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 Contents

12i Sentence Pattern 5A: subject + verb + direct object +

objective complement (adjective) 64
12j Sentence Pattern 5B: subject + verb + direct object +
objective complement (noun) 64
12k Sentence Pattern 6 (expletive): there or it + linking verb
(+ complement) + subject 65
12-l Other Elements: Structure Words 65
12m Independent (Main) Clauses 66
12n Subordinate (Dependent) Clauses 67
12-o Functions of Subordinate Clauses 67
12p Phrases 68
12q Appositives 70
12r Absolute Phrases 71
12s Order of Elements in Declarative Sentences 73
12t Order of Elements in Interrogative Sentences 74
12u The Structure of Imperative Sentences 77
12v What Is a Sentence? 77
12w Minor Sentences 79
12x Fragments 80
12y Major Sentences 81
12z Kinds of Major Sentences 81

III | Parts of Speech 85

13 | Nouns 88
13a Inflection of Nouns 89
13b Grammatical Function of Nouns 90
14 | Pronouns 91
14a Personal Pronouns 92
14b Impersonal Pronouns 94
14c Interrogative Pronouns 95
14d Relative Pronouns 96
14e Case 98
14f Demonstrative Pronouns 102
14g Indefinite Pronouns 103
14h Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns 104
14i Reciprocal Pronouns 106
15 | Agreement of Pronouns with Their Antecedents 106
15a Antecedents Joined by and 107
15b Antecedents Joined by or or nor 107
15c Indefinite Pronoun as Antecedent 108
15d Pronouns and Inclusive Language: Avoiding Gender Bias 109

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15e Collective Noun as Antecedent 111

15f Agreement with Demonstrative Adjectives 112
16 | Reference of Pronouns 112
16a Remote Antecedent 113
16b Ambiguous Reference 113
16c Vague Reference 114
16d Missing Antecedent 115
16e Indefinite you, they, and it 116
17 | Verbs 117
17a Kinds of Verbs: Transitive, Intransitive, and Linking 118
17b Inflection of Verbs: Principal Parts 119
17c Irregular Verbs 121
17d Inflection for Person and Number 125
17e Auxiliary Verbs 125
17f Inflection of do, be, and have 128
17g Time and the Verb: Inflection for Tense 129
17h Sequence of Tenses 135
17i Verb Phrases in Compound Predicates 136
17j Tenses in Writing About Literature 137
17k Mood 137
17-l Voice: Active and Passive 139
18 | Agreement Between Subject and Verb 141
18a Words Intervening Between Subject and Verb 141
18b Compound Subject: Singular Nouns Joined by and 142
18c Compound Subject: Parts Joined by or or a Correlative 143
18d Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns 143
18e Subject Following Verb 144
18f Agreement with Collective Nouns 145
18g Nouns That Are Always Singular or Always Plural 146
18h Plurals: criteria, data, media, etc. 146
18i Agreement with Relative Pronouns 147
18j Titles of Works and Words Referred to as Words 148
19 | Adjectives 148
19a Kinds of Adjectives 148
19b Comparison of Descriptive Adjectives 150
19c Articles: a, an, and the 152
19d Placement of Adjectives 157
19e Order of Adjectives 159
19f Adjectives Functioning as Nouns 159
20 | Adverbs 160
20a Kinds and Functions of Adverbs 160

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20b Forms of Adverbs 163

20c Comparison of Adverbs 166
20d Placement of Adverbs 167
21 | Verbals: Infinitives, Participles, and Gerunds 169
21a Infinitives 170
21b Tense and Voice of Infinitives 171
21c Split Infinitives 172
21d Participles 172
21e Tense and Voice of Participles 173
21f Gerunds 174
21g Tense and Voice of Gerunds 175
21h Possessives with Gerunds 175
21i Verbals in Absolute Phrases 177
22 | Prepositions 177
22a Functions of Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases 177
22b Placement of Prepositions 178
22c Common Prepositions 178
22d Two-part Verbs; Verb Idioms 179
23 | Conjunctions 181
23a Coordinating Conjunctions 181
23b Correlative Conjunctions 184
23c Subordinating Conjunctions 186
24 | Interjections 188

IV | Writing Effective Sentences 189

25 | Basic Sentence Elements: Subject, Verb, Object,
Complement 191
25a Subject 191
25b Finite Verb 192
25c Direct Object 192
25d Subjective Complement 193
26 | Modifiers 194
26a Adjectival Modifiers 194
26b Adverbial Modifiers 195
26c Overlapping Modifiers 196
26d Using Modifiers: A Sample Scenario 198

Length, Variety, and Emphasis 201

27 | Sentence Length 201
27a Short Sentences 201

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27b Long Sentences 202

28 | Sentence Variety 202
28a Variety of Lengths 203
28b Variety of Kinds 203
28c Variety of Structures 203
29 | Emphasis in Sentences 204
29a Endings and Beginnings 204
29b Loose Sentences and Periodic Sentences 205
29c The Importance of the Final Position 206
29d Changing Word Order 207
29e Movable Modifiers 207
29f Using the Expletive and the Passive Voice for Emphasis 208
29g Emphasis by Repetition 208
29h Emphasis by Stylistic Contrast 209
29i Emphasis by Syntax 209
29j Emphasis by Punctuation 210
30 | Analyzing Sentences 211
30a The Chart Method 211
30b The Vertical Method 212

