(eBook PDF) Psychology: Core

Concepts 8th Edition by Philip G.

Zimbardo
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/ebook-pdf-psychology-core-concepts-8th-edition-
by-philip-g-zimbardo/
 Eighth Edition

Psychology
C O R E C O N C E P T S

Philip Zimbardo Robert Johnson Vivian McCann

 Contents vii

3.8.5: Perceptual Constancies 102 4.4.3: Continuous Versus Intermittent

3.8.6: Inattentional Blindness and Change Reinforcement 130
Blindness 102 4.4.4: Schedules of Reinforcement 131
3.9: Perceptual Ambiguity and Distortion 103 4.4.5: The Role of Biology in Operant
3.9.1: What Illusions Tell Us About Sensation Conditioning 132
and Perception 103 4.4.6: Token Economies 133
3.9.2: Illusions in the Context of Culture 105 4.4.7: Preferred Activities as Reinforcers:
3.9.3: Applying the Lessons of Illusions 105 The Premack Principle 134
3.10: Theoretical Explanations for Perception 105 4.4.8: Reinforcement Across Cultures 134
3.10.1: The Gestalt Theory of Perceptual 4.5: The Puzzle of Punishment 135
Organization 106 4.5.1: Punishment versus Negative
Do It Yourself! Figure Obscures Ground 106 Reinforcement 135
3.10.2: The Gestalt Laws of Perceptual 4.5.2: Uses and Abuses of Punishment 136
Grouping 107 4.5.3: Does Punishment Ever Work? 137
3.10.3: Helmholtz’s Theory on How Experience 4.6: A Checklist for Modifying Operant Behavior 138
Influences Perception 108 4.7: Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared 138
3.10.4: Depth Perception: Nature or Nurture? 110 4.7.1: Is the Behavioral Response Before
3.11: Seeing and Believing 112 or After the New Stimulus? 139
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn 4.7.2: Is the Behavior Voluntary or Reflexive? 139
Psychology 112 4.7.3: New Behavior or Existing Behavior? 140
Critical Thinking Applied: Subliminal Perception 4.7.4: How They Work Together 140
and Subliminal Persuasion 113 Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn
Summary: Sensation and Perception 114 Psychology 140

4 Learning and Human Nurture 117

Key Question: How Does Cognitive Psychology
Explain Learning? 141
CHAPTER PROBLEM: Assuming Sabra’s fear of 4.8: Insight Learning: Köhler in the Canaries
flying was a response she had learned, could it also with Chimps 141
be treated by learning? If so, how? 118 4.9: Cognitive Maps: Tolman Finds Out What’s
Key Question: What Sort of Learning Does on a Rat’s Mind 142
Classical Conditioning Explain? 119 4.9.1: Mental Images—Not Behaviors 142
4.1: The Essentials of Classical Conditioning 120 4.9.2: Learning Without Reinforcement 143
4.1.1: Acquisition 121 4.9.3: The Significance of Tolman’s Work 143
4.1.2: Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery 122 4.10: Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge
4.1.3: Generalization 123 to Behaviorism 144
4.1.4: Discrimination Learning 123 4.10.1: Learning by Observation and Imitation 145
4.1.5: Higher Order Conditioning 123 4.10.2: Effects of Media Violence 145
4.2: Applications of Classical Conditioning 123 4.10.3: Observational Learning Applied
to Social Problems Around the Globe 146
4.2.1: Conditioned Fears: The Notorious Case
of Little Albert 123 4.11: Brain Mechanisms, Learning, and “Higher”
4.2.2: Conditioned Food Aversions 125 Cognitive Learning 147
4.2.3: Biological Predispositions: 4.11.1: The Brain on Extinction 147
A Challenge to Pavlov 125 4.11.2: “Fear of Flying” Revisited 147
4.2.4: New Frontiers in Wildlife Management 126 Psychology Matters: Fear of Flying Revisited 148
4.2.5: Classical Conditioning in Advertising 126 Critical Thinking Applied: Do Different People
4.2.6: Harnessing the Power of Classical Have Different “Learning Styles”? 149
Conditioning 127 Do It Yourself! Adapting Yourself to Better Learning 150
Psychology Matters: Conditioned Taste Aversions Summary: Learning and Human Nurture 151
and Chemotherapy 128

