficiency cheilosis in the mar-
moset (Callithrix jacchus). Arch Oral Bioi 14:577-582,
1969.
115. DREIZEN S, LEVY BM, BERNICK S: Studies on the biol-
ogy of the periodontium of marmosets. VII. The effect
of vitamin C deficiency on the marmoset periodontium.
Periodon Res 4:274-280, 1969.
116. DREIZEN S, LEVY BM, BERNICK S: Diet induced jejunal
lipodystrophy in the cotton-top marmoset (Saguillus oedi-
pus). Proc Soc Exp Bioi Med 138:7-11. 1971.
117. DREIZEN S, LEVY BM, BERNICK S: Diet induced ath-
erosclerosis in the marmoset. Proc Soc Exp Bioi Med
143:1218-1223. 1973.
118. DUBEY JP, WONG MM: Experimental Hammondia ham-
mondi infection in monkeys. J Parasitol 64:551-552,
1978.
119. DuFRAIN RJ: Is cancer of the colon familial in cotton-
top tamarins? Cancer Genct Cytogenet 14:83-87. 1985.
120. DUNN FL: Acanthocephalans and cestodes of South
American monkeys and marmosets. J Parasitol 49:717-
722, 1963.
121. DUNN FL: The parasites of Saimiri. In Rosenblum LA,
Cooper RW (eds): "The Squirrel Monkey." New York:
Academic Press, 1968,31-68.
122. DUNN FL, LAMBRECHT FL: On some filarial parasites
of South American primates with a description of Tetra-
petalonema tamarinae n.sp. from the Peruvian tamarin
marmoset, Tamarinus nigricollis (Spix, 1823). J Helmin-
tho I 37:261-286, 1963.
123. DUNN FL, LAMBRECHT FL: The hosts of Plasmodium
brasilianum (Gonder von Berenberg-Gossler, 1908). J
Paras ito I 49:316-319, 1963.
124. DUNN FL, LAMBRECHT FL, DU PLESSIS R: Typano-
somes of South American monkeys and marmosets. Am
J Trop Med Hyg 12:524-534, 1963.
125. DUNN LH, CLARK HC: Notes on relapsing fever in
Panama with special reference to animal hosts. Am J
Trop Med 3:201-209, 1933.
126. EBERBARD ML: Tetrapetalonema (T.) mystaxi sp.n.
(Nematoda: Filariodea) from Brasilian moustached mar-
mosets, Saguinus m. mystax. J Parasitol 64:204-207,
1978.
127. EBERT JW, MAYNARD JE, BRADLEY PW, LORENZ D,
KRUSHAK DH: Experimental infection of marmosets
226
with hepatitis A virus. In Gengozian N, Deinhardt F
(cds): "Marmosets in Experimental Medicine." Primates
in Medicine. Vol 10. Basel: S Karger. 1978.295-299.
128. EICHBERG JW, KALTER SS: Hepatitis A and B: Sero-
logic survey of human and nonhuman primate sera. Lab
Anim Sci 30:541-543, 1980.
129. EICHBERG JW, MORE GT, KALTER SS, RODRIGUEZ
AR. BERCHELMANN ML: Rearing of conventional and
gnotobiotic nonhuman primates (Pan troglodytes. Papio
cynocephalus. Saguillus nigricollis). J Med Primatol 8:
69-78. 1979.
130. EpPLE G: Social communication by olfactory signals in
marmosets. In Lucas J, Duplaix-Hall N (eds): "Interna-
tional Zoo Yearbook." London: Zoological Society of
London, 12:36-42. 1972.
131. EpPLE G: Notes on the establishment and maintenance
of the pair bond in Saguinus jU.l'cicollis. In Kleiman DG
(ed): "The Biology of the Callitrichidae." Washington:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1977. 231-238.
132. EpPLE G: Effect of prepubertal ovariectomy on the devel-
opment of scent glands, scent markings, and aggressive
behaviors of female tamarin monkeys (Saguinus jusci-
collis). Horm Behav 16:330-342. 1982.
133. ESCAJADILLO A, BRONSON RT. SEHGAL P. HAYES KC:
Nutritional evaluation in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinu.l'
oedipus). Lab Anim Sci 31:161-165. 1981.
134. ESSLINGER JH, GARDINER CH: Dipetalonema barbasca-
lensis sp.n. (Nematoda: Filarioidea) from the owl mon-
key. Aotus trivirgatus. with a consideration of the status
of Parlitol11osa zakii Nagaty. 1935. J Parasitol 60:1001-
1005. 1974.
135. EVANS S: Breeding of the cotton-top tamarin Saguinus
oedipus: A comparison with the common marmoset. Zoo
Bioi 2:47-54. 1983.
136. FAIN A: Les acariens producteurs de gale chez les Ic-
muriens et les singes avec une etude des Psoroptidae
(Sarcoptiformes). Bull Inst Roy Sci Nat Belg 39:1-24,
1963.
137. FAIN A: Nouveaux acariens psoriques parasites de mar-
supiaux et de singes Sud-Americains. Bull Ann Soc Ent
Belg 99:322-332. 1963.
138. FAIN A: Les Lemuryssidae Parasites nasicoles de Lorisi-
dae africains et des Cebidae Sud-Americains. Description
d'une espcce nouvelle (Acarina: Sarcoptiformes). Ann
Soc Belg Med Trop 44:453-458. 1964.
139. FAIN A: A review of the family Rhyncoptidae (Law-
rence) parasitic on porcupines and monkeys: (Acarina:
Sarcoptiformes). In Naegele JA (ed): "Advances in
Acarology. Vol II." Ithaca: Cornell Univ Press, 135-
159,1965.
140. FAIN A: Les acariens producteurs de gale chez les Ic-
muriens et les singes. Nouvelles observations avec de-
scription d'une espece nouvelle. Acarologia 8:94-114,
1966.
141. FAIN A: Diagnoses d'acariens sarcoptiformes nouveaux.
Rev Zool Bot Afr 65:382. 1967.
142. FAIRBROTHER RW, HURST EW: Spontaneous diseases
observed in 600 monkeys. J Pathol Bact 35:867-873,
1932.
143. FALK LA, NIGIDA SM, DEINHARDT F, WOLFE LG,
COOPER RW, HERNANDEZ-CAMACHO, JI: Herpesvirus
ateles: Properties of an oncogenic herpesvirus isolated
from circulating lymphocytes of spider monkeys (Ateles
sp). Int J Cancer 14:473-482, 1974.
144. FAUST EC: Notes on helminths from Panama. III. Filar-
ial infection in the marmosets, Leontocebus geoffroyi
(Pucheron) and Saimiri orstedii orstedii (Reinhardt) in
Panama. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 28:627-634, 1935.

145. FELIPE-BAUER ML: A new neotropica1 Culicoides from
Minas Gerais (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). Mem Inst Os-
waldo Cruz 82:147-148,1987.
146. FELIPE-BAUER ML, LOURENC;O-DE-OLIVEIRA R: A new
neotropical biting midge of the Culicoides debilipalpis
group (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). Mem Inst Oswaldu
Cruz 82:149-150, 1987.
147. FEINSTONE SM, ALTER HJ, FIENES HP, SHIMIZU y,
POPPER H, BLACKMORE D, SLY D, LONDON WT, PUR-
CELL RH: Non-A, non-B hepatitis in chimpanzees and
marmosets. J Infect Dis 144:588-598, 1981.
148. FELTON SC, HOLLMAN C, KREIER JP, GLASER R: He-
matologic and immunologic responses in common mar-
mosets (Callithrix jacc'hus) infected with Plasmodium
knowlesi and Epstein-Barr virus. Lab Anim Sci 34: 164-
168,1984.
149. FERNANDEZ H, ROCHA MB, TRABULSI LR: Ocorrencia
de Campylobacter jejuni em animais do zool6gico. Rev
Fac Med Vet Zootec, Univ Sao Paulo. 24:239-242.
150. FERRARONI 11, DE ALMEIDA MARZOCHI MC: Toxoplas-
mose em animais domesticos e silvestres de Manaus-
amazonas. Acta Amazonica 8:83-89, 1978.
151. FIENNES RNT-W: Report of the society's pathologist
for the year 1958. Proc Zoo I Soc (Lond) 134:297-308,
1960.
152. FIENNES RNT-W: Report of the society'S pathologist for
the year 1961. Proc Zool Soc (Lond) 140:25-46. 1963.
153. FIENNES RNT-W: Report of the society's pathologist for
the year 1962. Proc Zoo I Soc (Lond) 143:53-78. 1964.
154. FIENNES RNT-W: Report of the society's pathologist for
the year 1963. J Zool (Lond) 148:341-362. 1966.
155. FIENNES RNT-W: Report ofthc society's pathologist for
the year 1964. J Zool (Lond) 148:363-380. 1966.
156. FIENNES RNT-W: Report of the society's pathologist for
the year 1965. J Zoo I (Lond) 154: 173-191. 1968.
157. FIENNES R: "Zoonoses of Primates." Ithaca: Cornell
Univ Press, 1967.
158. FINE D, SCHOCHETMAN G: Type D primate retroviruses:
A review. Cancer Res 38:3123-3139. 1978.
159. FITZGERALD A: Rearing marmosets in captivity. J Mam-
mal 6:181-188. 1935.
160. FLECKNELL PA. PARRY R, NEEDHAM L, RIDLEY RM.
BAKER HF, BOWES P: Respiratory discase associated
with parainfluenza type 1 (Sendui) virus in a colony of
marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Lab Anim 17:111-113,
1983.
161. FLURER C, KNOMBACH F, ZUCKER H: Palatability and
digestibility of soya and milk proteins in Callithricidae.
Lab Anim 19:242-250, 1985.
162. FLURER CI, ZUCKER H: Ascorbic acid in a New World
monkey family: Species difference and influence of
stressors on ascorbic acid metabolism. Z Erniihrungswiss
28:49-55, 1989.
163. FLURER CI, ZUCKER H: Coprophagy in marmosets due
to insufficient protein (amino acid) intake. Lab Anim
22:330-331. 1988.
164. FLURER C, ZUCKER H: Evaluation of serum parameters
relevant to vitamin D status in tamarins. J Med Primatol
16:175-184, 1987.
165. FLURER C. SCHEID R, ZUCKER H: Evaluation of a pel-
leted diet in a colony of marmosets and tamarins. Lab
Anim Sci 33:264-267, 1983.
166. FLYNN RJ: "Parasites of Laboratory Animals." Ames:
Iowa State University Press, 1973.
167. Fox JG, DZINK JL, ACKERMAN 11: Antibiotic sensitiv-
ity patterns of Campylobacter jejunilcoli isolated from
laboratory animals and pets. Lab Anim Sci 34:264-267,
1984.
Callitrichid diseases
168. Fox H: "Disease in Captive Wild Mammals and Birds."
Philadelphia: Lippincott. 1923.