Common Sentence Problems 213

31 | Sentence Coherence 214
32 | Fragments 214
33 | Comma Splices 215
34 | Run-on (Fused) Sentences 215
35 | Misplaced Modifiers 216
35a Movability and Poor Placement 216
35b Only, almost, etc. 217
35c Squinting Modifiers 218
36 | Dangling Modifiers 218
36a Dangling Participial Phrases 219
36b Dangling Gerund Phrases 220
36c Dangling Infinitive Phrases 220
36d Dangling Elliptical Clauses 221
36e Dangling Prepositional Phrases and Appositives 221
37 | Mixed Constructions 222
38 | Faulty Alignment 223
39 | Shifts in Perspective: Inconsistent Point of View 225
39a Shifts in Tense 225

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39b Shifts in Mood 225

39c Shifts in Voice 226
39d Shifts in Person of Pronoun 226
39e Shifts in Number of Pronoun 226
40 | Faulty Parallelism 227
40a With Coordinate Elements 227
40b With Correlative Conjunctions 228
40c In a Series 229
41 | Faulty Coordination: Logic, Emphasis, and Unity 230
42 | Faulty Logic 233

V | Punctuation 237
43 | Internal Punctuation: The Comma 239
43a The Comma with Independent Clauses Joined by a
Coordinating Conjunction 240
43b The Comma with Short Independent Clauses Not
Joined by a Coordinating Conjunction 242
43c The Comma Between Items in a Series 242
43d The Comma Between Parallel Adjectives 243
43e The Comma with Introductory or Concluding Words,
Phrases, and Clauses 244
43f The Comma with Nonrestrictive Elements 247
43g The Comma with Sentence Interrupters 251
44 | Internal Punctuation: The Semicolon 252
44a The Semicolon Between Independent Clauses 252
44b The Semicolon Between Items in a Series 254
45 | Internal Punctuation: The Colon 255
46 | Internal Punctuation: The Dash 256
47 | Parentheses 258
48 | Brackets 259
49 | End Punctuation: The Period 260
50 | End Punctuation: The Question Mark 262
51 | End Punctuation: The Exclamation Point 263
52 | Quotation Marks 264
52a Direct Speech 264
52b Direct Quotation from a Source 266
52c Quotation Within Quotation 267
52d Words Used in a Special Sense 267

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52e Other Marks with Quotation Marks 268

53 | Ellipses for Omissions 268
54 | Avoiding Common Errors in Punctuation 270
54a Run-on (Fused) Sentences 270
54b Comma Splice 271
54c Unwanted Comma Between Subject and Verb 271
54d Unwanted Comma Between Verb and Object or
Complement 272
54e Unwanted Comma After Last Adjective of a Series 273
54f Unwanted Comma Between Coordinated Words and
Phrases 273
54g Commas with Emphatic Repetition 274
54h Unwanted Comma with Short Introductory or
Parenthetical Element 274
54i Unwanted Comma with Restrictive Appositive 275
54j Unwanted Comma with Indirect Quotation 276
54k Unwanted Question Mark After Indirect Question 276
54-l Unwanted Semicolon with Subordinate Element 276
54m Unwanted Colon After Incomplete Construction 277
54n Unwanted Double Punctuation: Comma or Semicolon
with a Dash 277

VI | Mechanics and Spelling 279

55 | Formatting an Essay 281
56 | Abbreviations 284
56a Titles Before Proper Names 284
56b Titles and Degrees After Proper Names 285
56c Standard Words Used with Dates and Numerals 285
56d Agencies and Organizations Known by Their Initials 285
56e Scientific and Technical Terms Known by Their Initials 285
56f Latin Expressions Commonly Used in English 285
56g Terms in Official Titles 287
57 | Capitalization 287
57a Names and Nicknames 287
57b Professional and Honorific Titles 287
57c Words Designating Family Relationships 289
57d Place Names 289
57e Months, Days, Holidays 290
57f Religious Names 290
57g Names of Nationalities and Organizations 290

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57h Names of Institutions, Sections of Government,

Historical Events, and Buildings 291
57i Academic Courses and Languages 291
57j Derivatives of Proper Nouns 291
57k Abbreviations of Proper Nouns 291
57-l I and 0 292
57m Titles of Written and Other Works 292
57n First Words 293
57-o With Personification and for Emphasis 294
58 | Titles 294
58a Italics for Whole or Major Works 294
58b Quotation Marks for Short Works and Parts of
Longer Works 295
58c Titles Within Titles 296
59 | Italics 297
59a Names of Ships, Trains, and Planes 297
59b Non-English Words and Phrases 297
59c Words Referred to as Words 298
59d For Emphasis 298
60 | Numerals 298
60a Time of Day 299
60b Dates 299
60c Addresses 300
60d Technical and Mathematical Numbers 300
60e Parts of a Written Work 300
60f Statistics and Numbers of More Than Two Words 300
60g Commas with Numerals 301
61 | Spelling Rules and Common Causes of Error 302
61a ie or ei 303
61b Prefixes 304
61c Suffixes 308
61d Final e Before a Suffix 311
61e Final y After a Consonant and Before a Suffix 313
61f Doubling of a Final Consonant Before a Suffix 313
61g Changes in Spelling of Roots 314
61h Confusion with Other Words 315
61i Homophones and Other Words That Are Similar 315
61j One Word or Two? 317
61k Hyphenation 318
61-l Plurals 321
61m Apostrophes to Indicate Omissions 326

