CLINICAL ANATOMY [LABORATORY]

SECTION A
AND PHYSIOLOGY (ANAPHY)
THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION

ANATOMY o Location of cutaneous nerve receptors

o Definition: Study of the structure and shape of

▪ Skeletal system
the body and its parts
o Observation is used to see sizes and o Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and
relationships of parts joints
o Provides muscle attachment for movement
Gross anatomy o Protects vital organs
o Large structures o Site of blood cell formation
o Easily observable o Stores minerals
▪ Let’s look at an example of gross anatomy using the
digestive system organ ▪ Muscular system

Microscopic anatomy o Skeletal muscles contract (or shorten) o

o Structures are too small to be seen with the Produces movement of bones
naked eye
▪ Nervous system
o Cells and tissues can be viewed only with a
microscope o Fast-acting control system
▪ Let’s look at an example of microscopic anatomy o Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
using a digestive system organ, the stomach sensory receptors
o Responds to internal and external stimuli
PHYSIOLOGY o Sensory receptors detect changes
o Messages are sent to the central nervous
➢ Definition: Study of how the body and its
system
parts work or function
o Central nervous system assesses information
➢ Structure determines what functions can
and activates effectors (muscles and glands)
occur
➢ Example: the air sacs of the lungs have very Endocrine system
thin walls, a feature that enables them to
exchange gases and provide oxygen to the o Secretes chemical molecules, called hormones,
body into the blood
Body functions controlled by hormones include:
▪ Growth
LEVEL OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
▪ Reproduction
▪ Six levels of structural organization ▪ Use of nutrients
1. Atoms. 4. Organs Endocrine glands include:
2. Cells. 5. Organ Systems ▪ Pituitary gland
3. Tissues. 6. Organisms ▪ Thyroid and parathyroids
▪ Adrenal glands
ORGAN SYSTEMS OVERVIEW ▪ Thymus
▪ Pancreas
▪ Pineal gland
▪ Integumentary system
▪ Ovaries (females) and testes (males)
o Forms the external body covering (skin) and
includes hair and fingernails Cardiovascular system
o Waterproofs the body o Includes heart and blood vessels
o Cushions and protects deeper tissue from ▪ Heart pumps blood
injury ▪ Vessels transport blood to tissues
o Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight o Blood transports:
o Excretes salts in perspiration ▪ Oxygen and carbon dioxide
o Helps regulate body temperature ▪ Nutrients
 ▪ Hormones
o Blood also contains white blood cells and ▪ Maintaining boundaries
chemicals that provide protection from foreign o Boundaries separate the “inside” from
invaders “outside”
▪ Movement
▪ Lymphatic system o Locomotion
o Movement of substances
o Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and
▪ Responsiveness (irritability)
lymphoid organs
o Ability to sense changes and react
o Complements the cardiovascular system by
▪ Digestion
returning leaked fluids back to bloodstream
o Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs o Breakdown and absorption of nutrients
cleanse the blood
o Houses white blood cells, which are involved in NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS
immunity ▪ Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body
➢ Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones
▪ Respiratory system ➢ Builds larger molecules from smaller ones
➢ Produces energy (ATP)
o Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, ➢ Regulated by hormones
trachea, bronchi, and lungs ▪ Excretion
o Gases are exchanged with the blood through ➢ Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions
air sacs in the lungs ➢ Wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat
▪ Supplies the body with oxygen ▪ Reproduction
▪ Removes carbon dioxide ➢ Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
o On cellular level—new cells are used for
▪ Digestive system growth and repair
o On organismal level—the reproductive system
o Includes the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, handles the task
stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, ▪ Growth
and accessory organs ➢ Increases cell size or body size (through increasing
o Breaks down food the number of cells)
➢ Hormones play a major role
o Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
o Eliminates indigestible material as feces
SURVIVAL NEEDS
▪ Urinary system ▪ Nutrients
o Chemicals used for energy and cell building
o Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
o Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
and urethra
vitamins, and minerals
o Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
▪ Oxygen
o Maintains acid-base balance
o Required for chemical reactions
o Regulates water and electrolyte balance
o Made available by the cooperation of the
o Helps regulate normal blood pressure
respiratory and cardiovascular systems
▪ Water
▪ Reproductive system
o 60 to 80 percent of body weight
o For males, includes the testes, scrotum, penis, o Most abundant chemical in the human body
accessory glands, and duct system o Provides fluid base for body secretions and
▪ Testes produce sperm excretions
▪ Duct system carries sperm to exterior ▪ Normal body temperature
o For females, includes the ovaries, uterine o 37oC (98.6oF)
tubes, uterus, and vagina o Below this temperature, chemical reactions
▪ Ovaries produce eggs slow and stop
▪ Uterus provides site of development for fetus o Above this temperature, chemical reactions
proceed too rapidly
▪ Atmospheric pressure
o Must be appropriate for gas exchange

THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY

Maintaining Life: Necessary Life Functions
▪ Special terminology is used to prevent
misunderstanding
▪ Exact terms are used for:
o Position, Direction, Regions, Structures
▪ Anatomical position
o Standard body position used to avoid confusion
o Terminology refers to this position regardless of
actual body position
▪ Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at
the sides with palms facing forward and
thumbs pointing away from the body
Directional Terms
o Allow medical personnel and anatomists explain
location of one body structure in relation to
another
❖ Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward the head or
upper part of a structure or the body; above
❖ Inferior (caudal): away from the head or toward the
lower part of a structure or the body; below
▪ Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the body; in
front of
▪ Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the backside of the body;
behind
❖ Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on
the inner side of
❖ Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the
outer side of
❖ Intermediate: between a more medial and a more
lateral structure
▪ Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or point of
attachment to a limb to the body trunk
▪Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of
attachment of a limb to the body trunk
❖ Superficial (external): toward or at the body surface
❖ Deep (internal): away from the body surface; more
internal
Regional Terms
▪ Anterior (ventral) body landmarks
▪ Posterior (dorsal) body landmarks
Body Planes and Sections
▪ Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as
planes
Three types of planes or sections exist as right angles
to one another
▪ A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into
left and right parts; lengthwise/longitudinal
▪ A median, or midsagittal, section divides the
body (or organ) into equal left and right parts
▪ A frontal (coronal) section divides the body (or
organ) into anterior and posterior parts
▪ A transverse, or (cross section) divides the body (or
organ) into superior and inferior parts
BODY CAVITIES
Body cavities provide varying degrees of protection to
organs within them
Cavities: spaces where organs are located
Two internal body cavities:
▪Dorsal body cavity has two
subdivisions
1. Cranial cavity
▪ Houses the brain
▪ Protected by the skull
2. Spinal cavity
▪ Houses the spinal cord
▪ Protected by the
vertebrae
▪ Ventral body cavity has two
subdivisions separated by the diaphragm
1. Thoracic cavity
➢ Cavity superior to the diaphragm
➢ Houses heart, lungs, and other organs
➢ Mediastinum, the central region, houses heart,
trachea, and other organs o Protected by the
rib cage
2. Abdominopelvic cavity
➢ Cavity inferior to the diaphragm
o Superior abdominal cavity contains the
stomach, liver, and other organs
▪ Protected only by trunk muscles
o Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive
organs, bladder, and rectum
▪ Protected somewhat by bony pelvis
➢ No physical structure separates
abdominal from pelvic cavities
Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions:
 o Responds to changes in the environment
(stimuli)
o Sends information to control center along
an afferent pathway (approaches)
✓ Control center
o Determines the level (set point)
o Analyzes information
o Determines appropriate response
✓ Effector
Four quadrants o Provides a means for response to the
stimulus
o Information flows from control center to
effector along efferent pathway (exits)

FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
▪ Negative feedback
o Includes most homeostatic control
mechanisms
o Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its
intensity (ex: household thermostat)

▪ Positive feedback
o Rare in the human body
Nine regions o Increases the original stimulus to push the
variable farther
▪ Other body cavities include: o Reaction occurs at a faster rate
o Oral and digestive cavities o Ex: In the body, positive feedback occurs in
o Nasal cavity blood clotting and during the birth of a baby
o Orbital cavities
o Middle ear cavities SOURCE: Marieb, Elaine and S. Keller. 2018. Human
Anatomy and Physiology. Pearson Education, Inc.

HOMEOSTASIS
▪ Homeostasis—maintenance of relatively stable
internal conditions; “unchanging”

o (homeo = the same; stasis = standing still)

o A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance
o Necessary for normal body functioning and to
sustain life

▪ Main controlling systems

o Nervous system
o Endocrine system

▪ Homeostatic imbalance
o A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease

Maintaining Homeostasis

▪ All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least

three components:

✓ Receptor