169. Fox H: Some observations on the development of pul-
monary tuberculosis in lower animals as compared and
contrasted with similar lesions in man. J Am Vet Med
Assoc 72:792-810. 1927-28.
170. FRASER CEO. CHALIFOUX L. SEHGAL p. HUNT RD.
KING NW: A paramyxovirus causing fatal gastroenteritis
in marmoset monkeys. Prim Med 10:261-270, 1978.
171. FREESE CH, FREESE MA. CASTRO N: The status of
callitrichids in Peru. In Kleiman DG (ed): "The Biology
and Conservation of the Callitrichidae." Washington:
Smithsonian Institution Press. 1977. 121-130.
172. FRENCH JM: Ectrodactyly and syndactyly in a common
marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Lab Anim 20:49-50,
1986.
173. FRIEDMAN LA. LEVY BM, ENNEVER J: Epidemiology
of gingivitis and calculus in a marmoset colony. J Dent
Res 51 :803-806. 1972.
174. FRIGERIO MJ. RONDINONE SN. CALLELO MA. PARA-
DlSI ER. WEISSENBACHER MC: Junin virus infection of
Callithrix jacchus: Hematologic flndings. Acta Virol 26:
270-278. 1982.
175. FURR PM, TAYLOR-ROBINSON D, HETHERINGTON CM:
The occurrence of ureap1asms in marmosets. Lab Anim
10:393-398. 1976.
176. GALINDO p, RODANICHE E: Survcillance for sylvan yel-
low fever activity in Panama (1975-1961). Am J Trop
Med Hyg 13:844-850. 1964.
177. GALINDO p, SRIHONGSE S: Evidence of jungle yellow
fever activity in eastern Panama. Bull World Health Or-
gan 36:151-161. 1967.
178. GALLOWAY CB: Thirty-eighth annual report of the work
and operations of the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory. flscal
year 1966. Washington: US Government Printing Office,
1967.
179. GARBER PA, MOYA L, MALAGA C: A preliminary fleld
study of the moustached tamarin (Saguillus mystax) in
northeastern Peru: Questions concerned with the evalu-
ation of a communal breeding system. Folia Primatol
42:17-32. 1984.
180. GARDINER CH, IMES GD JR: Sparganosis in a saddle-
back tamarin: Another case of viral induced prolifera-
tion? J Wildl Dis 22:437-439. 1986.
181. GENGOZIAN N, BATSON JS: Single born marmosets
without hemopoietic chimerism: Naturally occurring and
induced. J Med Primatol 4:252-261. 1975.
182. GENGOZIAN N, BATSON JS, SMITH TA: Breeding of
tamarins (Saguinus sp) in the laboratory. In Kleiman DG
(cd): "The Biology and Conservation of the Callitrichi-
dae." Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 207-
214,1977.
183. GIBBS CJ, GAIDUSEK DC: Studies on the viruses of sub-
acute spongiform encephalopathies using primates, their
only available indicator. In "First Inter-American Con-
ference on Conservation and Utilization of American Pri-
mates in Biomedical Research." Pan American Health
Organization Scientiflc Publication No. 317. 1976, 83-
109.
184. GIORGI W, MATERA A. MOLLARET HH, PESTANA DE
CASTRO AF: Isolamento de Yersinia enterocolitica de
abscessos hepaticos de sagiiis (Callithrix penicillata e
Callithrix jacchus). Arq Inst BioI. S Paulo 36:123-127,
1969.
185. GOFF ML. WHITAKER JO JR, DIETZ JM: A new species
of Microtrombicula (Acari: Trombiculidae) from the
golden lion tamarin in Brazil. Int J Acarol 12:171-173.
1986.
227
Potkay
186. GOFF ML, WHITAKER 10, DIETZ 1M: The genus Spele-
cola (Acari: Trombiculidae), with description of a new
species from Brazil and a key to the species. J Med
Entomol 24: 198-200, 1987.
187. GOLTENBOTH R: Diseases of zoo animals: Nonhuman
primates (apes, monkeys, prosimians). In Klos HG. Lang
EM (eds): "Handbook of Zoo Medicine: Diseases and
Treatment of Wild Animals in Zoos. Game Parks, Cir-
cuses and Private Collections." New York: Van Nos-
trand Reinhold Co., 1982,46-85.
188. GONZALEZ PH, LAGUENS RP, FRIGERIO MJ, CALELLO
MA, WEISSENBACHER MC: Junin virus infection of Cal-
lithrix jacchlls: Pathologic features. Am J Trop Med Hyg
32:417 -423. 1983.
189. Goss AN. WHITE 1. TOWNSEND GG: Craniofacial
growth in young marmosets (Callithrix jacc/zus). Lab
Anim 17:303-306. 1973.
190. Goss L T: Report of the hospital and laboratory of the
New York Zoological Park, 1939. Mortality statistics of
the society's collection. Zoologica 25:269-279. 1940.
191. GOUGH A W. BARSOUM Nl. GRACON SI. MITCHELL L.
STUGES 1M: Poxvirus infection in a colony of common
marmosets (Callithrixjacchlls). Lab Anim Sci 32:87-90.
1982.
192. GOZALO AS, MONTOYA E, NOLAN TE: Trichobezoars
in two saddleback tamarins (Sagllinllsjllscicollis). J Med
Primatol 19:151-153. 1990.
193. GRIEDER H: Filaridae. Filariosis und Mikrofilariosis bei
verschiedenen Saugetieren. Schwcizer Arch fUr Tierheil
80:485-490. 1938.
194. HAMERTON AE: Report on the deaths occurring in the
society's gardens during the year 1929. Proc Zool Soc
Lond 100:357-380. 1930.
195. HAMERTON AE: Report on the deaths occurring in the
society's gardens during the year 1930. Proc Zool Soc
Lond 101:527-555, 1931.
196. HAMERTON AE: Report on the deaths occurring in the
society's gardens during the year 1931. Proc Zool Soc
Lond 102:613-638. 1932.
197. HAMERTON AE: Rcport on the deaths occurring in the
society's gardens during the year 1932. Proc Zool Soc
Lond 103:451-479. 1933.
198. HAMERTON AE: Report on the deaths occurring in thc
society's gardens during the year 1933. Proc Zoo I Soc
Lond 104:389-422. 1934.
199. HAMERTON AE: Report on the deaths occurring in the
society's gardens during the year 1934. Proc Zoo I Soc
Lond 105:443-474. 1935.
200. HAMERTON AE: Report on the deaths occurring in the
society's gardens during the year 1935. Proc Zool Soc
Lond 105:659-686. 1936.
201. HAMERTON AE: Report on the deaths occurring in the
society's gardens during the ycar 1936. Proc Zool Soc
Lond 107:443-474, 1937.
202. HAMERTON AE: Report on the deaths occurring in the
society's gardens during the year 1937. Proc Zool Soc
Lond 108:489-526. 1938.
203. HAMERTON AE: Review of mortality rates and report on
the deaths occurring during the year 1938. Proc Zool Soc
Lond 109:281-327, 1939.
204. HAMERTON AE: Report on the deaths occurring in the
society's gardens during the years 1939-1940. Proc Zoo I
Soc Lond 111:151-187. 1941.
205. HAMPTON lK: Laboratory requirements and observations
of Oedipomidas oediPlls. Am J Phys Anthrop 22:239-
244. 1964.
206. HAMPTON lK, HAMPTON SH, LANDWEHR BT: Ob-
servations on a successful breeding colony of the mar-
228
moset Oedipomidas oediPlls. Folia Primat 4:265-2!l7,
1966.
207. HAMPTON SH, HAMPTON lK: Detection of reproduc-
tive cycles and pregnancy in tamarins (Sagllinlls sp). In
Kleiman DF (ed): "The Biology and Conservation of
the Callitrichidae." Washington Smithsonian Institu-
tion Press, 1977, 173-180.
208. HANLON D. lENSEN D, PETERSON D, WOLFLE L,
LEVIN S: A radioimmunoassay for the detection of hepa-
titis A virus (HA V)-specific IgA antibodies: Results in
experimentally infected marmosets. Hepatology 2:679,
1982.
209. HARDING RD. HULME Ml, LUNN SF, HENDERSON C,
AITKENS Rl: Plasma progesterone levels throughout the
ovarian cycle of the common marmoset (Callithrix jac-
chlls). J Med Primatol II :43-51, 1982.
210. HARRISON RM, WOLF RH: Sperm parameters and testic-
ular volumes in Sagllinlls mystax. J Med Primatol 14:
281-284. 1985.
211. HAWKEY CM. KNIGHT lA, TAFFS LF, ApPLETON H,
HART MG, JONES DM: Red-Bellied tamarins (Sagllinlls
labiatlls): Hematologic reference values and hemopatho-
logic responses. Am J Primatol 4:33-34. 1983.
212. HAWKEY CM. HART MG. JONES AM: Clinical hematol-
ogy of the common marmoset Callithrix jacchlls. Am J
Primatol 3:179-199. 1982.
213. HAWTHORNE ID. LORENZ D. ALBERCHT P: Infection
of marmosets with parainfluenza virus types I and 3.
Infect Immun 37:1037-1041, 1982.
214. HEARN JP: The endocrinology of reproduction in the
common marmoset. Callithrix jacclllls. In Kleiman DG
(ed): "The Biology and Conservation of the Callitrichi-
dae." Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. 1977.
163-172.
215. HEARN JP. BURDEN FJ: Collaborative rearing of mar-
moset triplets. Lab Anim 13:131-133. 1979.
216. HELMKE RJ. KALTER SS. HERBERLlNG RL: Distribu-
tion of Legio/lellll pnellll10phila antibody among primate
species. J Clin Microbiol 13:508-512. 1981.
217. HENDRICKS LD: Host range characteristics of the primate
coccidian. Isospora arctopitheci. Rodhain 1933. J Para-
sitol 63:31-35. 1977.
218. HENGER R: Intestinal protozoa from Panamanian mon-
keys. J Parasitol 21 :60-61, 1935.
219. HERBERLlNG RL. KALTER SS: Recent development in
nonhuman primate virology. A review. In Goldsmith EL,
Moor-Jankowski J (eds): "Medical Primatology." Basel:
S Karger. 1970. 648-659.
220. HERBERLlNG RL. KALTER SS. ElCHBERG JW, LEVY
BM: Studies with the baboon endogenous virus and its
pseudo type of murine sarcoma virus in marmosets. In
Gengozian N. Denhardt F (cds): "Marmosets in Experi-
mental Medicine." Primates in Medicine. Vol 10. Basel:
S Karger. 1978. 142-148.
221. HERMAN CM: Parasites obtained from animals in the
collection of the New York Zoological Park during 1938.
Zoologica (NY) 24:481-485. 1939.
222. HERSHKOVITZ P: "Living New World Primates (Platyr-
rhini) Vol I." Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1977.
223. HETHERINGTON CM: Circadian oscillations of body tem-
perature in the marmoset. Callithrix jacchlls. Lab Anim
12: 107-108. 1978.