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61n Possessives 327

62 | Spelling List 330

VII | Diction 335

63 | About Dictionaries 337
63a Kinds of Dictionaries 337
63b Features of Dictionaries 339
63c Three Sample Dictionary Entries 342
64 | Level 344
64a Slang 344
64b Informal, Colloquial 345
64c “Fine Writing” 346
65 | Figurative Language 347
65a Inappropriate Metaphors 348
65b Overextended Metaphors 348
65c Dead Metaphors 349
65d Mixed Metaphors 349
66 | Concrete and Abstract Diction; Weak Generalizations 350
66a Concreteness and Specificity 350
66b Weak Generalizations 352
67 | Connotation and Denotation 354
68 | Euphemism 355
69 | Wrong Word 356
70 | Idiom 357
71 | Wordiness, Jargon, and Associated Problems 359
71a Wordiness 359
71b Repetition 361
71c Redundancy 361
71d Ready-made Phrases 362
71e Triteness, Clichés 363
71f Overuse of Nouns 365
71g Nouns Used as Adjectives 367
71h Jargon 367
72 | Usage: A Checklist of Troublesome Words and Phrases 370

VIII | Research, Writing, and

Documentation 395
73 | Finding Resources 397

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73a Libraries 397

73b The Internet 399
74 | The Research Plan 400
74a Academic Proposals 401
74b A Preliminary Bibliography 401
74c A Working Bibliography 402
75 | Taking Notes 404
75a The Note Itself 405
75b The Source 407
75c The Slug 408
75d Recording Your Own Ideas 408
76 | Writing the Essay 409
76a Keeping Track of Notes in Your Drafts 409
77 | Acknowledging Sources 410
77a “Common Knowledge” 410
78 | Quotation, Paraphrase, Summary, and Plagiarism 411
78a Legitimate Paraphrase 413
78b Illegitimate Paraphrase 414
78c Paraphrase and Quotation Mixed 415
78d Summary 415
78e Maintaining Academic Integrity and Avoiding Plagiarism 416
78f Integrating and Contextualizing Quotations 417
79 | Documentation 419
79a The Name–Page Method (MLA Style) 420
79b The Name–Date Method (APA Style) 447
79c The Note Method (Chicago Style) 467
79d The Number Method 477

Appendix | Checklists for Use in

Revising, Editing, and Proofreading 483
Omnibus Checklist for Planning and Revising 485
Specialized Checklist for Writers with English as an
Additional Language 488

Index 493

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 Exercises in the Online
Student Workbook
Exercises are listed by the section of the textbook to which they correspond.

Part II | Understanding Sentences

12a Elemental two-word sentences (pattern 1)
12b Adding articles and modifiers
12c Sentence pattern 1, with more modifiers
12d Pattern 2A: with direct object
12e Pattern 2B: passive voice
12f Pattern 3: with indirect object
12g Pattern 4A: linking verb + predicate adjective
12h Pattern 4B: linking verb + predicate noun
12i Pattern 5A: with objective complement (adjective)
12j Pattern 5B: with objective complement (noun)
12k (1) Pattern 6: changing expletives
12k (2) Pattern 6: trying expletives
12c–k Identifying sentence elements and patterns
12m–p Recognizing phrases and clauses
12q (1) Writing appositives
12q (2) Using appositives
12r Writing absolute phrases
12s Using alternative word orders
12t Constructing interrogative sentences
12w–x Recognizing minor sentences and fragments
12z (1) Recognizing kinds of sentences
12z (2) Constructing different kinds of sentences

Part III | Parts of Speech

13b Recognizing nouns
14 Recognizing kinds of pronouns
14e (1) Using correct pronouns
14e (2) Problem pronouns
15 Correcting agreement errors
16 Correcting faulty pronoun reference
17a (1) Using transitive and intransitive verbs
17a (2) Recognizing subjective complements

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 Exercises in the Online Student Workbook

17a (3) Using subjective complements

17a (4) Using verbs
17h (1) Using verb tenses
17h (2) Using auxiliary verbs
17k Using subjunctives
17-l Revising passive voice
18 (1) Choosing correct verbs
18 (2) Correcting faulty subject–verb agreement
19b Comparing adjectives
19c Using articles
19–20 (1) Recognizing adjectives and adverbs
19–20 (2) Correcting misused adjectives and adverbs
19–20 (3) Using adjectival and adverbial modifiers
19–20 (4) Using adjectives and adverbs
21d–e Using participles
21 (1) Recognizing verbals
21 (2) Using verbals
21 (3) Reducing clauses to infinitive phrases
21 (4) Reducing clauses
21 (5) Using absolute phrases
22a–c (1) Recognizing prepositional phrases
22a–c (2) Using prepositional phrases
22d Using two-part verbs
23a Using coordinating conjunctions
23c (1) Recognizing subordinate clauses
23c (2) Writing subordinate clauses
Part III | Review: Recognizing and using parts of speech

Part IV | Writing Effective Sentences

26 Using modifiers
27–29 Sentence length, variety, and emphasis
30 Analyzing sentences
35 Correcting misplaced modifiers
36 Correcting dangling modifiers
37 Correcting mixed constructions
38 Improving alignment
40 Correcting faulty parallelism
41 (1) Using subordination
41 (2) Correcting faulty coordination
42 Improving logic
Parts II–IV | Review: Sentence errors and weaknesses

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 Exercises in the Online Student Workbook