Key Question: How Do We Learn New Behaviors

by Operant Conditioning? 128
5 Memory 153
4.3: Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism 129 CHAPTER PROBLEM: How can our knowledge
4.4: The Power of Reinforcement 129 about memory help us evaluate claims of recovered
memories? 154
4.4.1: Vintage Technology: The “Skinner Box” 130
4.4.2: Contingencies of Reinforcement 130 Key Question: What Is Memory? 154
viii Contents

5.1: Memory Is Constructed, and Reconstructed 155 5.8: Improving Your Memory with Mnemonics 182
5.1.1: Memory’s Three Basic Tasks 156 5.8.1: The Method of Loci 182
Psychology Matters: Would You Want a 5.8.2: Natural Language Mediators 182
“Photographic” Memory? 157 5.8.3: Remembering Names 182
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn
Key Question: How Do We Form Memories? 158
Psychology 183
5.2: The First Stage: Sensory Memory 159
Critical Thinking Applied: The Recovered
5.2.1: The Capacity and Duration of Sensory Memory Controversy 184
Memory 159
Summary: Memory 185
5.2.2: The Structure and Function of Sensory
Memory 160
5.2.3: The Biological Basis of Sensory Memory 160 6 Thinking and Intelligence 188
5.3: The Second Stage: Working Memory 160 CHAPTER PROBLEM: What produces “genius,”
5.3.1: The Capacity and Duration of Working and to what extent are the people we call “geniuses”
Memory 161 different from the rest of us? 189
Do It Yourself! Finding Your Working
Key Question: What Are the Components of Thought? 190
Memory Capacity 161
5.3.2: The Structure and Function of Working 6.1: Concepts 190
Memory 162 6.1.1: Two Kinds of Concepts 191
5.3.3: Levels of Processing in Working Memory 163 6.1.2: Concept Hierarchies 191
5.3.4: The Biological Basis of Working 6.1.3: Culture, Concepts, and Thought 192
Memory 163 6.2: Imagery and Cognitive Maps 192
5.4: The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory 164 6.3: Thought and the Brain 194
5.4.1: The Capacity and Duration of Long-Term 6.4: Intuition 194
Memory 164 6.4.1: When Can You Rely on Intuition? 195
5.4.2: The Structure and Function of Long-Term
Psychology Matters: Schemas and Scripts Help
Memory 165
You Know What to Expect 196
Do It Yourself! How Schemas Impact Memory 166
5.4.3: The Biological Basis of Long-Term Key Question: What Abilities Do Good
Memory 167 Thinkers Possess? 197
Psychology Matters: “Flashbulb” Memories: Where Were 6.5: Problem Solving 197
You When … ? 169 6.5.1: Identifying the Problem 198
6.5.2: Selecting a Strategy 198
Key Question: How Do We Retrieve Memories? 170
6.5.3: Some Useful Heuristic Strategies 198
5.5: Implicit and Explicit Memory 170 6.5.4: Obstacles to Problem Solving 199
5.5.1: Retrieval Cues 171
Do It Yourself! Overcoming Mental Sets 200
5.5.2: Other Factors Affecting Retrieval 172
6.6: Judging and Making Decisions 201
Psychology Matters: On the Tip of Your Tongue 173
6.6.1: Confirmation Bias 202
Key Question: Why Does Memory Sometimes Fail 6.6.2: Hindsight Bias 202
Us, and What Can We Do About It? 174 6.6.3: Anchoring Bias 202
5.6: The Sins of Omission 174 6.6.4: Representativeness Bias 203
5.6.1: Transience: Fading Memories Cause 6.6.5: Availability Bias 203
Forgetting 175 6.6.6: The Tyranny of Choice 203
5.6.2: Absent-Mindedness: Lapses 6.6.7: Decision-Making and Critical Thinking 204
of Attention Cause Forgetting 177 6.7: Becoming a Creative Genius 204
5.6.3: Blocking: Access Problems 178 6.7.1: A Genius Is Not Superhuman 204
5.7: The Sins of Commission 178 6.7.2: Knowledge and Understanding 204
5.7.1: Misattribution: Memories in 6.7.3: Aptitudes, Personality Characteristics,
the Wrong Context 178 and Creativity 205
5.7.2: Suggestibility: External Cues Distort 6.7.4: The Role of Intelligence in Creativity 206
or Create Memories 178
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn
5.7.3: Bias: Beliefs, Attitudes, and Opinions Psychology 206
Distort Memories 180
5.7.4: Persistence: When We Can’t Forget 181 Key Question: How Is Intelligence Measured? 207
5.7.5: The Advantages of the “Seven Sins” 6.8: Binet and Simon Invent a School
of Memory 181 Abilities Test 208
 Contents ix