224. HETHERINGTON CM, COOPER JE, DAWSON P: A case
of syndactyly in the white-lipped tamarin Sagllil1l1s nigri-
collis. Folia Primatol 24:24-28. 1975.
225. HEUSCHELE WP. OOSTERHUIS 1, JANSSEN D, ROBINSON
PT. ENSLEY PK. MlER lE, OLSEN T. ANDERSON MP.

BENIRSCHKE K: Cryptosporidial infections in captive
wild animals. J Wildl Dis 22:493-496, 1986.
226. HICKEY TE, KELLY WA, SITZMAN JE: Demodectic
mange in a tamarin (Saguinus geoffroyi). Lab Anim Sci
33:192-193, 1983.
227. HIDDLESTON WA: Veterinary care of marmosets and
tamarins. Council on Laboratory Animals, Symposium.
Thessalonika, Greece 1976, 68-71.
228. HIDDLESTON W A: Large scale production of a small lab-
oratory primate Callithrix jacchus. In Antikatzides TH,
Erichsen S, Spiegcl A (eds): "The Laboratory Animal in
the Study of Reproduction." Stuttgart: Fischer. 1976,
51-57.
229. HILL weo: Report of thc society's prosector for the
year 1950. Proc Zoo I Soc Lond 121:641-650, 1951.
230. HILL WCO: Report of the society's prosector for the
year 1952. Proc Zool Soc Lond 123:227-251. 1953.
23 I. HILL WCO: Report of thc society's prosector for the
year 1953. Proc Zoo I Soc Lond 124:303-311. 1955.
232. HILL WCO: Report of the society's prosector for the
years 1955 and 1956. Proc Zool Soc Lond 126:421-446.
1957.
233. HILL WCO: Obstctric mishaps in marmosets. Acta Zool
Path Antv 48:149-154. 1969.
234. HILLEMAN MR. PROROST PJ. VILLAREJOS VM. BUN-
YAK EB. MILLER WJ, ITTENSOHN OL. WOLANSKI BS,
McALEER WJ: Infectious hepatitis (hepatitis A) research
in nonhuman primates. In "First Inter-American Confer-
ence on Conservation and Utilization of Nonhuman Pri-
mates in Biomcdical Research." Pan American Health
Organization Scientific Publication No. 317, 1976,
110-124.
235. HIRSH DC, BOORMAN GA, JANG SS. Erysipelas in a
black and rcd tamarin. JAMA 167:646-647, 1975.
236. HOAG RJ: Parental care in Leo/ltopithecus rosalia: Sex
and age differences in carrying behavior and the role of
prior experience. In Kleiman 0 (cd): "Thc Biology and
Conscrvation of thc Callitrichidac." Washington: Smith-
sonian Institution Prcss, 1977, 293-305.
237. HOBBS KR, CLOUGH G, BLEBY J: Thc establishment of
specificd-pathogen-free marmosets, Callithrix jacchus.
Lab Anim II :29-34, 1977.
238. HOLMES AW, CALDWELL RG, DEDMAN RE. DEIN-
HARDT F: Isolation and characterization of a new herpes-
virus. J Immunol 92:602-610, 1964.
239. HOLMES AW, PASSAVOY M, CAPPS RB: Marmosets as
laboratory animals. III. Blood chemistry of laboratory-
kept marmosets with particular attention to liver function
and structure. Lab Anim Care 17:41-47. 1969.
240. HOLMES A W, WOLFLE L, ROSENBLATT H, DEINHARDT
F: Hepatitis in marmosets: Induction of disease with
coded specimens from a human volunteer study. Science
165:817, 1969.
241. HENIGMAN H: Studies on the nutrition of mammals, Part
I. Proc Zool Soc Lond 106:517-530, 1936.
242. HOPKINS GHE: The host-association of the lice of
mamlas, Part I. Proc Zool Soc Lond 119:387-445,
1949.
243. HORNA M, TANTALEAN M: Panisitos de primates peru-
anos: helmintos del "mono fraile" y del "pichico barba
blanca." Bol Lima 27:54-58, 1983.
244. HUGH WT: "Pneumocystic carinii Pneumonitis, Vol I."
Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1987,64-66.
245. HUGOT J-P: Sur Ie genre Trypanoxyuris (Oxyuridae,
Nematoda) II. Sousgenre Hapaloxyuris parasite de Pri-
mates Callitrichidae. Bull Mus Natn Hist Nat (Paris)
6:1007-1020, 1984.
246. HUNT RD: A comparison of vitamin 02 and 03 in
New World primates. I. Production and regression of
Callitrichid diseases
osteodystrophia fibrosa. Lab Anim Care 17:222-234,
1967.
247. HUNT RD, ANDERSON MP, CHALIFOUX LV: Spontane-
ous infectious diseases of marmosets. In Gengozian N,
Deinhardt F (eds): "Marmosets in Experimental Medi-
cine." Primates in Medicine, Vol 10. Basel: S Karger,
1978,239-253.
248. HUNT RD, BLAKE BJ, DANIEL MD: Herpesvirus sai-
miri lymphoma in owl monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus): Sus-
ceptibility, latent period, hematologic picture and course.
Theriogenology 6:139-151, 1976.
249. HUNT RD, MELENDEZ LV: Herpesvirus infections of
nonhuman primates: A review. Lab Animal Care 19:
221-234, 1969.
250. HUNT RD, MELENDEZ LV, GARciA FG, TRUM BF:
Pathologic features of Herpesvirus ateles lymphoma in
cotton-top marmosets (Saguinus oedipus). J Natl Cancer
Inst 49:1631-1639. 1972.
251. INGLIS WG, COSGROVE GE: The pin-worm parasites
(Nematoda: Oxyuridae) of the Hapalidae (Mammalia:
Primates). Parsitology 55:731-737, 196.
252. INGRAM JC: Parent-infant interactions in the common
marmoset (Callithrix jaechus). In Kleiman DG (ed):
"The Biology and Conservation of the Callithridae."
Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1977, 281-
292.
253. JOHNSON AP, HETHERINGTON CM, OSBORN MFD,
THOMAS BJ, TAYLOR-ROBINSON D: Experimental infec-
tion of the marmoset genital tract with Chlamydia tracho-
matis. Br J Exp Pathol 61:291-295, 1980.
254. JOHNSON AP, OSBORN MF, THOMAS BJ, HETHERING-
TON CM, TAYLOR-ROBINSON D: Immunity to reinfection
of the genital tract of marmosets with Chlamydia tracho-
matis. Br J Exp Pathol 62:606-613. 1981.
255. JOHNSON AP. TAYLOR-ROBINSON D: Chlamydial genital
tract infections: Experimental infection of the primate
genital tract with Chlamydia tracllOmatis. Am J Pathol
106:132-135,1982.
256. JOHNSON DR, WOLFLE LG, LEVAN G, KLEIN G, ERN-
BERG I, AMAN P: Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-induced Iym-
phoproliferative disease in cotton-top marmosets. Int J
Cancer 31 :91-97, 1983.
257. JONES SR, CASEY HW: Primary renal tumors in nonhu-
man primates. Vet Pat hoi 18:89-104, 1981.
258. KALTER SS, HERBERLING RL: Hemagglutination-
inhibition antibody titers for vaccinia and monkey pox
in nonhuman primates. Primate Zoonoses Surveillance,
Report No 4. Atlanta: Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, April 1971, 15-17.
259. KALTER SS, HERBERLING RL: Serologic evidence of
viral infection in South American monkeys. J Natl Can-
cer Inst 49:251-259, 1972.
260. KALTER SS, HERBERLING RL, COOPER RW: Serologic
testing of various primate species maintained in a single
outdoor breeding colony. Lab Anim Sci 24:636-645,
1974.
261. KALTER SS, RODRIGUEZ AR, HERBERLING RL: Rotavi-
rus (SAil) antibody in nonhuman primates. Lab Anim
Sci 32:291-293, 1982.
262. KAPLAN RL. GOODMAN LJ, BARRET JE, LANSAW W:
Comparison of rectal swabs to stool cultures for the de-
tection of Campylobaeter Jetus-subspecies jejulli. Proc
Microbiol Soc, 1981 Ann. Mtg, Abstr C 215, P 298.
263. KARAYIANNIS P, SCHEURER PJ, BAMBER M, COHN 0,
HURN BAL, THOMAS HC: Experimental infection of
tamarins with human non-A, non-B hepatitis virus. J
Med Virol 11:251-256, 1983.
264. KARR SL, WONG MM: A survey of Sarcocystis in non-
human primates. Lab Anim Sci 25:641-645, 1975.
229
Potkay
265. KAUFMAN AF, MORRIS G, RICHARDSON JH, HEALY G,
KAPLAN Q: A survey of newly arrived South American
monkeys for potential human pathogens. Primate Zoono-
sis Surveillance Report No I. Atlanta: Public Health Ser-
vice, Centers for Disease Control, January-February,
1970, 11-14.
266. KAUMANNS W: Verhaltensbeobachtungen und Schnurr-
barttamarinen (Saguinus m. mystax). Zeitschrift des
Kiilner Zoo 25:107-117, 1982.
267. KAWATA K: Observations on cotton-headed tamarins.
In Lucas J, Duplaix-Hall N (eds): "International Zoo
Yearbook, Vol 12." London: Zoological Society of Lon-
don, 1972, 45-47.
268. KEYMER IF: Report of the pathologist. 1969 and 1970.
1 Zool (Lond) 166:515-558, 1972.
269. KEYMER IF: Report of the pathologist, 1971 and 1972.
1 Zool (Lond) 173:51-83, 1974.
270. KEY MER IF: Report of the pathologist, 1973 and 1974.
J Zool (Lond) 178:456-493, 1976.
271. KEYMER IF: Report of the pathologist, 1975. J Zool
(Lond) 184:296-313, 1978.
272. KILBORN JA, SEHGAL p, JOHNSON LD, BELAND M,
BRONSON RT: A retrospective study of infant mortality
of cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) in captive
breeding. Lab Anim Sci 33:168-171, 1983.
273. KING G: Feeding and nutrition of the Callitrichidae at the
1ersey Zoological Park. The Jersey Wildlife Preservation
Trust 12:81-90, 1975.
274. KING NW h: Synopsis of the pathology of New World
monkeys. In "First Inter-American Conference on Con-
servation and Utilization of American Nonhuman Pri-
mates in Biomedical Research." Pan American Health
Organization. Scientific Publication 317, 1976, 169-
198.
275. KING NW JR, CHALIFOUX LV: Prenatal and neonatal
pathology of captive nonhuman primates. In Benirschke
K (ed): "Primates; the Road to Self-sustaining Popula-
tions." Springer-Verlag: New York. 1986, 763-770.
276. KIRKWOOD JK: Effects of diet on health. weight and
litter size in captive, cotton-top tamarins. Saguinus oedi-
pus. Primates 24:515-520, 1983.
277. KIRKWOOD JK, EpSTEIN MA, TERLECKI AJ: Factors
influencing population growth of a colony of cotton-top
tamarins. Lab Anim 17:35-41, 1983.