Part V | Punctuation
43 Using commas
44–45 Using semicolons and colons
46–47 Using dashes and parentheses
49–51 Using periods, question marks, and exclamation points
52 Using quotation marks
Part V | Review: Using Punctuation

Part VI | Mechanics and Spelling

61k (1) Checking hyphenation
61k (2) Using hyphens
61-l Forming plurals
61m Using apostrophes
61n Using apostrophes to indicate possession

Part VII | Diction

64a Thinking about slang
64b Using formal diction
64c Thinking about “big” words
66 (1) Using specific diction
66 (2) Being concrete and specific
67 Recognizing connotation
68 Avoiding euphemisms
69 Avoiding wrong words
70 Correcting idioms
71c Cutting redundancy
71a–c (1) Removing wordiness
71a–c (2) Reducing wordiness by combining sentences
71g Evaluating nouns used as adjectives
Part VII | Review: Diction
Parts II–VII | Omnibus Review: Sentence errors and weaknesses

Part VIII | Research, Writing, and

Documentation
78 Paraphrasing and summarizing

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 Preface
The second concise edition of The Canadian Writer’s Handbook is
designed to help you in what we see as the ongoing (even lifelong)
project of improving written communication. We know that the
improvement of our own writing is a work in progress, and we believe
that the same may be true for our readers. Whether you are a longtime
writer of English seeking to refresh and refine your abilities or one
who is writing in English as an additional language, we hope that the
suggestions, examples, and guidelines in this new edition will provide
a trustworthy resource that will enable you to write with greater con-
fidence and skill.
This handbook has a three-part organization that opens and closes
with an emphasis on the larger units of writing.We begin with a section
on principles of composition, ranging from the design of paragraphs to
the design of the whole essay and the principles of effective planning
and argument; we close with a section on current practices in research-
based writing. In the middle parts of the book, we explore principles of
grammar, syntax, and usage at the word and sentence level. We devote
considerable space to examination of sentence patterns, parts of speech,
and sentence structure and variety; we also include parts devoted to
punctuation, mechanics and spelling, and diction. The appendix of this
book provides comprehensive checklists designed for use at the revis-
ing and editing stages of your writing projects.

Overview
This handbook is intended for you to use as a reference work, to con-
sult on particular issues arising from the everyday writing activities,
challenges, and questions you encounter. It may also be used as a class
text for discussion and study in writing courses, programs, and work-
shops. We suggest that you begin by considering the ways you will be
using this book. Then, start to familiarize yourself with it by seeing
what it has to offer you. Browse through the table of contents and the
index. Look up some sections that arouse your interest. Flip through
the pages, pausing now and then for a closer look. Note the num-
bered running heads at the tops of pages and the tabbed inserts at the
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 Preface

beginning of each new part. These features, together with the guide at
the end of this preface, can help you find things in a hurry.

Organization
Notice how the material is arranged. Then, begin to think about how
you can best approach it. You may want to start at the beginning and
proceed carefully through the book; some points in later sections won’t
be clear to you unless you understand the material in the early sections.
But if you already understand basic grammar—the functions of the
parts of speech and the principles governing English sentences—you
may need only a quick review of parts II, III, and IV. Test yourself by
trying some of the exercises in the Online Student Workbook, available at
www.oupcanada.com/CCWH2e, and check your answers with your
instructor or on the online answer key.

For Readers and Writers of English as an

Additional Language
Our experience as university instructors has given us the opportunity
to work with a number of writers engaged in the challenging pro­
ject of reading and writing in English as an additional language (eal).
Because English is a third, fourth, or fifth language to many such
students, we have long felt that the term “esl” (English as a second
language), used to describe or even to label these writers, is something
of a misnomer. Still, at several points in this new textbook, we offer
information and direction of particular importance to those of you
who are approaching English as a relatively new language, and we have
designated those relevant sections with the symbol EAL .

Checking Your Work Before Submitting It

When you finish a piece of writing, go through the omnibus checklists
in the appendix. If you find you’re not sure about something, follow the
cross-references to the sections that will give you the help you need.

Correcting and Revising Returned Work

When you get a piece of writing back with marks and comments, first
look it over alongside the list of marking symbols and abbreviations on
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 Preface

the book’s inside back cover. The information there may be enough
to help you make the appropriate changes. But if you need more than
a reminder about a specific issue or pattern—if you don’t understand
the fundamental principles—follow the cross-references and study the
sections that discuss and illustrate those principles in greater detail.You
should then be able to edit and revise your work with understanding
and confidence.
An important feature of this book is that it discusses and illustrates
various issues in several places: in the main discussions and in the exer-
cises on the website. If the information you find in one or another of
these places isn’t enough to clarify a point, remember that you may not
yet have exhausted the available resources: try the index to see if it will
lead you to still other relevant places.

