CHAPTER 6 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS Many important applications of fuid dynamics require that density variations be taken into account. The complete field of compressible fluid flow has become very large, and it covers wide ranges of pressure, temperature, and velocity. Chemical engineering practice involves @ relatively small arca from this field. For in- compressible flow the basic parameter is the Reynolds number, « parameter also important in some applications of compressible flow. In compressible flow at ordinary densities and high velocities a more basic parameter is the Mach number. At very low densities, where the mean free path of the molecules is appreciable in comparison with the size of the equipment or solid bodies in contact with the gas, ‘other factors must be considered. This type of flow is not treated in this text. ‘The Mach number, denoted by Ny, is defined as the ratio of u, the speed of the fluid, to a, the speed of sound in the fluid under conditions of flow, (6.1) By speed of the fluid is meant the magnitude of the relative velocity between the fluid and a solid bounding the fuid or immersed in it, whether the solid is considered to be stationary and the fluid Rowing past it or the fluid is assumed to be stationary and the solid moving through it. The former situation isthe more ryFlow oF comressiue FLuios 121 common in chemical engineering, and the latter is of great importance in acronau- tics, for the motion of missiles, rockets, and other solid bodies through the atmosphere. By definition the Mach number is unity when the speed of fluid equals that of sound in the same fluid at the pressure and temperature of the fluid, Flow is called subsonic, soni, or supersonic, according to whether the Mach number is less than unity, at or near unity, or greater than unity, respectively. The most interesting problems in compressible flow lie in the high-velocity range, where Mach numbers arc comparable with unity or where flow is supersonic. ‘Other important technical areas in fuid dynamics include chemical reactions, electromagnetic phenomena, ionization, and phase change,' which are excluded from this discussion. In this chapter the following simplifying assumptions are made. Although they may appear restrictive, many actual engineering situations may be adequately represented by the mathematical models obtained within the limitations of the assumptions. 1. The flow is steady. 2. The fiow is one dimensional 3, Velocity gradients within a cross section are neglected, so that a = 8 Pm 4, Friction is restricted to wall shear 5. Shaft work is zero. 6, Gravitational effects are negligible, and mechanical-potential energy is neglected. 7. The fiuid is an ideal gas of constant specific heat. The following basic relations are used: 1. The continuity equation 2 The steady-flow total-energy balance 3. The mechanical-energy balance with wall friction 4, The equation for the velocity of sound 5. The equation of state of the ideal gas Etch of these equations must be put into a suitable form. CONTINUITY EQUATION. For differentiation, Eq (42) may be written in logar ithmie form: Ino +InS+Inu= const Differentiating this equation gives de a8, du p Sou (62)Azz FuunD Mecuanies TOTAL-ENERGY BALANCE. Consider a fluid in steady flow through a system, entering at station a with velocity ug and enthalpy H, and leaving at station with velocity w, and enthalpy Hy. For the flow of m kilograms or pounds of material, heat in the amount of Q joules or Btu must be added through the boundaries ofthe system to the material flowing through it. Provided there is no significant change in elevation between stations @ and 6 and no work is done by the system on the outside or on the system from the outside, the heat added to the fluid is given by the equation @ go 63) me et This equation written differentially is dQ. we pt 4 ) 4) MECHANICAL-ENERGY BALANCE. Equation (4.29) may be written over a short length of conduit in the following differential form: ap (2) 6 2d) 42 az dh, ° 2g.) Ge 65) In the light of the assumptions, this equation is simplified by omitting the potential-energy terms, noting that 2, =a, = 1.0,u= P and restricting the friction to wall shear. Equation (65) then becomes (66) From Bq, (5.56) (67) Eliminating dh,, from Eqs. (6.6) and (6.7) gives the form of the mechanical-energy equation suitable for treatment of compressible flow: 2, (2).220 4 (68) e 2g.) 2g. tw VELOCITY OF SOUND. The velocity of sound through a continuous material medium, also called the acoustical velocity, is the velocity of a very small compression-rarefaction wave moving adiabatically and frictionlessly through the medium. Thermodynamically, the motion of a sound wave is a constant-entropy, or isentropic, process. The magnitude of the acoustical velocity in any medium is,Flow oF couresssiane rus 123 5 (iB) where the subscript 5 calls attention to the isentropic restraint on the process. shown in physics texts to be IDEAL-GAS EQUATIONS. Subject to assumplions 1 to 6, Eas. (6.2) to (6.9) apply to any fluid. In fact, they may be used for incompressible flow simply by assuming that the density p is constant. To apply them to compressible flow, it is necessary that the density be related to temperature and pressure. The simplest relation, and one of considerable engineering utility, is the ideal-gas law [Eq. (1.48)], which for the present purpose may be written in the-form R Ser (6.10) Page (6.10) where R = molar gas-law constant, in units of mechanical energy per mole per degree absolute M = molecular weight ‘The gs may citer be pure ofa mixture, bt iit snot pur, the composition ‘toull not change Equation (610) may be ween Togithnaly ana then dittentated wo ge o_o ar poet T Since the specific heat c, is assumed to be independent of temperature, the cathlpy ofthe oo at temperate Ti H= Hy + of? -T) (6.2) (6.11) anthalpy per unit mass at temperature 7 inthalpy at arbitrary temperature T, ‘The differential form of Eq, (6.12) is aH (6.13) ‘Acoustical velocity and Mach number of ideal gas. For an ideal ges, an isentropic path follows the equations 614 (615) where y is the ratio of ¢, the specific heat at constant pressure, to c, the specific heat at constant volume. For an ideal gas, == 2 __ (619) Since, by assumption, ¢, is independent of temperature, 90 are ¢, and 7.124) Fuso Mecuanres ‘The quantity (dp/do), can be calculated by differentiating the logarithmic form of Eq. (6.14), giving. to ws (H) Pp Pp de}s Substituting into Eq. (69) yields fayTR a a A, 7 17) ae 2? p Equation (6.10) is used to establish the second equality in Eg. (6.17), which shows that the acoustical velocity ofan ideal gas isa function of temperature only. From gs. (6.1) and (6.17) the square of the Mach number of an ideal gas is (6.18) Ni, = 2 = — gap 9.7TRIM ‘THE ASTERISK CONDITION. The state of the fiuid moving at its acoustic velocity is important in some processes of compressible-fuid flow. The condition, where u=a and Ny,=1 is called the asterisk condition, and the pressure, temperature, density, and enthalpy are denoted by p*, T*, p*, and H* at this state. STAGNATION TEMPERATURE, The stagnation temperature of a high-speed fluid is defined as the temperature the fluid would attain were it brought to rest adiabatically without the development of shaft work. The relation between the actual fiuid temperature, the actual fluid velocity, and the stagnation temperature is found by using the total energy equation (3) and the enthalpy equation (12) The trmital an Ba (3) and reference state O in Eq, (612) ar dented with the stagnation condition, and stagnation is denoted by subsrot Also, terminal bin Ea (63) is chosen es the stat ofthe Rowing pa, thi subsp is dropped. ‘Then, tne the proces is adiabatic and 0 = 0, Ea (62) becomes if af any 649 iad tea Eliminating 1 ~ Hy from Ba, (618) by substitution fom Eq, (612) gives, forthe stagnation temperate To HOH, helt (620) 2yle, nee “The stagnation enthalpy H, is defined by the equation Hants (62) get Equation (63) can be written oon, i Hyg = (Tes — Tey (6.22)