6.9: American Psychologists Borrow Binet

and Simon’s Idea 208
7 Development Over the Life Span 231
6.9.1: The Appeal of Intelligence Testing CHAPTER PROBLEM: Do the amazing accounts
in America 209 of similarities in twins reared apart indicate we are
6.9.2: The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 209 primarily a product of our genes? Or do genetics and
6.9.3: Problems With the IQ Formula 209 environment work together to influence growth and
6.9.4: Calculating IQs “On the Curve” 210 development over the life span? 232
6.9.5: IQ Testing Today 211
Key Question: What Innate Abilities Does
Do It Yourself! Sample IQ Test Items 212 the Infant Possess? 233
Psychology Matters: What Can You Do for 7.1: Prenatal Development 234
an Exceptional Child? 212 7.1.1: Three Phases of Prenatal Development 234
Key Question: Is Intelligence One or Many Abilities? 214 7.1.2: Teratogens: Prenatal Toxins 234
6.10: Psychometric Theories of Intelligence 215 7.2: The Neonatal Period: Abilities
6.10.1: Spearman’s g Factor 215 of the Newborn Child 235
6.10.2: Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized 7.2.1: Innate Reflexes 235
Intelligence 215 7.2.2: Sensory Abilities in the Newborn 235
6.11: Cognitive Theories of Intelligence 215 7.2.3: Social Abilities 236
6.11.1: Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory 216 7.3: Infancy: Building on the Neonatal Blueprint 237
6.11.2: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences 216 7.3.1: Neural Development 237
6.11.3: Assessing Cognitive Theories 7.3.2: The Genetic Leash 237
of Intelligence 216 7.3.3: The Effects of Poverty on Development 239
6.12: Cultural Definitions of Intelligence 218 7.3.4: Contact Comfort 239
6.12.1: African Concepts of Intelligence 218 7.3.5: Attachment 240
6.12.2: A Native American Concept Do It Yourself! What’s Your Attachment Style? 242
of Intelligence 218 7.3.6: Psychosocial Development: Trust versus
6.13: The Question of Animal Intelligence 219 Mistrust 243
6.13.1: What Abilities Make Humans Unique? 219 Psychology Matters: Not Just Fun and Games:
6.13.2: Language of the Apes 219 The Role of Child’s Play in Life Success 243
6.13.3: What Are the Lessons of Research on
Animal Language and Intelligence? 220 Key Question: What Are the Developmental Tasks
of Childhood? 244
Psychology Matters: Test Scores and the
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 220 7.4: How Children Acquire Language 245
7.4.1: Language Structures in the Brain 245
Key Question: How Do Psychologists Explain IQ 7.4.2: Acquiring Vocabulary and Grammar 246
Differences Among Groups? 221
7.4.3: Other Language Skills 247
6.14: What Evidence Shows That Intelligence Is
7.5: Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Theory 247
Influenced by Heredity? 222
7.5.1: Schemas 247
6.15: What Evidence Shows That Intelligence Is
7.5.2: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Influenced by Environment? 222 Development 249
6.16: Heritability (not Heredity) and Group 7.5.3: Beyond Piaget: Contemporary
Differences 223 Perspectives on Cognitive
6.16.1: The Jensen Controversy 224 Development 252
6.16.2: The Scarr and Weinberg Adoption Study 224 7.6: Social and Emotional Development 253
6.16.3: Social Class and IQ 224 7.6.1: Temperament 253
6.16.4: Head Start: A Successful Intervention 7.6.2: Socialization 254
Program 225 7.6.3: Psychosocial Development in Childhood:
6.16.5: Test Biases and Culture-Fair Tests 225 Erikson’s Stages 256
6.16.6: The Bell Curve: Another Hereditarian Psychology Matters: The Puzzle of ADHD 258
Offensive 226
6.16.7: Mindset and Stereotype Threat 226 Key Question: What Changes Mark the Transition
Psychology Matters: Brain Training Programs: of Adolescence? 260
Do They Work? 227 7.7: Adolescence and Culture 260
Critical Thinking Applied: The Question 7.8: Physical Maturation in Adolescence 261
of Gender Differences 228 7.8.1: Body Image 261
Summary: Thinking and Intelligence 229 7.8.2: Adolescent Sexuality 262
x Contents