Marking symbols

Marking Symbols and Abbreviations

Numbers refer to handbook sections.

abbr incorrect or inappropriate lev inappropriate level of diction #64

abbreviation #56 log illogical #10e–h, #38, #41, #42
ack acknowledgement of sources missing or mix mixed construction #37
40 Faulty Parallelism 40a
incorrect #77–79
mm misplaced modifier #35
ad misused adjective or adverb #19, #20
ms improper manuscript form #55
agr faulty agreement: pronoun–antecedent
nsw no such word
#15, subject–verb #18
num numeral needed or misused #60
al illogical or incongruous alignment #38

40 Faulty
org weak or faulty organization #4, #9e–j,
ambig ambiguous, clarity lacking #16b
#10d
(pronoun reference), #31–42, Pt. VII, EAL
Checklist p punctuation error Pt. V
apos missing or misused apostrophe #61m–n para, ¶ Parallelism
paragraph needed, or weak
paragraphing #1–7
art missing or misused article #19c
pas weak passive voice #17-l, #29f
awk awkward EAL Checklist
ca incorrect case of pronoun #14e
passim Parallelism,
an error occurs throughout the balanced and deliberate repetition of identical gram- fp,
pred matical structures
faulty predication (alignment) #38 (words, phrases, clauses) within a single sentence, can //
cap missing or faulty capitalization #57
pron error in pronoun use be
#14–16
a strong stylistic technique. Not only does it make for vigorous, bal-
cl clarity lacking #31–42, Pt. VII, EAL
Checklist pv inconsistent point of view #39
anced, and rhythmical sentences, but it can also help develop and tie
cliché cliché, trite #71e Q mishandled quotation or quotation
marks #52, #78 together paragraphs (see #5a). Like any other device, parallelism can be
coh coherence lacking #3–5, #8b, #31
colloq colloquial, too informal #64b
red redundant #71c overdone, but more commonly it is underused. Of course, if you’re writ-
ref weak or faulty pronouningreference
an especially
#15, serious piece, like a letter of condolence, you probably
comp faulty or incomplete comparison #42
#16
conc insufficient concreteness #66
rep
won’t want to use lively devices like parallelism and metaphor. But in
weak or awkward repetition #71b
coord coordination needed #23a, #41
run-on most#34,
run-on (fused) sentence writing,
#54a some parallel structure is appropriate. Build parallel ele-
cs comma splice #33, #54b ments
shift unwanted shift in point of viewinto
or your sentences, and now and then try making two or three
d weak or faulty diction Pt. VII perspective #39 successive sentences parallel with each other. Here is a sentence from a
dev development needed #1b, #4b, #7b, sp spelling error #61, #62 (and #63, on
#66 dictionaries)
paper on computer crime. Note how parallelism (along with allitera-
dm dangling modifier #36 split tion) #21c
unnecessary split infinitive strengthens the first part, thereby helping to set up the second part:
doc faulty documentation #78–79 squint squinting modifier #35c
emph weak or unclear emphasis #6, #8c, ss faulty sentence structure, Although one
or faulty sense can distinguish the malicious from the mischievous or the
#29, #41 #12, Pt. IV, EAL Checklist
euph weak euphemism #68
harmless hacker from the more dangerous computer criminal, security
stet let it stand as originally written
fc faulty coordination #41 officials take a dim view of anyone who romps through company files.
sub subordination needed #12n–o, #23c,
fig inappropriate or confusing figurative #29i, #41
language #65, #71e t Be careful
error in verb tense #17g–i as you experiment, for it is easy to set up a parallel structure
fp, // faulty parallelism #40 tr weak or missing transition #4, #5c–d,
and then lose track of it. Study the following examples of faulty par-
frag unacceptable fragment #12w–x, #32 #8b
fs fused (run-on) sentence #34, #54a trite trite, cliché #71e
allelism. (See also #23a–b.)
gen weak generalization #66b u weak unity #2, #8a, #41
id unidiomatic #70 uc
40a
uppercase letter needed #57
With Coordinate Elements
inc incomplete comparison #42 us incorrect usage #72
inf too informal, colloquial #64b var Coordinate
lack of variety #7c, #28 elements in a sentence should have the same grammatical
ital italics needed or incorrect #58, #59 vb incorrect verb form form.
#17 If they don’t, the sentence will lack parallelism and therefore be
jarg inappropriate or unnecessary jargon w wordiness #71 ineffective.
#71h wo awkward word order #12s–t, #19d–e,
lc no caps; lowercase letter needed #57 #20d, #22b, #35
leg illegible (handwritten work) ww wrong word #69, #72 fp: Reading should be engrossing, active, and a challenge.

The first two complements (engrossing, active) are predicate adjectives,

the third (a challenge) a predicate noun. Change a challenge to the adjec-
tive challenging so that it will be parallel.
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 Preface

Numbering and Cross-Referencing

The Handbook is subdivided into sections and subsections that are num-
bered consecutively throughout, without regard to parts. Cross-references
are to section and subsections, or, occasionally, to parts. In the index, ref-
erences are to page numbers. Exercises in the Online Student Workbook are
numbered according to their corresponding sections.

Key Terms
The first one or two times an important term occurs, it is set in bold-
face. Pay attention to these terms, for they make up the basic vocabulary
necessary for the intelligent discussion of grammar, syntax, and style.

Key terms bolded

Section number and
on first use
subsection letter 25d PART IV Writing Effective Sentences

The linking verb be (and sometimes others) can also be followed by an

adverbial word or phrase (I am here; he is in his office).
Part number
and title These elements—subject, finite verb, and object or complement—
are the core elements of major sentences. They are closely linked in the
ways indicated above with the verb as the focal and uniting element.
(For a discussion of the order in which these elements occur, see #12s–u.)