278. KIRKWOOD JK, JAMES MP: Myeloproliferative disease
in a cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus oedipus). Lab
Anim 17:70-73, 1983.
279. KIRKWOOD JK, PEARSON GR, EpSTEIN MA: Adenocar-
cinoma of the large bowel and colitis in captive cotton-
top tamarins Saguinus oedipus oedipus. J Comp Pathol
96:507-515, 1986.
280. KLEIMAN DG: Characteristics of reproduction and socio-
sexual interactions in pairs of lion tamarins (Leonto-
pithecus rosalia) during the reproductive cycle. In Klei-
man DG (ed): "The Biology and Conservation of the
Callitrichidae." Washington: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 1977, 181-190.
281. KLEIMAN DG, HOAGE RT, GREEN KM: The lion tam a-
rins, genus Leontopithecus. In Mittermier RA, Rylands
AB, Coimbra-Filho AF, da Fonseca GAB (eds): "Ecol-
ogy and Behavior of Neotropical Primates, Vol 2."
Washington: World Wildlife Fund, 1988,299-347.
282. KOPROWSKI H, HUGHES TP: The virus of Ilheus enceph-
alitis. J Immunol 54:371-385, 1946.
283. KRAUS BS, GARRETT WS: Cleft palate in a marmoset:
Report of a case. Cleft Palate 1 5:340-345, 1968.
284. KRAWCZYNSKI KK, BRADLEY DW, MURPHY BL,
EBERT JW, ANDERSON TE, DOTO IL, NOWOSLAWSKI
A, DUERMEYER W, MAYNARD JE: Pathogenetic aspects
230
of hepatitis A virus infection in enterally inoculated mar-
mosets. Am J Clin Pathol 76:698-706, 1981.
285. KUNTZ RE: Trematodes of the intestinal tract and biliary
passages. In T-W-Fiennes RN (ed): "Pathology of Sim-
ian Primates, Part II." Basel: S Karger, 1972, 104-123.
286. KUNTZ RE, MYERS BJ: Parasites in South American
primates. In Lucas J, Duplaix-Hall N (eds): "Interna-
tional Zoo Yearbook." London Biological Society. 12:
61-68. 1972.
287. LA EMMERT HW h: Susceptibility of marmosets to dif-
ferent strains of yellow fever virus. Am J Trop Med
24:71-81,1944.
288. LAEMMERT HW JR, DE CASTRO FERREIRA L: The isola-
tion of yellow fever virus from wild-caught marmosets.
Am J Trop Med 25:231-232. 1945.
289. LAUFS R, STEINKE H: Etiology and prevention of malig-
nant lymphoma in nonhuman primates. J Med Primatol
4:434, 1975.
290. LAUFS R, STEINKE H: Vaccination of nonhuman pri-
mates against malignant lymphoma. Nature 253:71-72,
1975.
291. LAUFS R, STEINKE H: Vaccination of nonhuman pri-
mates with killed oncogenic herpesviruses. Cancer Res
36:704-706. 1976.
292. LA VOIPIERRE MMJ: A new family of acarines belonging
to the suborder Sarcoptiformes parasitic in the hair folli-
cles of primates. Ann Natal Mus 16:191-208. 1964.
293. LAVOIPIERRE MMJ: A note on the family Psoralgidae
(Acari: Sarcoptiformes) together with a description of
two new genera and two new species parasitic on pri-
mates. Acarologia 6:342-352. 1964.
294. LEVY BM, ARTECONA J: The marmoset as an experi-
mental animal in biological research: Care and mainte-
nance. Lab Anim Care 14:20-27. 1964.
295. LEVY BM. HAMPTON SH. HAMPTON JK: Some aspects
of marmoset biology. In Lucas 1. Duplaix-Hall N (cds):
"International Zoo Yearbook," London Biological Soci-
ety. 12:51-56. 1972.
296. LEVY BM, MIRKOVIC RR: An epizootic of measles in a
marmoset colony. Lab Anim Sci 21 :33-39. 1971.
297. LEVY BM, TAYLOR AC, HAMPTON S. THOMS GW:
Tumors of the marmoset produced by Rous sarcoma vi-
rus. Cancer Res 29:2237-2248. 1969.
298. LEWIS RW, McNEES 0, PONZIO FJ, STEIN FS, SIS
RF, LEWIS DH, LEVY BM: Oral glucose and lactose
tolerance tests in the common marmoset. Am J Primatol
1:315, 1981.
299. LEWIS DH, STEIN FJ. SIS RF, McMURRAY ON: Fecal
microflora of marmosets with wasting marmoset syn-
drome. Lab Anim Sci 37:103-105. 1987.
300. LINDQUIST WD, BIELETZKI J, ALLISON S: Pterygoder-
matites sp (Nematoda: Riticulariidae) from primates in
the Topeka. Kansas Zoo. Proc Helminthol Soc Wash
47:224-227, 1980.
301. Llu S: Filariodes cebuellae sp. n. (Nematoda: Meta-
strongyloidea) from the lung of a pygmy marmoset. Ce-
buella pygmaea (Spix, 1823). J Helminthol 39:225-228,
1965.
302. LLOYD W, PENNA HA: Yellow fever virus encephalitis
in monkeys. Am 1 Trop Med 13:243-264, 1983.
303. LONNBERG E: Notes on marmosets. Arkiv fUr Zoologi
32:1-21,1940.
304. LORENZ D, ALBERCHT P: Susceptibility of tamar ins (Sa-
guinus) to measles virus. Lab Anim Sci 30:661-665,
1980.
305. LORENZ D, BARKER L, STEVENS D, PETERSON M,
KIRSCHTEIN E: Hepatitis in the marmoset (Saguinus mys-
tax). Proc Soc Exp BioI Med 135:348-354, 1970.
306. LOUREN<;:O-DE-OLIVEIRA R: Natural infection of golden

lion tamarin Leontopithecus rosalia, with Trypanosoma
cruzi in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. Mem Inst
Oswaldo Cruz 85 (Suppl 1):15, 1990.
307. LUCAS NS, HUME EM, SMITH HH: On the breeding of
common marmoset (Hap Ie jacchus, Linn.) in captivity
when irradiated with ultra-violet rays. Proc Zool Soc
Lond 97:447-451, 1927.
308. LUCAS NS, HUME EM, SMITH HH: On the breeding of
the common marmoset (Hapale jacchus, Linn) in captiv-
ity when irradiated with ultraviolet rays. II. A ten years'
family history. Proc Zool Soc Lond 107:205-21 I, 1937.
309. LUCKE VM, BENNETT AM: An outbreak of hepatitis in
a zoological collection. Lab Anim 16:73-77, 1982.
310. LUNN SF, HOBSON BM, HEARN JP: Pregnancy diagno-
sis in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Folia
Primatol 32:200-206, 1979.
31 I. LUSHBAUGH CC, HUMASON GL, SWARTZENDRUBER
DC, RICHTER CB, GENGOZIAN N: Spontaneous colonic
adenocarcinoma in marmosets. In Gengozian N, Dein-
hardt F (eds): "Marmosets in Experimental Medicine."
Primates in Medicine, Vol 10. Basel: S Karger, 1978,
119-134.
312. MACHADO FILHO DA: Revisiio do genero Prothenorchis
Travassos, 1915 (Acanthocephala). Mem Inst Oswaldo
Cruz 48:495-544, 1950.
313. MACKINNON DL, DIBB MJ: Report on intestinal proto-
zoa of some mammals in the zoological gardens at Re-
gent's Park. Proc Zoo I Soc Lond 108:323-346, 1938.
314. MADRA JL, PODOLSKY DK, KING NW, SEHGAL PK,
MOORE R, WINTER HS: Characterization of spontaneous
colitis in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinlls oedipus) and its
response to sulfasalazine. Gastroenterology 88: 13-19.
1985.
315. MALAGA C, HORNA M. MORO J: Hemato10gia del mono
pichico barba blanca. Sagllillus mystax. In Castro-
Rodriguez NE (cd): "La Primatologia en el Peru: Investi-
gaciones Primatologicas (1973-1985)." Lima. Peru:
Projecto Peruano de Primatologia, 1990. 602-607.
316. MALLINSON JJC: Maintenance of marmosets and tama-
rins at Jersey Zoological Park with special reference to
the design of the new marmoset complex. In Kleiman
DG (ed): "The Biology and Conservation of the Calli-
trichidae." Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.
1977,323-330. . lymphomas of monkeys. Fed Proc 36:1643-1650.1972.
317. MARCZYNSKA B, JONES C, WOLFLE LG: Isolation of
syncytium-forming virus from common marmoset. Proc
Am Soc Microbiol. 1981 Ann Mtg, p. 287.
318. MARCZYNSKA B, MASSEY RJ: Transplantable primate
tumors induced by Rous sarcoma virus. I. Introduction
of tumors transplantable into young marmosets. J Natl
Cancer Inst 77:537-545, 1986.
319. MARINKELLE CJ: The prevalence of Trypallosoma
(Schizotrypanum) crllzi in Colombian monkeys and mar-
mosets. Ann Trop Med Paras ito I 72:121-124, 1982.
320. MATERN VON B. FIEGE N: Befall mit Pterygoderma-
tites sp. (Nematoda: Spirurida) bei Krallenaffenarten im
Frankfurter Zoo. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 31 :23-27,
1989.
321. MATHIESEN LR, DRUCKER J, LORENZ D, WAGNER J,
GERETY RJ: Localization of hepatitis A antigen in mar-
moset organs during acute infection with hepatitis A vi-
rus. J Infect Dis 138:369-377, 1978.
322. MATTHEWS REF: Classification and nomenclature of vi-
ruses: Third report of the international committee on tax-
onomy of viruses. Intervirology 12:133-294, 1979.
323. McINTOSH GH, LAWSON CA: Hematological character-
istics of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Res
Vet Sci 38:109-114, 1985.
324. McINTOSH GH, LOOKER JW: Development of a marmo-
Callitrichid diseases
set colony in Australia. Lab Anim Sci 32:672-679,
1982.
325. MciNTOSH GH, RICHMOND W, HIMSWORTH RL: Vita-
min C deficiency and hypercholesterolemia in marmoset
monkeys. Nutr Rep Int 23:237-244. 1981.
326. McLANAHAN EB, GREEN KM: The Vocal repertoire
and analysis of the contexts of vocalization in Leonto-
pitheclls rosalia. In Kleiman DG (ed): "The Biology and
Conservation of the Callitrichidae." Washington: Smith-
sonian Institution Press. 1977. 251-270.
327. McNEES DW. LEWIS RW, PONZIO BJ, STEIN F1. SIS
RF, LEVY BM: Blood vitamin values of common mar-
mosets (Callithrixjacchlls). Primates 24:266-272. 1983.
328. McNEES OW. PONZIO B1. LEWIS RW, STEIN FJ. SIS
RF. LEVY BM: Hematology of common marmosets
(Callithrixjacchlls). Primates 23:145-150. 1982.