7.9: Neural and Cognitive Development 8.2.2: James’s Stream of Consciousness 292
in Adolescence 263 8.2.3: The Modern Cognitive Perspective 293
7.9.1: Teens: Guided by Reason or Emotion? 263 8.2.4: What Does Consciousness Do for Us? 293
7.9.2: The Brain Undergoes Major Pruning 263 8.3: Coma and Related States 294
7.9.3: Piaget’s Final Stage: 8.3.1: What Is a Coma? 294
Formal Operational Thought 264 8.3.2: Can People in a Coma Hear
7.10: Moral Development 264 Your Voice? 294
7.10.1: Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 264 Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn
7.10.2: Moral Disengagement 266 Psychology 295
7.11: Social and Emotional Development 268
Key Question: What Cycles Occur in Everyday
7.11.1: Psychosocial Development
Consciousness? 295
in Adolescence 268
8.4: Daydreaming 296
7.11.2: Gender Issues in Adolescence 269
8.4.1: Why Do We Daydream? 296
7.11.3: Do Parents Still Matter? 270
8.4.2: Is Daydreaming Helpful or Harmful? 296
7.11.4: Is Adolescence a Period of Turmoil? 271
8.5: Sleep: The Mysterious Third of Our Lives 297
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn
Psychology 271 8.5.1: Circadian Rhythms 297
Tips for Managing Jet Lag and Other Circadian
Key Question: What Developmental Challenges Shifts 297
Do Adults Face? 272
8.5.2: The Main Events of Sleep 298
7.12: Early Adulthood: Explorations, Autonomy, 8.5.3: The Sleep Cycle 299
and Intimacy 273
8.5.4: Why Do We Sleep? 300
7.12.1: Intimacy versus Isolation 273
8.5.5: The Need for Sleep 301
7.12.2: Emerging Adulthood: The In-Between
8.5.6: Sleep Debt Wreaks Havoc 301
Stage 273
Do It Yourself! How Much Sleep Do You Need? 302
7.12.3: Modern Approaches to Intimacy 274
8.6: Dreaming: The Pageants of the Night 302
7.13: The Challenges of Midlife: Complexity
and Generativity 275 8.6.1: What Do We Dream About? 302
7.13.1: Generativity versus Stagnation 275 8.6.2: Why Do We Dream? 303
7.13.2: Transitions 275 Do It Yourself! Finding Your Creative Inspiration
in Dreams 305
7.14: Late Adulthood: The Age of Integrity 277
Psychology Matters: Sleep Disorders 306
7.14.1: Ego-Integrity Versus Despair 278
7.14.2: Physical Changes 278 Key Question: What Other Forms Can
7.14.3: Cognitive Changes 278 Consciousness Take? 307
7.14.4: Social and Emotional Changes 279 8.7: Hypnosis 308
7.14.5: Keys to Successful Aging 280 8.7.1: Hypnotizability 308
Psychology Matters: A Look Back at the Jim Twins 8.7.2: Is Hypnosis a Distinct State of
and Your Own Development 280 Consciousness? 309
Critical Thinking Applied: The Mozart Effect 282 8.7.3: Practical Uses of Hypnosis 309
Summary: Development Over the Life Span 283 8.8: Meditation 310
8.8.1: Cultural Perspectives on Meditation 310
8 States of Consciousness 287 8.8.2: Effects of Meditation 310
8.9: Psychoactive Drug States 311
CHAPTER PROBLEM: How can psychologists 8.9.1: Trends in Drug Use 311
objectively examine the worlds of dreaming and 8.9.2: Hallucinogens 312
other subjective mental states? 288
8.9.3: Opiates 314
Key Question: How Is Consciousness Related to Other 8.9.4: Depressants and Antianxiety Drugs 314
Mental Processes? 288 8.9.5: Stimulants 315
8.1: Tools for Studying Consciousness 290 8.9.6: The Altered States of Anesthesia 316
8.1.1: Mental Rotation 290 Psychology Matters: Dependence
8.1.2: Zooming in with the Mind 291 and Addiction 317
8.2: Models of the Conscious and Nonconscious Critical Thinking Applied: The Unconscious—
Minds 291 Reconsidered 319
8.2.1: Freud’s Levels of Consciousness 291 Summary: States of Consciousness 320
 Contents xi