Section number
26 Modifiers
Modifiers add to the core grammatical elements.They limit or describe
Online Student other elements so as to modify—that is, to change—a listener’s or
Workbook reader’s idea of them. The two principal kinds of modifiers are adjectives
(see #19) and adverbs (see #20). Also useful, but less frequent, are apposi-
exercise symbol tives (see #12q) and absolute phrases (see #12r and #21i). An adjectival
or adverbial modifier may even be part of the core of a sentence if it
completes the predicate after a linking verb (Recycling is vital; Ziad is
home). An adverb may also be essential if it modifies an intransitive verb
that would otherwise seem incomplete (Ziad lives in a condominium).
But generally modifiers do their work by adding to—enriching—a
central core of thought.
Subsection number
26a Adjectival Modifiers (see #19–19b and #19e–f)
Adjectival modifiers modify nouns, pronouns, and phrases or clauses
Cross-reference functioning as nouns. They commonly answer the questions which? what
kind of? how many? and how much? An adjectival modifier may be a single-
word adjective, a series of adjectives, a participle or participial phrase, an
infinitive or infinitive phrase, a prepositional phrase, or a relative clause:

Early settlers of western Canada encountered sudden floods,

prolonged droughts, and early frosts. (single words modifying nouns
immediately following)

194

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 Preface

Other Features

9 The Process of Planning, Writing, and Revising 9-l

Numerous boxes to
WRITING TIP
PROOFREADING TIP
P
highlight important
On Managing the Number of Subheadings information
in an Outline
As with the major sections of an essay, having more than six or seven
subheadings under any one heading risks being unwieldy.

9k Writing the First Draft

Once you have a good outline to follow, the work of drafting becomes
smoother and more purposeful. With the shape of the whole essay
laid out, you can concentrate on the main tasks of drafting: finding
the right words, generating effective sentences, and constructing good
transitions and strong paragraphs.

WRITING TIP
PROOFREADING TIP
P
Canadian advice for
On Going from an Outline to a Draft Canadian users
(1) Sometimes a main heading and its subheading from the outline
will become a single paragraph in the essay; sometimes each
subheading will become a paragraph; and so on. The nature and
density of your material will determine its treatment.
(2) It may be possible to transfer the thesis statement from your
outline to the essay unchanged, but more likely you will want to
change it (perhaps several times) to fit the actual essay. The the-
sis is the statement of your purpose or of the position you intend
to defend in the essay, so it should be as polished as possible.
The kind of basic or mechanical statement that is61c suitablePART
in an VI Mechanics and Spelling
outline may be inappropriate in the essay itself.

PROOFREADING TIP
9-l Notes on Beginnings PROOFREADING TIP
P
practice, practise; licence, license
1. Postponing the Beginning
Canadian writers tend to follow the British practice of using the -ce
Starting the actual writing can be a challenge: most writersforms
ha practice
have had and licence as nouns and the -se forms practise and
the experience of staring at a computer screen
een while trying license
to thinkasofverbs:

We will practise our fielding at today’s slo-pitch practice.

35
Are you licensed to drive?
Yes, I’ve had my driver’s licence since I was sixteen.

American writers tend to favour the -ce spelling of practice and the
-se spelling of license regardless of whether each is being used as a
noun or a verb.
Note also that Canadian as well as British writers generally prefer
the -ce spelling for offence and defence, while American writers tend
to use the -se spellings of these words

ative; itive

-ative -itive
affirmative informative additive positive
comparative negative competitive repetitive
imaginative restorative genitive sensitive

ly
When ly is added to an adjective already ending in a single l, that final
l is retained, resulting in an adverb ending in lly: accidentally, coolly,
incidentally, mentally, naturally, politically. (If you pronounce such words
carefully you will be less likely to misspell them.) If the root ends in a
double ll, one l is dropped: full + ly = fully, chill + ly = chilly, droll + ly
= drolly.

310

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 Preface

79 Documentation 79b

APA STYLE
Detailed, up-to-date
On Citing Electronic Sources
When you cite an electronic source in the APA system, include the
guidelines for
work’s digital object identifier (DOI) or, if there is no DOI assigned to
the work, the uniform resource locator (URL) of the site where you documenting in MLA,
found the work. For a journal article with no DOI, include the URL for
the journal’s homepage. If you need to break a DOI or URL across two APA, Chicago, and
or more lines, do so before a punctuation mark; do not add a hyphen.
Note that you do not need to include the date you accessed the site. CSE (number) styles

A Work with No Identified Author

If no person or group is identified as the author or editor, use the title
of the work in place of the author’s name:

How to end needless strikes? Start with good faith offers.

(2012, April 2). Maclean’s, 125(12), 4–5.

A Book in Translation Checklists for

Add the name of the translator and the abbreviation Trans. enclosed in
parentheses after the title: planning and
Benjamin, W. (2006). Berlin childhood around 1900 (H. Eiland, revising your work
Trans.). London, England: Belknap Press.

An Edition Other Than the First

For a second or subsequent edition, include the edition number after
the title:

Newman, J., & White, L. A. (2012). Women,

omen, politics, and public
policy: The political struggles of Canadian women (2nd ed.).
Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press.

A Multivolume Work
For a work published in multiple volumes, include the number(s) of
the volume or volumes you have referenced:
Appendix
Dutch, S.I. (Ed.). (2010). Encyclopedia of global warming (V
Pasadena, CA: Salem Press.
Omnibus Checklist for
(Vols.
ols. 1–3).