329. McNEILLY AS. ABBOTT DH. LUNN SF. CHAMBERS
PC. HEARN JP: Plasma protein concentrations during
the ovarian cycle and lactation and their relationship to
return of postpartum in the common marmoset (Callithrix
jacchus). J Reprod Fertil 62:353-360. 1981.
330. MELHORN H, HEYDORN AO. JANITSCHKE K: Light and
electron microscopical study on sarcocysts from muscles
of the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). baboon (Papio
cynocephalus) and tamarin Saguinus (Oedipomidas) oe-
dipus. Z Parasitenkunde 51: 165-178. 1977.
331. MELENDEZ LV: Natural history of Herpesvirus T and
H. saimiri in South American monkeys. In "First Inter-
American Conference on Conservation and Utilization
of Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research." Pan
American Health Organization Scientific Publication No
317. 1976.75-82.
332. MELENDEZ LV. DANIEL MD: Herpes viruses from
South American monkeys. In Goldsmith EL. Moor-
Jankowski J (eds): "Medical Primatology." Basel: S
Karger. 1970.686-693.
333. MELENDEZ LV, DANIEL MD, GARciA FG. FRASER
CEO. HUNT RD. KING NW: Herpes saimiri. I. Further
characterization studies of a new virus from the squirrel
monkey. Lab Anim Care 19:372-377. 1969.
334. MELENDEZ LV. HUNT RD. DANIEL MD, FRASER
CEO. BARAHONA HH, KING NW, GARciA FG: Her-
pe.\'\'irlls saimiri and ateles-their role in malignant
335. MELENDEZ LV. HUNT RD, DANIEL MD. GARciA FG,
FRASER CEO: Herpe.\'\'irus saimiri. II. Experimentally
induced malignant lymphoma in primates. Lab Anim
Care 19:378-386. 1969.
336. MELNICK JL. MIDULIA M, WIMBERLY I, BASRERA-ORO
JG, LEVY BM: A new member of the herpesvirus group
isolated from South American marmosets. J Immunol
92:596-601, 1964.
337. MENEZES H: Vaccination of Callithrix jacchus (Linne.
1758) marmosets with the PF strain of Trypanosoma
cruzi. Mem Inst Os waldo Cruz 76:131-137. 1981.
338. MENSCHEL E, STROH R: Helminthologische Unter-
suchungen bei Pincheiiffchen (Oedipomidas oedipus). Z
Parasitenkunde 23:376-383, 1963.
339. MENZEL EW, JUNO C: Marmosets (Sagllinus fusci-
collis): Are learning sets learned? Science 217:750-752,
1982.
340. MICHALEVICZ R, HETHERINGTON CM, HANN I,
BLACKLOCK HA: Studies of sub-human primate (marmo-
set) pluripotent hemopoietic stem cells (CFU-GEMM) in
vitro. J Med Primatol 14:245-253, 1985.
341. MINETTE HP: Leptospirosis in primates other than man.
Am J Trop Med Hyg 15:190-198, 1966.
342. MITCHELL GD, JOHNSTON DA, NAYLOR BA, KNIGHT
AM, WEDDERBURN N: Plasmodium vivax malaria in the
231
Potkay
common marmoset. Callithrix jacchus: Adaptation and
host responsc to infection. Parasitol 96:241-250. 1988.
343. MITTERMEIER RA. BAILEY RC. COIMBRA-FILHO AF:
Conservation status of the Callitrichidac in Brazilian Am-
azonia. Surinam and French Guiana. In Kleiman DG
(ed): "The Biology and Conservation of the Callitrichi-
dae." Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. 1977.
137-146.
344. MIURA T. TSUJIMOTO H. FUKASAWA M. OHTA Y.
HAYAMI M. HONJO S: Genetic analysis of SIV AGM ami
SIV MND . J Primatol 18:255-259. 1989.
345. MOLLARET HH. GIORGI W. MATERA A. PESTANA DE
CASTRO AF. GUILLON lC: Isolement de Yersillia ellIero-
colitica chez Ie singe callitriche au Bresil. Rec Med Vet
146:919-924. 1970.
346. MONTALI RJ. GARDINER CH. EVANS RE. BUSH M:
Pterygodermatites Ilyticebi (Nematoda: Spirurida) in
golden lion tamarins. Lab Anim Sci 33:194-197. 1983.
347. MONTAI.I Rl. RAMSEY EC, STEPHENSEN CB. WORLEY
M. DAVIS lA. HOLMES KV: A new transmissible viral
hepatitis of marmosets and tamarins. J Infect Dis 160:
759-765.1989.
348. MORELAND AF. WOODWARD lC: A spontaneous uterine
tumor in a New World primate Saguillus (Oedipomidas)
oedipus. Pathol Vet 5: 193-198. 1968.
349. MORGAN Al. FINERTY S. LOVGREN K. SCUJ_1.I0N FT.
MOREIN B: Prevention of Epstein-Barr (EB) virus-
induced lymphoma in cotton-top tamarins by vaccination
with the EB virus envelope glycoprotein gp340 incorpo-
rated into immune-stimulating complexes. J Gen Virol
69:2093-2096. 1988.
350. MORGAN Al. MACKETT M. FINERTY S. ARRAND JR.
SCULLION FT. EpSTEIN MA: Recombinant vaccinia vi-
rus expressing Epstein-Barr virus glycoprotein gp340
protects cotton-top tamarins against EB virus-induced
malignant lymphomas. J Med Virol 25:189-195. 1988.
351. MORIN ML: A different approach in examining a wasting
syndrome. Lab Anim 12:36-41. 1983.
352. MORITA M: Fatal herpesvirus tallJarillllS infection in
cotton-topped marmosets (Saguillus oedipus). Jpn J Med
Sci Bioi 34:268-270. 1981.
353. MORITA M. KITAJIMA K. YOSHIZAWA H. iTOH Y.
IWAKIRI S. SHIBATA C. MAYUMI M: Glomerulonephritis
associated with arteritis in marmosets infected with hepa-
titis A virus. Br J Exp Pathol 62:103-113. 1981.
354. MURPHY BL. MAYNARD lE. KRUSHAK DH. BERQUIST
KR: Microbial flora of imported marmosets; viruses and
enteric bacteria. Lab Anim Sci 22:339-343. 1972.
355. MYERS Bl: Echinococcosis. coenurosis. cysticerosis.
sparganosis. etc. In T-W-Fiennes RN (cd): "Pathology
of Simian Primates. Part II." Basel: S Karger. 1972.
124-143.
356. NASCIMENTO AE. LEIMIG TES. ANDRADE PP: Trypa-
nosoma lIJillasense in ClIllithrix jacchus with associated
megacolon. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 85 (Suppl I): 142.
1990.
357. NAYAR GPS. CRAWSHAW Gl. NEUFELD lL: Tularemia
in a group of nonhuman primates. J Am Vet Med Assoc
175:962-963. 1979.
358. NELSON B. COSGROVE GF. GENGOZIAN NL: Diseases
of an imported primate. Tal11arinus nigricollis. Lab Anim
Care 16:255-275, 1966.
359. NERy-GUIMARAES F. FRANKEN Al: Toxoplasmose em
primates nao humanos 11-Tentativas de infec<;6es ex-
perimentais em Macam l11uialla, Cebus apella e Cal-
Iithrix jacchus; e pesquisa de antecorpos en varias espe-
eies de platyrrhunus. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 69:97-
II I. 1971.
360. NEUBAUR RH. RABIN H. HOPKINS RF, LEVY BM:
232
Characteristics of cell lines established from Epstein-Barr
virus induced marmosct tumors. Prim Med 10: 156-162.
1978.
361. NEYMAN PF: Aspects of the ecology and social organiza-
tion of free ranging cotton-top tamarins (Saguillus oedi-
pus) and the conservation status of this species. In Klei-
man DG (ed): "The Biology and Conservation of the
Callitrichidae." Washington: Smithsonian Institution
Press. 1977. 39-72.
362. NOUGUCHI H: Etiology of yellow fever. II. Symptom-
atology and pathological findings in animals experimen-
tally infected. J Exp Med 29:585-596. 1919.
363. NORCONK MA: A preliminary morphobehavioral analy-
sis of the eallitrichid vertical cling. Am J Primatol I:
326-327. 1981.
364. NOYES WF: Tumors induced in the South American mar-
moset monkey by Rous sarcoma virus. J Natl Cancer Inst
45:579-587. 1970.
365. OGDEN 1: Reproduction of wild-caught tamarins (Sagui-
IlUS lI1ystax mystax) under laboratory conditions. J Med
Primatol 12:343-345, 1983.
366. OGDEN 10. WOLFLE LG: Reproduction of wild-caught
marmosets (Sagllilllls lahiatlls lahiatlls) under laboratory
conditions. Lab Anim Sci 29:545-546. 1979.
367. OLCOTT AT. SPEER CA. HENDRICK LD: Endogenous
development of Isospora arctopitheci, Rodhain. 1933 in
the marmoset Saguinus geofti·oyi. Proc Helminthol Soc
Wash 49:118-126. 1982.
368. OREIZEN S. LEVY BM: Oral lesions of long tcrm nico-
tinic acid deficiency in marmosets. J Dent Res 55 (Spec.
Issue B): 175. 1976.
369. PEARSON GR. KIRKWOOD lK. SCULI.ION F: Adrenal
myeloipoma in the cotton top tamarin (Sagllillus o. oedi-
pIlS). Am J Primatol 13:203-206. 1987.
370. PEREIR LH. MELO AL. RESENDE DM: Gelatin as a vehi-
cle for food and vitamin administration to marmosets.
Lab Anim Sci 36: 189-190. 1986.
371. PETERS lC: Eine "monkey-pox" Enzootic im Affcnhaus
des Tiergartens "Blijdrop." Kleintier-Praxis 11:65-71.
1966.
372. PETERSON DA. DEINHARDT FW. WOI.FLE LG. JOHN-
SON DR, HALL WT. FROESNER GG: Virus excretion.
antibody development and changes in rosette formation
of lymphocytes during non-B hepatitis in marmosets. In
Gengozian N. Deinhardt F (eds): "Marmosets in Experi-
mental Medicine." Primates in Medicine. Vol 10. Basel:
S Karger. 1978.280-287.
373. PETERSEN GM. CLAPP NK. TARDIF SD: Spontancous
colonic disease in cotton top tamarins (Sagllillu.l' oedipus
oedipus): A pan-specific genetic risk. Am J Physical An-
thropol 72:241-242. 1987.
374. PETERSON DA. WOLFLE LG, DEINHARDT F: Transmis-
sion of Kuru and Creutzfeld-Jacob disease to marmoset
monkeys. Intervirology 2: 14-19. 1973174.
375. PETERSON DA. WOLFLE LG. DEINHARDT FW: Human
spongiform encephalopathies in marmoset monkeys (Sa-
guillus sp). In Gengozian N. Deinhardt F (cds): "Marmo-
sets in Experimental Medicine." Primates in medicine.