9 Motivation and Emotion 323 9.8: Sex, Hunger, and the Hierarchy of Needs 341
Psychology Matters: The What and Why
CHAPTER PROBLEM: How can theories of of Sexual Orientation 341
motivation and emotion help us understand unusual
and complex people, like Marcus Mariota, our family Key Question: How Do Our Emotions
and friends … and, perhaps, even ourselves? 324 Motivate Us? 342
9.9: How Is Emotion Related to Motivation? 343
Key Question: What Motivates Us? 324
9.9.1: What Emotions Are Made Of 343
9.1: Why People Work: McClelland’s Theory 325
9.9.2: What Emotions Do for Us 343
9.1.1: I/O Psychology: Putting Achievement
9.9.3: Counting the Emotions 344
Motivation in Perspective 326
9.9.4: Cultural Universals in Emotional
9.1.2: A Cross-Cultural View of Achievement 326
Expression 345
9.2: The Unexpected Effects of Rewards
Do It Yourself! Identifying Facial Expressions
on Motivation 327
of Emotion 345
9.2.1: Overjustification 327
Psychology Matters: Gender Differences in Emotion
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn
Depend on Both Biology and Culture 346
Psychology 328
Key Question: What Processes Control
Key Question: How Are Our Motivational
Our Emotions? 346
Priorities Determined? 328
9.10: The Neuroscience of Emotion 347
9.3: Instinct Theory, Drive Theory, and Freud’s
9.10.1: Emotions in the Unconscious 347
Psychodynamic Theory 329
9.10.2: Conscious Emotional Processing 347
9.3.1: Drive Theory 329
9.10.3: Lateral Differences in the Frontal
9.3.2: Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory 330
Lobes 347
9.4: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 330
9.10.4: Where the Cortex Meets
9.4.1: Putting It All Together: A New Hierarchy the Limbic System 348
of Needs 331
9.10.5: The Neural Signatures of Our
9.4.2: Where Does All This Leave Us? 332 Emotions 349
Psychology Matters: Determining What 9.10.6: The Autonomic Nervous System’s Role
Motivates Others 332 in Emotion 349
9.10.7: Emotional Chemistry 350
Key Question: Where Do Hunger and Sex Fit into
the Motivational Hierarchy? 332 9.11: Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted U 350
9.5: Hunger: A Homeostatic Drive and a Do It Yourself! Are You a Sensation Seeker? 351
Psychological Motive 333 9.12: Theories of Emotion: Resolving Some
9.5.1: The Multiple-Systems Approach Old Issues 352
to Hunger 333 9.12.1: Do Our Feelings Come from Physical
9.5.2: Biological Factors Affecting Responses? 352
Hunger and Eating 333 9.12.2: Or Do Our Feelings Come From
9.5.3: Psychological Factors Affecting Hunger Cognitions? 352
and Eating 334 9.12.3: The Two-Factor Theory 353
9.5.4: Eating Disorders 334 9.13: How Much Control Do We Have Over
9.5.5: Obesity and Weight Control 335 Our Emotions? 354
9.6: The Problem of Willpower, Turnips, 9.13.1: Emotional Intelligence 354
and Chocolate Cookies 336 9.13.2: The Predictive Power of Impulse
9.6.1: Alternatives to Willpower 336 Control 355
9.6.2: The Biology of Self-Control 337 9.13.3: The Persistence of Emotional
Intelligence 355
9.7: Sexual Motivation: An Urge
9.13.4: The Nature and Nurture of Emotional
You Can Live Without 337
Intelligence 356
9.7.1: The Scientific Study of Sexuality 338
9.13.5: Let It Out: A Dangerous Myth 356
9.7.2: Gender Similarities and the Physiology
of Sex 339 Psychology Matters: Detecting Deception 356
9.7.3: Men and Women Also Differ in Their Do It Yourself! The Eyes Have It 357
Sexuality 340 Critical Thinking Applied: Do Lie Detectors
9.7.4: An Evolutionary Perspective Really Detect Lies? 358
on Sexuality 340 Summary: Motivation and Emotion 359
xii Contents