453
Planning and Revising

As you begin to prepare a piece of your writing for final submission

to your reader(s), it is good strategy to ask yourself a series of ques-
tions designed to ensure that you have polished your work to the point
where you can consider it a finished and appealing discourse. What we
have listed here are the kinds of questions we ask ourselves in reading
and evaluating students’ writing. If you can ask and answer all of the
questions we have listed here in the affirmative, your essay should be
not just adequate, but very good.

1. During and after planning the essay, ask yourself these

questions:

 Have I chosen a subject that sustains my interest? (#9a)

 If I am doing research, have I formulated a researchable
Subject
question? (#74)
 Have I sufficiently limited my subject? (#9b)
 Have I thought about audience and purpose?
Audience
 Have I written down a statement of purpose and a profile of
and Purpose
my audience? (#9c)
 Have I collected or generated more than enough material/
Evidence
evidence to develop and support my topic well? (#9d)
 Does my thesis offer a focused, substantive, analytical claim
about the subject?
 Is my plan or outline for the essay logical in its content and
arrangement? (#9e–j)
 Considering my plan or outline, do I have the right number of
Organization
main ideas—neither too few nor too many—for the purpose
and Plan
of my essay?
 Are my main ideas reasonably parallel in content and
development?
 Have I chosen the best arrangement for the main parts? Does
it coincide with the arrangement of ideas in the thesis?

485

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 ERICA Pattersonia.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris aristatis, inclusis; foliis quaternis, floribus axillaribus, e foliis

emergentibus, cylindricis, luteis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis fruticosus, bipedalis, erectus, basi ramosus, dein simplicissimus,

pyramidatus, ramulis brevissimis vestitus.
Folia quaterna, linearia, incurvata, acuta, glabra, subtus sulcata, petiolis
brevissimis, adpressis.
Flores plures, axillares, in medio cauli e foliis recti emergentes,
pedunculis fere nullis.
Calyx. Perianthium duplex, exterius triphyllum, foliolis ovatis,
acuminatis, interius tetraphyllum, foliolis subulatis, apice recurvatis.
Corolla cylindrica, subpollicaria, glabra, lutea, ore arctato, quadrisido
limbo reflexo.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, corollæ subæqualia, receptaculo
inserta. Antheris aristatis.
Pistillum. Germen campanulatum. Stylus filiformis, tortuosus, exsertus.
Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a Martio ad Augustum.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx et Corolla.
2. Calyx lente auctus.
3. Stamina et Pistillum.
 4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta anthera una lente aucta.
5. Stylus et Stigma lente aucta.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with bearded tips, within the blossom; leaves growing by fours, the
flowers grow close to the stem, peeping out from amongst the leaves, are
cylindrical, and yellow.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem shrubby, two feet high, upright, branching out at the base, then
forming a simple, pyramidal spike, covered by very short branches.
Leaves grow by fours, linear, curved, sharp-pointed, and smooth,
furrowed underneath, having short leaf-stems pressed to the branches.
Flowers are numerous, growing close to, and about the middle of the
stem, peeping straight out from amongst the leaves, with scarce any
footstalks.
Empalement. Cup, double the outer three-leaved, which are oval, and
pointed, the inner four-leaved, being awl-shaped, and bent back at the point.
Blossom cylindrical, near an inch long, smooth, yellow, and narrow at
the mouth, having a four-lobed, reflexed border.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads, nearly the length of the blossom, fixed
into the receptacle. Tips bearded.
Pointal. Seed-vessel bell-shaped. Shaft thread-shaped, twisted, and
without the blossom. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from March till August.

REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement and Blossom.

2. The Empalement magnified.
3. The Chives and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal; one tip magnified.
5. The Shaft and its Summit magnified.
 ERICA Petiveriana.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris muticis, exsertis, longissimis; corollis clavatis, pollicaribus,

luteis; calyce imbricato, foliis ternis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis strictissimus, rigidus, parum ramosus; ramulis brevibus,

frequentissimis.
Folia terna, linearia, obtusa, in apicibus ramulorum fasciculata, petiolis
adpressis.
Flores in medio ramorum, ramulis ultimis terminales, bini, vel terni,
recurvi; pedunculi brevissimi, bracteis tribus calyciformibus.
Calyx. Perianthium duplex, imbricatum, interius tetraphyllum, exterius
triphyllum, foliolis ovatis, acuminatis, concavis, luteis, glabris.
Corolla clavata, curvata, lutea, pollicaris, glabra, ad basin grossa,
quadrifida; oris laciniis incurvis, adpressis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, receptaculo inserta; antheræ muticæ,
exsertæ, longissimæ.
Pistillum. Germen ovatum. Stylus filiformis. Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mense Aprili in Junium.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx et Corolla.
2. Corolla.
3. Calyx lente auctus.
4. Stamina et Pistillum.
 5. Stamina a Pistillo diduct; antherâ unâ lente auctâ.
6. Stylus et Stigma lente aucti.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with beardless tips, without the blossom, and very long; the blossom
is club-shaped, an inch long, and yellow; the cup is tiled; the leaves grow by
threes.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem very upright, harsh, very little branched; the smaller branches are
short, and numerous.
Leaves grow by threes, are linear, blunt, and are bundled together at the
end of the small branches; the foot-stalks grow close to the branches.
Flowers terminate the smaller branches about the middle of the larger
ones, by twos and threes, and are bent inwards; the foot-stalks are very short,
having three floral leaves, which seem to form part of the cup.
Empalement. Cup double, and tiled, the inner four-leaved, the outer
three-leaved, which are oval, pointed, hollow, smooth, and yellow.
Blossom club-shaped, curved, yellow, smooth, an inch long, swelled at
the base, which is divided into four; the segments of the mouth are bent
inwards, and pressed to the filaments.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads fixed into the receptacle; tips beardless,
very long, and without the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-vessel egg-shaped. Shaft thread-shaped. Summit four-
cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from April till June.

REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement and Blossom.

2. The Blossom.
3. The Empalement magnified.
4. The Chives and Pointal.
5. The Chives detached from the Pointal; one tip magnified.
6. The Shaft and Summit magnified.
 ERICA physodes.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris cristatis, inclusis; corollis ovatis, inflatis, glabris, viscosis,

crystallinis, albis; foliis quaternis, marginibus glandulosis, obtusis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis fruticosus, bipedalis, erectus; rami erecti, ramulosi.

Folia quaterna, obtusa, lato-linearia, carinata, curvata, margine
glandulosa, viscosa, patentia.
Flores umbellati, sub-quaterni, cernui, ad apices ramulorum; pedunculi
mediocres, bracteis minutis, distantibus.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis ovatis, brevissimis, adpressis,
viscosis.
Corolla ovata, alba, crystallina, magnitudine pisi; laciniis acuminatis,
erectis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria; antheræ cristatæ, inclusæ.
Pistillum. Germen globosum, sulcatum. Stylus sub-inclusus. Stigma
tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mense Februario in Julium.

REFERENTIA.

1. Folium lente auctum.

2. Calyx et Corolla.
3. Calyx lente auctus.
4. Stamina et Pistillum.
5. Stamen lente auctum.
 6. Pistillum lente auctum.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with crested tips within the blossoms, which are egg-shaped, swelled
out, smooth, clammy, like crystal, and white; leaves grow by fours, have
glandular edges, and are blunt-ended.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem shrubby, grows two feet high, upright; the branches grow upright,
and have numerous little branches.
Leaves grow by fours, are blunt, broadly linear, keeled, curved, the edges
glandular, clammy, and spreading.
Flowers grow in umbels of mostly four together, hanging down from the
ends of the smaller branches; the footstalks of the length of the blossoms,
with floral leaves that are very small, and placed at a distance from the
blossom.
Empalement. Cup of four leaves, which are egg-shaped, very short,
pressed to the blossom, and clammy.
Blossom egg-shaped, white, and like crystal, the size of a pea; segments
of the border tapering and upright.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads; tips crested, and within the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-bud globular, and furrowed. Shaft just within the blossom.
Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from February till July.

REFERENCE.

1. A Leaf magnified.
2. The Empalement and Blossom.
3. The Empalement magnified.
4. The Chives and Pointal.
5. A Chive magnified.
6. The Pointal magnified.
 ERICA pinea.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris muticis, inclusis; corollis tubuloso-clavatis, sub-albidis;

floribus axillaribus, verticillatis, pollicaribus; foliis, sub-senis, linearibus
glabris, rigidis, longis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis erectus, plus quam bipedalis, robustus; rami verticillati, erecto-

patentes, raro ramulosi, cauli similes.
Folia sena, linearia, glabra, patentia, longissima, petiolis adpressis.
Flores in medio ramorum verticillati, horizontales, pollicares; pedunculi
brevissimi, bracteis tribus instructi.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis subulatis, ad basin latioribus,
glabris, adpressis.
Corolla tubuloso-clavata, obtusa, sub-albida; laciniis reflexis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, corolla breviora. Antheræ muticæ,
inclusæ.
Pistillum. Germen turbinatum, sulcatum; apice pilosum, ad basin
glandulosum. Stylus filiformis, exsertus. Stigma peltatum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mensi Augusti, in Decembrem.

REFERENTIA.

1. Folium, lente auctum.

2. Calyx et Corolla.
3. Calyx, auctus.
4. Stamina, et Pistillum.
 5. Stamina a Pistillo diducta, anthera una lente aucta.
6. Pistillum, stigma auctum.
7. Germen, auctum.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath with beardless tips, within the blossoms, which are tubularly club-
shaped, and nearly white; flowers grow from the lower part of the leaves
close to the stem in whorls, are an inch long; leaves grow mostly by sixes,
are linear and smooth, stiff, and long.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem upright, grows more than two feet high and very stout; the branches
grow in whorls, spreading and upright, seldom breaking into smaller
branches, and like the stem.
Leaves grow by sixes, are linear, smooth, spread outward, and very long,
the foot-stalks pressed to the stem.
Flowers grow in whorls about the middle of the branches, horizontal,
and an inch in length; the foot-stalks very short, with three floral leaves on
them.
Empalement. Cup four-leaved, the leaflets are awl-shaped, broadest at the
base, smooth, and pressed to the blossom.
Blossom tubularly club-shaped, blunt ended, and nearly white; the
segments of the border are reflexed.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads shorter than the blossom. Tips beardless
and within the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-bud turban-shaped and furrowed; hairy on the upper part,
and glandular at the base. Shaft thread-shaped, and without the blossom.
Summit shield-shaped.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from August, till December,

REFERENCE.
1. A Leaf, magnified.
2. The Empalement, and Blossom.
3. The Empalement, magnified.
4. The Chives, and Pointal, magnified.
5. The Chives detached from the Pointal, a Tip magnified.
6. The Pointal, the Summit magnified.
7. The Seed-bud, magnified.