Vol 10. Basel: S Kargcr. 1978,254-260.
376. PFISTER R. HEIDER K, ILLGEN A. BERLINGER R: Tricho-
.Ipirura leptostoma: A possible case of wasting disease
in the marmoset. Z Versuchstierkd 33: 157-161. 1990.
377. PHILl.IpS IR: The reproductive potential of the common
cotton-cared marmoset (Callit/zrix jacchus) in captivity.
J Med Primatol 5:49-55, 1976.
378. PHILI.IPS LG h: Suspected viral hepatitis in golden lion
tamarins-case report. Ann Proc Am Assoc Zoo Veteri-
narians. Topeka. Kansas: Hills Division. Riviana Foods.
1981. 34-35.

379. PLiMMER HG: On the blood parasites found in animals
in the zoological gardens during the years 1908-191 I.
Proc Zool Soc Long 82:406-418, 1912.
380. PLiMMER HG: Report on the deaths which occurred in
the zoological gardens during 1912, together with blood
parasites found during the year. Proc Zool Soc Lond
83:141-149, 1913.
381. PLiMMER HG: Report on the deaths which occured in
the zoological gardens during 1914, together with a list
of the blood parasites found during the year. Proc Zool
Soc Lond 85:123-149, 1915.
382. PLiMMER HG: Report on the deaths which occurred in
the zoological gardens during 1915. together with a list
of the blood parasites found during the year. Proc Zool
Soc Lond 86:77-86, 1916.
383. POELMA FG: Pllelllllocystis carillii infections in zoo ani-
mals. Z Parasitenk 46:61-68, 1975.
384. POELMA FG, BORST GHA. ZWART P: Yersillia elltero-
colitim infections in nonhuman primates. Acta Zool Path
Antv 69:3-9, 1977.
385. POLESHCHUK VP, BALAYAN MS, FROVOLA MP, DOKIN
VP. GULYEAVA TV. SOBOL AV: Diseases of wild-
caught moustached tamarins (Sagllilllls lIlystax) in captiv-
ity. Z Versuchstierkd 31:69-75. 1988.
386. POOK AG: A comparative study of the usc of contact
cells in Sagllilllls ./ilscicol/is and Cal/itilrix jaccillis. In
Kleiman DG (cd): "The Biology and Conservation of
the Callitrichidae." Washington: Smithsonian Institution
Press. 1977, 271-280.
387. POOLE TB. EVANS RG: Reproduction. infant survival
and productivity in a colony of common marmosets (Cal-
lithrix jacchlls jacchlls). Lab Anim 16:88-97. 1982.
388. PORTER lA: Parasites of marmosets. Lab Anim Sci
22:503-506, 1972.
389. PORTER lA. YOUNG MD: Susceptibility of Panamanian
primates to Plaslllodilllll \·imx. Mil Med 131 :952-958.
1966.
390. PORTER lA. YOUNG MD: The transfer of P . .flilcipartllll
from man to the marmoset Saguilllls geo/.li·oyi. J Parasitol
53:845-846, 1967.
391. POTKAY S, MORO M: Nonhuman primate breeding and
conservation in South America. Lab Anim 12:43-51,
1983.
392. PROVOST Pl, BISHOP RP, GERETY Rl, HILLEMAN MR,
McALEER Wl, SCOI.NICK, STEVENS CE: New findings
in live, attenuated hepatitis A vaccine development. J
Med Virol 20:165-175. 1986.
393. PROVOST Pl, HIl.LEMAN MR: An inactivated hepatitis A
virus vaccine prepared from infected marmoset liver.
Proc Soc Exp Bioi Med 159:201-203. 1978.
394. PROVOST Pl, KELLER PM. BANKERS FS, KEECH Bl,
KLEIN H1, LOWE RS. MORTON A, PHELPS AH. Mc-
ALEER W 1: Successful infection of the common marmo-
set (Callithrix jacchus) with human varicella-zoster vi-
rus. J Virol 61:2951-2955, 1987.
395. PROVOST Pl, VIl.LAREJOS VM, HII.l.EMAN MR: Tests
in Rufiventer and other marmosets of susceptibility to
human hepatitis A virus. In Gengozian N, Deinhardt F
(cds): "Marmosets in Experimental Medicine." Primates
in Medicine, Vol 10. Basel: S Karger, 1978, 288-294.
396. PUGSLEY SL: Spontaneous lobster claw deformity in a
silvery marmoset (Cal/ithrix argentata). Lab Anim
18:388-389. 1984.
397. PUGSLEY SL: Congenital malformations in a common
marmoset (Cal/ithrix jace/llIs) similar to human 13-tri-
somy syndrome. Lab Anim 19:123-124, 1985.
398. RABIN H: Assay and pathogenesis of oncogenic viruses
in nonhuman primates. Lab Anim Sci 21:1032-1049,
1971.
Callitrichid diseases
399. RAMIREZ MF, FREESE CH. REVILLA Cl: Feeding ecol-
ogy of the pygmy marmoset, Cebuel/a pyglllaea, in
northeastern Peru. In Kleiman DG (cd): "The Biology
and Conservation of the Callitrichidae." Washington:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1977. 91-104.
400. RAMSAY EC, MONTALI Rl, WORLEY M, STEPHENSEN
CB, HOLMES KV: Callitrichid hepatitis: Epizootiology
of a fatal hepatitis in zoo tamarins and marmosets. 1 Zoo
Wildl Med 20:178-183, 1989.
401. RANDOLPH 1, BUSH M, AIlRAMOWITZ E. MONTALI Rl:
Surgical correction of familial diphragmatic hernia of
Morgagni in the golden lion tamarin. J Pediatr Surg
16:396-401, 1981.
402. RATCLIFFE H: Animal parasites. Rep Lab Mus Comp
Pathol Zool Soc Phila. 1930.57-59.
403. REGO AA, SCHAEFFER G: Filariopsis /Jarretoi (Tra-
vassos. 1921) (Nematoda: Metastrongyloidea) lung para-
site of primates from South America taxonomy, syn-
onyms, and pathology. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 83:
183-188. 1988.
404. RENQUIST OM: Personal communication.
405. REWEl.l. RE: Report of the pathologist for the year 1947.
Proc Zool Soc Lond 118:501-514. 1948.
406. RIBEIRO RD, BARRETTO MP, BELDA NETTO FM, COR-
REA ST. FII.HO FF. Estudios sobre reservat6rios e vec-
tores silvestres do Trypallosoma cruzi. LXXV: Infec<;iio
natural do simio. Cal/ithrix jacchlls (Linnaeus, 1958)
pelo T. Cruzi. Rev Bras Bioi 40:51-58, 1980.
407. RIBEIRO RD, PINTO FH. GARCIA TAR. RIBEIRO
GMCA: Detection of the monkey Cal/ithrix jace/llis
(Humboldt. 1812) naturally infected by Trypallosoma
(Megall:,,,)w/[lIl1) lIlilla.\·ese Chagas. 1909, in the State of
Minas Gerais. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 82 (Suppl):36,
1987.
408. RICHARDSON lH: Rabies in nonhuman primates. Pri-
mate Zoonoses Surveillance Report No 4. Atlanta: Pub-
lic Health Service. Centers for Disease Control, April
1971, 18-20.
409. RICHARDSON lH. HUMPHREY GL: Rabies in imported
nonhuman primates. Lab Anim Sci 21: 1082-1083,
1971.
410. RICHART R, BENIRSCHKE K: Causes of death in a colony
of marmoset monkeys. J Pathol Bact 86:221-223.1963.
411. RICHTER CB, BUYUKMIHCHI N: Squamous cell carcino-
mas of the epidermis in an aged white-lipped tamarin
(Sagllilllls ./ilscicollis lelicogellYs. Gray). Vet Pathol 16:
263-265, 1979.
412. RICHTER CB, HUMASON GL. GODBOLD lH JR: En-
demic Plleul1loc),stis carillii in a marmoset colony. J
Comp Pathol 88: 171-180. 1978.
413. RICHTER CB, LUSHBAUGH Cc. SWARTZENDRUBER DC:
Cancer of the colon in cotton-topped tamarins. In: Mon-
tali RJ, Migaki G (cds): "Comparative Pathology of Zoo
Animals." Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press,
1978. 567-571.
414. RICHTER CB, TANKERSLEY WG, DAVIS-TARDIF S,
CARSON RL: Preference for high sugar diet by the com-
mon marmoset. Am J Primatol 1:313, 1981.
415. RIDl.EY RM, BAKER HF, CROW T1, ROBERTS GW,
TAYLOR RG: Transmission studies of neurological and
psychiatric disease in the marmoset. Prog Neuropsycho-
phannacol Bioi Psychiatry 9:307. 1985.
416. RODANICHE ED: Susceptibility of the marmoset. Mari-
killa ge(?ffroyi. and the night monkey, Aotus :olla/is. to
experimental infection with toxoplasma. Am J Trop Med
Hyg 3:1026-1032, 1954.
417. RODHAIN 1: Sur une coccidie de l'intestin de l'ouistiti:
Hapale jacchus pellicil/arus (Geoffroy). Compt Rend Soc
Bioi 114:1357-1358, 1983.
233
Pot kay
418. ROTHE H: Parturition and related behavior in Callithrix
jacchus (Ceboidea, Callitrichidae). In Kleiman OG (ed):
"The Biology and Conservation of the Callitrichidae."
Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. 1977, 193-
206.
419. SAINSBURY AW, KIRKWOODJK, ApPLEBY EC: Chronic
colitis in common marmosets (Cal/ithrix jaccillls) and
cotton top tamarins (Sagllillus oediplls). Vet Rec 12l:
329-330. 19H7.
420. SAINSBURY AW, MEW JA. PURTON p, EATON BO,
COOPER JE: Advances in the management of primates
kept for research. Anim Technol 4:H7-101. 1990.
421. SAMAMF: H: Personal communication.
422. SAMOILOVICH SR, CALELLO MA, LAGUENS RP. WEIS-
SENIIACHER MC: Long-term protection against Argentine
hemorrhagic fever in Tacaribe virus infected marmosets:
Virologic and histopathologic findings. J Med Virol 24:
229-236. 19HH.
423. SANDOSHAM AA: On Ellterohills 1'l'r171icli/aris (Lin-
naeu,. 175H) and some related species from primates and
rodents. J Helminthol 24: 171-204. 1950.
424. SAUER RM. BISHOP RW: Inclusion body hepatitis in
marmoset. Lab Anim Care 13:790-792. 1963.
425. SAWYER TK. CHEEVER A W: Some internal parasites of
the cotton-topped Pinche (Colombian marn](),et). Oedi-
pomida oedipus, with a note on the survival. in vitro. of
microfilariae of one of the parasites. Proc Helminthol
Soc Wash 29:159-162. 1962.
