1.

The Wave Function

The Schroedinger Wave Equation
• Time–dependent Schroedinger equation in 1D

• In three dimensions,
The Schroedinger Equation
The dynamical state of a particle is completely specified by a wave function .

For a non-relativistic, spinless particle,

the evolution of (r,t) is governed by the Schrodinger equation

 2 2
i    V 
t 2m

 2 2 2 
 f  2  2  2 f
2
Laplacian
 x y z 

h
  1.054572  1034 J s
2
Quantization Rule
The Schrodinger equation can be obtained by applying the operator rules

 
E  i p  rr
t i

to the classical relation for a conservative system

p2
E V
2m

so that
  2 2 
i       V  p  p   2   
t  2m 
The Statistical Interpretation
Born: ||2 = Probability amplitude

= probability of finding particles between a & b at time t.

likely to find particle here

no chance of finding particle here

Probability
Let N(j) = number of people whose age is j.
In a certain room,
N(14) = 1, N(15) = 1, N(16) = 3, N(22) = 2, N(24) = 2, N(25) = 5,
N(j) = 0, otherwise 
Total number of people: N  N  j   14
j0

Probability of finding a person of age j in room:

N  j
P  j 
N
Probability of finding a person of age j or k :
P  j  P k 
Can always find a person of age between 0 and  :


 P  j  1
j0
Sum rule
Probability
Most probable age : 25
(highest probability)

Median age : 23
( 7 people with age below 23; 7 above)
jm 1 

 P  j   P  j
j0 j  jm 1

Average age : 21 j  
j 0
j P  j Expectation value

Average (expectation) value of a function f of j :


f  j   f  j P  j
j0
Probability

Most probable j = 5.

 1 8  1 2 
 P  4   P  6   , P  5   P  j   for j  1, 2,3, 4,6, 7,8, 9, P  5  
 10 10   10 10 
4 9 4 9
 P  j  1   P  j
j 1 j 6
median j = 5.  P  j  4   P  j
j 1 j 6

1 8 1 1 2
j  4  5  6  5 mean j = 5. j  1  2  3  4  6  7  8  9    5  5
10 10 10 10 10

j 
2 2 2
Standard deviation  j  j2  2 j j  j  j2  j

1 8 1 1 1 2
 2  1  0   1   2  2 16  9  4  1  0  4
10 10 10 5 10 10
Probability density
Probability of variable having a value between x and x+dx is (x) dx for dx  0.
  probability density.
Probability of variable having a value between a and b is
b
Pab     x  dx
a


   x  dx  1



x   x   x  dx



f  x   f  x    x  dx


x  x 

  x  dx  x  x 
2
2  
2 2

 x2  x
 Probability density
Example 1.2: Suppose someone drops a rock off a cliff of height . As it
falls, I snap a million photographs, at a random but fixed time intervals. On
each picture I measure the distance the rock has fallen.
Question: What is the average of all these distances? That is to say, what
is the time average of the distance traveled?
Answer: Let 𝑥(𝑡) be the distance dropped at time 𝑡, with 𝑥(𝑇) = ℎ.

Constant acceleration :
1 2
x t   gt 1
2 with h g T2
2
Probability = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =

Average distance 𝑥 =
 Probability density
Example 1.2: Suppose someone drops a rock off a cliff of height . As it
falls, I snap a million photographs, at a random but fixed time intervals. On
each picture I measure the distance the rock has fallen.
Question: What is the average of all these distances? That is to say, what
is the time average of the distance traveled?
Answer: Let 𝑥(𝑡) be the distance dropped at time 𝑡, with 𝑥(𝑇) = ℎ.

All time intervals of the same length are the same. 1

Probability density  t  
T 1 T T
x   x  t   t  d t   x t  d t
0 T 0

Constant acceleration : 1 2 1
x t   gt with h g T2
2 2
g T 1 1
x 
2T 
0
t2 d t 
6
gT 2  h
3
Problem 1.2

(a) Find the standard deviation of the distribution in Example 1.2.

(b) What is the probability that a photograph, selected at random,

would show a distance more than one standard deviation away
from the average?
Problem 1.3 Consider the gaussian distribution

where , , and are positive real constants.

(a) Determine .

(b) Find , , and .

(c) Sketch the graph of .

Normalization
= probability of finding particles between a & b at time t.

Solutions of Schroedinger equation

𝜕Ψ ℏ 𝜕 Ψ
𝑖ℏ =− + 𝑈Ψ
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
Is Ψ unique?
What about Φ = A Ψ ? (A is a complex number)
Normalization

= probability of finding particles between a & b at time t.

So. Most general way…

b
d x   x, t 
2
a
 probability of finding particles between a & b at time t.

d x   x, t 
2


Normalization
A wave function is normalized at t = 0
Does it stay normalized at further nonzero t?