426. SCHILLER CA. WOLFF MJ. MUNSON L. MONTALI RJ:
StreptocOCC{(S :ooepidelllic{(s ini'cctions of possible
horse meat source in red-bellied tamarins and Goekli's
monkeys. J Zoo Wildl Med 20:322-327. 19~9.
427. SCHNEIDER CR: Be.l'llotia darlingi (Brumpt. 1(13) in
Panama. J Parasitol 14:7H-H2. 1967.
42H. SCOll HH: Report on the death, occurring in the soci-
ety's gardens during the year 1926. Proc Zool Soc Lond
97:173-19H. 1927.
429. SCOTI HH: Report on the deaths occurring in the soci-
ety', gardens during the year 1927. Proc Zool Soc Lond
9H:HI-119. 192H.
430. SI.A(;[:R S. WILDT D. PLATZ C: Artilicial breedil1!! of
nonhuman primates. Symp Zool Soc Lond 43:207-2IH.
197H.
431. SI.I.I· JT. COS(;IWVE G E: Pentastome larvae in labora-
tory primates. J Para,itol 54:969. 196H.
432. SI.LYF H: "The Physiology and Pathology of Exposure
to Stress." Montreal: Acta. Inc. 1950.
433. SHAW J H. AUSKAI'S AM: Studies on the dentition of the
marmoset. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 7:671-677.
1954.
434. SHIMWEU. M. WARRINGION BF. FOWLERJSL: Dietary
habits relating to "wasting syndrome" (WMS). Lab
Anim 13:139-142. 1979.
435. SHINKI T. SHUNA Y. TAKAHASHI N. TAN 10K y, KOI-
ZUMI H. SUDA '1': Extremely high circulating leveb of
In. 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. 13im:hem 13iophys Res
Comll1un I 14:452-457. 19H3.
436. SHOPI': T. DI'CIIAIRO D. MII.I.IR G: Malignant lym-
phoma in cotton-top marmosets after inoculation with
Epstein-Barr virus. Proc Nat Acad Sci 70:24H7-2491.
1973.
437. SLY DL. Tmr JD. GARDINER CH. LONDON WT:
Spontaneous occurrence of AlIgiostrongl'/lIs c()sll/ricellsis
in marmosets (Sagllilllls 1II\'.ltax). Lab Anim Sci 32:2H6-
2XH. 19X2. . of parasites (monkeys and lemurs) with their possible
438. SMITH CA. MOORE HDM: Expression of C-type viral
particles at implantation in the marmo,et monkev. Hum
Reprod 3:395-39H. 19XX. . Bulletin No 152, 409-601. 1929.
234
439. SMITH GC, LESTER TL, HERBERLING RL. KALTER SS:
Corona-like particles in nonhuman primate feces. Arch
Virol 72:105-112. 1982.
440. SMITH WN. CHITWOOD MB: Triclwspirllra /eptostOl/1ll
gen. et sp. n. (Nematoda: Thelazoridae) from the pancre-
atic ducts of the white-cared marmoset, Cal/ithrix jac-
cilus. J Parasitol 53:1270-1272, 1967.
441. SNOOK SS, CANFIELD DR. SEHGAL PK. KING NW JR:
Focal ulcerative ileocolitis with terminal thrombocytope-
nic purpura in juvenile cotton top tamarins. Lab Anim
Sci 39: 109-114, 1989.
442. SNOWDEN CT, SOINI P: The tamarins. gcnus Saguinus.
In Mittermier RA. Rylands AB. Coimbra-Filho AF. de
Fonseca GAB (eds): "Ecology and Behavior of Neotrop-
ical Primates, Vol 2." Washington: World Wildlife
Fund. 19XH. 223-298.
443. SOBEl. H. MONDON CEo MEANS CV: Pygmy marmoset
as an experimental animal. Science 132:415-416, 1960.
444. SOGORB SANCHEZ F. lAMRA LF, GUIMARAES EC,
DEANE MP: Toxoplasmose espontanea em animais do-
mcsticos e silvestres. em Sao Paulo. Rev Inst Med Trop
Sao Paulo 14:314-320. 1972.
445. SOINI. P: The capture and commerce of live monkeys in
the Amazon region of Peru. In Lucas J. Duplaix-Hall N
(cds): "International Zoo Yearbook. Vol 12." London:
Zoological Society of London. 1972. 26-36.
446. SOINI P: The pygmy marmoset. genus Cehuella. In Mit-
termier RA. Rylands AB. Coimbra-Filho AF. da Fonseca
GAB (cds): "Ecology and Behavior of Neotropical Pri-
mates. VoI2." Washington: World Wildlifc Fund. 1988,
79-129.
447. SOLOMON SG: On a ncw spccies of Enterobius from the
marmosct (Cal/ithrix jllcchus). J Helminthol II :95-100.
1933.
44~. SRIHONGSE S: Vesicular stomatitis virus in Panamanian
primates and othcr vertcbrates. Am J Epidemiol 90:
69-76.1%9.
449. STEIN FJ. LEWIS DH. Smorr GG, SIS RF: Acute gas-
tric dilation in common marmosets (Clillithrix jacc/llIs).
Lab Anim Sci 3 \:522-523. 1981.
450. STEIN F1. SIS RR, LEVY BM: Indoor-outdoor housing
systems for a self-sustaining marmoset brecding colony.
Lab Anim Sci 29:X05-X08. 1979.
451. STEIN FJ. SMALLWOOD JE. TANGNER CH JR. HIGH-
TOWER D. JOINER GN: A juxtarcnal myelolipoma in a
cotton top marmoset (SliguillUS oedipus): A case report.
Am J Primatol 2:215-221. 1982.
452. STEIN FJ. STOTT G: Corynehacterium equi in the
cotton-top marmoset (Saguillus oedipus): A case report.
Lab Anim Sci 29:519-520. 1979.
453. STELLER E: The marmoset as a laboratory animal: Main-
tenance. gcneral observation of behavior and simple
learning. J Comp Physiol Psychol 53: 1-10. 1960.
454. STEPHENSEN CB, JACOB JR, MONTALl RJ, HOLMES
KV. MUCHMORE E. COMPANS RW, ARMS ED. BUCH-
MEIER MJ. LANFORD RE: Isolation of an arenavirus from
a marmoset with eallitrichid hepatitis and its serologic
association with disease. J Virol 65:3995-4000. 1991.
455. STEVENSON MF. RYLANDS AB: The marmosets. genus
Cal/ithrix. In Mittermier RA. Rylands AB. Coimbra-
Filho AF. da Fonseca GAB (eds): "Ecology and Behav-
ior of Neotropical Primates. Vol 2." Washington: World
Wildlife Fund. 19HX. 131-222.
456. STILES CW. HASSALL A. NOLAN MO: Key-catalogue
public health importance and key-catalogue of primates
for which parasites arc reported. US Hygienic Laboratory

457. STRANDBERG 10: Viral infections of nonhuman pri-
mates. Ann Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vets. Knoxville TN.
1978. 162-168.
458. STUNKARD HWL: Paratriotaenia oedipomidatis gen. et
sp.n. (Cestoda). from a marmoset. J Parasitol 51:545-
551. 1965.
459. STUNKARD H: New intermediate hosts in the life cycle
of ProsthenorciJis elegalls (Diesing. 1851). and acantho-
cephalan parasite of primates. J Parasitol 51 :645-649.
1965.
460. SUDA T. TAKAHASHI N. SHINKI T. YAMAGUCHI A.
TANIOKA Y: The common marmoset as an animal model
for vitamin D-dependent rickets. type II. Adv Exp Med
Bioi 196:423-435. 1986.
461. SUNDAR SK. LEVINE PH. ABLASHI OV. LEISECA GA.
NON OYAMA M: Epstein-Barr virus-induced malignant
lymphoma in a white-lipped marmoset. Int J Cancer
27:107-111. 1981.
462. SUNDAR SK. WALLEN WC. ARMSTRONG GR. CiCMA-
NIT JL: Immunologic studies in a white-lipped marmoset
developing Iymphoproliferative disease following experi-
mental EBV infection. Proc Annu Meet Am Assoc Can-
cer Res and Annu Meet Am Soc Clin Oncol 21:314.
1980.
463. SUTHERLAND SO. ALMEIDA ID. GARDNER PS. SKARPA
M. STANTON J: Rapid diagnosis and management of
parainfluenza I virus infection in common marmosets
(Cal/ithrix ja('chus). Lab Anim 20: 121-126. 1986.
464. TAilOR E. PURCELL RH. GERETY Rl: Primate animal
models and titered inocula for the study of human hepati-
tis A. hepatitis B and non-A. non-B. J Med Primatol
12:305-318. 1983.
465. TAFFS LF. DUNN G: An outbreak of Yersillia pseill/otu-
herculosis infection in a small indoor breeding colony
of red bellied (Saguillus labiatus) tamarins. Lab Anim
17:311-320. 1983.
466. TAKOS MJ: Experimental cryptococcosis produced by the
ingestion of virulent organisms. N Engl J Med 254:598-
60 I. 1956.
467. TAKOS MJ. ELTON NW: Spontaneous cryptococcosis of
marmoset monkeys in Panama. Arch Pat hoi 55:403-407.
1953.
468. TAl.lAFFERO WHo TAl.lAFERRO LG: Morphology. pe-
riodicity and course of infection of PlasmodiulIl bra·
silialllllll in Panamanian monkeys. Am J Hyg 20: 1-49.
1934.
469. TANIOKA Y. !ZAWA M: Reproductive performance of
marmosets. Jpn J Med Sci Bioi 34:255-259. 1981.
470. TARDIF SD. CLAPP N K. HENKE MA. CARSON RL.
KNAPKA JJ: Maintcnance of cotton top tamarins fcd an
cxperimcntal pclleted dict versus a highly diverse sweet-
encd diet. Lab Anim Sci 38:588-591. 1988.
471. TARDIF SD. RICHTER CB: Competition for desired food
in family groups of the common marmoset (Cal/ithrix
jaccl1us) and the cotton-top tamarin (Saguillus oedipus).
Lab Anim Sci 31 :52-55. 1981.
472. TARDIF SO. RICHTER CB. CARSON RL: Reproductive
performance of three species of Callitrichidae. Lab Anim
Sci 34:272-275. 1984.
473. TAYLOR RM: Catalogue of Arthropod-Borne Viruses of
The World. Public Health Service Publication No I.
Washington: USDHEW. 1960.
474. TAYLOR-RoBINSON D. FURR PM. HETHERINGTON CM:
The pathogenicity of a newly discovered human myco-
plasma (strain G 37) for the genital tract of marmosets.
J Hyg 89:449-456. 1982.
475. TAYLOR-RoBINSON O. FURR PM. TULLY JG. BARILE
MF. MOLLER BR: Animal models of MycoplaslI/a geni·
Callitrichid diseases
talhlln urogenital infection. Isr J Med Sci 23:561-564.
1987.
476. THATCHER VE, PORTER lA: Some helminth parasites of
Panamanian primates. Trans Am Microsc Soc 87: 186-
196. 1968.
477. THORINGTON RW: Importation, breeding and mortality
of New World primates in the United States. In Lucas J.
Duplaix-Hall N (eds): "International Zoo Yearbook, Vol
12." London: Zoological Society of London. 1972.
18-23.
478. TRAVI BL: Some observations relating to virology in
primates. Bol Primatol Argentino 1:17-35, 1980.
479. TRIBE GW: Wasting syndromc in primates. Primate Sup-
ply 4:15-17. 1979.
480. TSALlCKIS M: Trapping. husbandry and transport condi-
tions of South Amcrican primates destined for research.
In Lucas 1. Duplaix-Hall N (cds): "International Zoo
Yearbook. Vol 12." London: Zoological Society of Lon-
don. 1972. 23-26.
481. TUCKER MJ: A survcy of thc pathology of marmoscts
(Callithrix jacchus) under experiment. Lab Anim
18:351-358. 1984.
482. TUCKER MJ: Renal diseasc in thc ICI marmoset (Cal-
lithrix jacclllls). In Tucker MJ. Wadsworth (cds): Sym-
posium on Marmoset Pathology. Macclesfield. England:
Imperial Chemical Pharmaceuticals. 1984. 71-74.
483. TULLY JG, TAYLOR-ROBINSON D, ROSE OL, FURR
PM, GRAHAM CE, BARILE MF: Urogenital challenge
of primate species with Mycoplasllla genitaliulll and char-
acterization of infection induced in chimpanzees. J Infect
Dis 153:1046-1054. 1986.
484. URBAIN A: Deux cas de tuberculose spontance d'origine
aviare chez un singe africain: Cereopitheque grivet (Cer-
copithecus aethiop.\· L.) et chez un singe Amcricain:
Ouistiti apinceaux blancs Hapalejacchlls L.). Bull Acad
Yet France 22:349-351. 1949.
485. V ARGAS-MENDEZ 0, El.TON NW: Naturally acquired
yellow fever in wild monkeys of Costa Rica. Am J Trop
Med Hyg 2:850-863. 1953.
486. VEVERS GM: On the parasitic menatoda collected from
mammalian hosts which died in the gardens of the Zoo-
logical Society of London during the years 1919-1921.
with a description of three new genera and three new
species. Proc Zool Soc Lond 92:901-919. 1922.
487 . VILLAVICENCIO E. MONTOYA E. MALAGA C: Aspectos
reproductivos y sanitarios de la colonia de Saguinus mys-
tax del Centro Dc Reproduccion y Conservacion de Pri-
mates No Humanos. Iquitos. Peru. In Castro-Rodriguez
NE (ed): "La Primatologia en el Peru: Investigaciones
Primatologicas." Lima, Peru: Projecto Peruano de Pri-
matologia, 1990, 589-595.
488. WADDEl.L MB, TAYLOR RM: Studies on cyclic passage
of yellow fever in South American mammals and mos-
quitoes. Am J Trop Med 25:225-230. 1945.
489. WADDEl.L MB. TAYLOR RM: Studies on cyclic passage
of yellow fever virus in South American mammals and
mosquitoes. II Marmosets (Cal/ith,.,:, pel/cil/ata and
Leolltocebu.\· chrysomelas) in combination with Aedes
(U'g.lpti. Am J Trop Med 26:455-463, 1946.
490. W ADDEl.L MB. TAYLOR RM: Studies on cyclic passage
of yellow fever virus in South American mammals and
mosquitoes. III Further observations on Haemogogus
equil/us as a vector of the virus. Am J Trop Med
27:471-476. 1947.
491. WADSWORTH PF, BUDGETT DA, FORSTER ML: Organ
weight data in juvenile and adult marmosets (Callithrix
jacchus). Lab Anim 15:385-388, 1981.
492. WADSWORTH PF, HlDDLESTON WA, JONES OV,
235
Potkay
FOWLER JSL, FERGUSON RA: HaematologicaL coagula-
tion and blood chemistry data in red-bellied tamarins
Saguinus labiatus. Lab Anim 16:327-330, 1982.
493. WARLAND MAG: The status of Latin American pri-
mates. In Lucas J, Duplaix-Hall N (cds): "International
Zoo Yearbook, Vol 12." London: Zoological Society of
London, 1972, 16-18.
494. WATANABE T, KATAGIRI J, KOJIMA H, KAMIMURAT T,
IcHIDA F, ASHIDA M, HAMADA C, SHIBAYAMA T: Stud-
ies on transmission of human non-A, non-B hepatitis to
marmosets. J Med Virol 22:143-156, 1987.
495. WEBB PA, JOHNSON KM, MACKENZIE RB, KUNS ML:
Some characteristics of Machupo virus, causative agent
of Bolivian hemorrhagic fever. J Trop Med Hyg
16:531-538, 1967.
496. WEBBER WAF: The filarial parasites of primates: A re-
view. I Dir(!iilaria and Dipetalonema. Ann Trop Med
Parasitol 49: 123-141. 1955.
497. WEBBER E: Breeding cotton-headed tamarins. In Lucas
J, Duplaix-Hall N (eds): "International Zoo Yearbook,
Vol 12." London: Zoological Society of London, 1972,
49-50.
498. WEBSTER WA: The resurrection of Filariopsis van Thiel
1926 (Metastrongyloidea: Filaroididae) for filaroidid
lungworms from primates. Can J Zool 56:369-373,
1978.
499. WEDDERBURN N, DAVIES DR, MITCHELL GH, DES-
GRANGES C, DE THE G: Glomerulonephritis in common
marmosets infected with Plasmodium brasiliallum and
Epstein-Barr virus. J Infect Dis 158:789-794, 1988.
500. WEDDERBURN N, EDWARDS JMB, DESGRANGES C,
FONTAINE C, COHEN B, DE THE G: Infectious
mononucleosis-like response in common marmosets in-
fected with Epstein-Barr virus. J Infect Dis 150:878-
882, 1984.
501. WEDDERBURN N, MITCHELL GH, DAVIS DR: Plasmo-
dium brasilianum in the common marmoset Cal/ithrix
jacchus. Parasitology 90:573-578, 1985.
502. WEISSENBACKER MC, AVILA MM, CALELLO MA,
FRIGERIO MJ, DEGUERRERO LB: The marmoset Cal-
Iithrixjacchll.\· as an attenuation marker for arenaviruses.
Commun Bioi 3:375-378, 1985.
503. WEISSENBACKER MC, CALLELLO MA, COLlLl.AS 01,
RONDINONE SN, FRIGERIO Ml: Argentine hemorrhagic
fever: A primate model. Intervirology II :363-365,
1979.
504. WEISSENBACHER MC, CALELLO MA, MERANI MS,
MCCORMICK IB, RODRIGUEZ M: Therapeutic effect of
the antiviral agent ribavirin in Junin virus infection of
primates. J Med Virol 20:261-267, 1986.
505. WEISSENBACHER MC, COTO CE, CALELLO MA, RON-
D1NONE SN, DAMONTE EB, FRIGERIO MG: Cross pro-
tection in nonhuman primates against Argentine hemor-
rhagic fever. Infect Immun 35:425-430, 1982.
506. WERNER H, lANITSCHKE K, KOHLER H: Observations
on marmoset monkeys of the species Saguillus (oedip0n1-
idas) oedipus following oral and intraperitoneal infection
by different cyst-forming toxoplasma strains of varying
virulences. Zentr Bakteriol 209:553-569, 1969.
236
507. WESTON lK: Spontaneous lesions in monkeys. In Ribe-
lin WE, McCoy JR (cds): "The Pathology of Laboratory
Animals." Springfield: Chas C Thomas, 1965, 351-
381.
508. WIENER AS, MOOR-JANKowSKI 1, GORDON EB: Mar-
mosets as laboratory animals. V. Blood groups of mar-
mosets. Lab Anim Care 17:71-76, 1969.
509. WILLIAMSON ME, HUNT RD: Adenocarcinoma of the
thyroid in a marmoset (Sagllilllls lIigricollis). Lab Anim
Care 20:1139-1141. 1970.
510. WILSON CG: Gestation and reproduction in golden lion
tamarins. In Kleiman DG (cd): "The Biology and Con-
servation of the Callitrichidae." Washington: Smithson-
ian Institution Press, 1977, 191-192.
511. WILSON N, DIETZ JM, WHITAKER JO JR: Ectoparasitic
acari found on golden lion tamarins (Leo/1fopitheclls
rosalia rosalia) from Brazil. J Wildl Dis 25:433-435,
1989.
512. WINTER H, TEELE R, MOORE R, SEHGAL p, PODOLSKY
0, ISSELBACHER K: Assessment of colitis in the cotton-
top tamarin. Gastroenterology 8:1633, 1985.
513. WIRTH H, BUSELMAIER W: Long-term experiments with
a newly developed standardized diet for the New World
primates Cal/ithrix jacchlls jacchlls and Cal/ilhrix jac-
chus pellicil/a/a (Marmosets). Lab Anim 16: 175-181.
1982.
514. WOLFE LG, DEINHARDT F: Overview of viral oncology
studies in Saguillus and Cal/ithrix species. Prim Med
10:96-118,1978.
515. WOOD JD, PECK OC, SHARMA HM_ MEKHJlAN HS,
STONE OW, STONEROOK M, WEISS J, HERNANDEZ-
C 1. RODRIGUEZ-M JV, RODRIGUEZ-M MA: Captivity
promotes colitis in thc cotton-top tamarin (Saguilllls oedi-
pus). Gastroenterol 98 (5 Pt 2): A480, 1990.
516. WRIGHT J, FALK LA, WOLFE LG, DEINHARDT F: Her-
pesl'ims saillliri: Protective effect of an attenuated strain
against lymphoma induction. Int J Cancer 26:477-482,
1980.
517. Y AGASAKI '1': Experimental infection with hepatitis E
virus using rhesus monkeys. Nichidai Igaku Zasshi
48:723-728, 1989.
518. YAMASHITA 1: Ecological relationships between parasites
and primates: I Helminth parasites and primates. Pri-
mates 4:1-96, 1963.
519. YARBROUGH LW, TOLLETJL, MONTREY RD, BEATTIE
RJ: Serum BiochemicaL hematological and body mea-
surement data for common marmoscts. Lab Anim Sci
34:276-280, 1984.
520. YOUNG MD: Natural and induced malarias in Western
Hemisphere monkeys. Lab Anim Care 20:361-367_
1970.
521. YUE MY, JORDAN HE: Studies of the life cycle of PUT\"-
godermatites lIycticebi (Monnig, 1920) Quentin 1969. J
Parasitol 72:788-790, 1986.
522. ZIEGLER TE, STEIN FJ: Reproductive data from a col-
ony of common marmosets. Am J Primatol 1:336, 1981.
523. ZIEGLER TE, STEIN FJ, SIS RF, COLEMAN MS, GREEN
JH: Supplemental feeding of marmoset (Callithrix jac-
chus) triplets. Lab Anim Sci 31:194-195, 1981.