10 Personality 363 10.10: The Existential Approach: Finding Meaning in

Existence 394
CHAPTER PROBLEM: What influences shaped 10.10.1: Evaluating the Existential Approach
the unique behavioral patterns, high achievement to Personality  395
motivation, consistency over time and place, and 10.11: Social-Cognitive Theories: Emphasis
hardiness to cope with stresses that we see in the on Social Learning 395
personality of Mary Calkins? 365 10.11.1: Observational Learning and Personality:
Bandura’s Theory  396
Key Question: What Forces Shape Our Personalities? 365
10.11.2: Locus of Control: Rotter’s Theory 396
10.1: Biology, Human Nature, and Personality 366
10.1.1: Which View Is Right? 366 Do It Yourself! Finding Your Locus of Control 397
10.11.3: Evaluating the Social-Cognitive
10.2: The Effects of Nurture: Personality
Approach to Personality  397
and the Environment 367
10.2.1: What Environments Make the Most 10.12: Current Trends: The Person in a Social System 397
Difference? 367 Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn
10.3: Two Views of Personality: Dispositions Psychology 398
and Mental Processes 368 Key Question: What “Theories” Do People Use
10.4: Social and Cultural Contributions to Understand Themselves and Others? 399
to Personality 368 10.13: Implicit Personality Theories 399
10.4.1: But How Does Culture Influence 10.13.1: The Dangers of a Fixed Mindset
Personality? 368 Narrative  400
10.4.2: Cross-Cultural Differences in Shyness 369 10.14: Self-Narratives: The Stories of Our Own
Psychology Matters: Explaining Unusual Personalities 400
People and Unusual Behavior 370 10.15: The Effects of Culture on Our Views
Key Question: What Persistent Patterns, or of Personality 401
Dispositions, Make Up Our Personalities? 371 10.15.1: Individualism, Collectivism, and
10.5: Personality and Temperament 372 Personality  401
10.5.1: Temperament from Transmitters? 373 Psychology Matters: When Personalities Become
10.5.2: Tempered With a Bit of Learning? 373 Disordered 402
10.6: Personality as a Composite of traits 374 Critical Thinking Applied: The Person–Situation
Controversy 404
10.6.1: How Do Traits Differ from
Temperament? 374 Summary: Personality 405

10.6.2: The “Big Five” Traits 374

10.6.3: Evaluating the Temperament
and Trait Theories 377
11 Social Psychology 409
10.7: The Personality of Time 377 CHAPTER PROBLEM: What makes ordinary
10.7.1: How Our “Time Zone” Influences Our people willing to harm other people, as they
Decisions 377 did in Milgram’s shocking experiment? 411
10.7.2: Identifying Your Time Zone: The Zimbardo
Key Question: How Is Our Behavior Affected
Time Perspective Inventory 378
by the Social Situation? 412
Psychology Matters: Positivity as a Core of Personality
11.1: Social Standards of Behavior 413
and Well-Being 379
11.1.1: Social Roles and Social Norms 413
Key Question: How Do Mental Processes Help 11.1.2: Schemas and Scripts 414
Shape Our Personalities? 380 11.1.3: Social Norms Influence Students’
10.8: Psychodynamic Theories: Emphasis Political Views 415
on Motivation and Mental Disorder 380 11.2: Conformity 416
10.8.1: Freud and Psychoanalysis 380 11.2.1: The Asch Effect: A Minority of One in a
10.8.2: Evaluating Freud’s Work 385 Challenging Majority 416
10.8.3: The Neo-Freudians 387 11.2.2: What’s It to You? 417
10.9: Humanistic Theories: Emphasis on Human 11.2.3: Conformity: Good to Go or No? 418
Potential and Mental Health 391 11.2.4: Cultural Differences in Conformity 418
10.9.1: Abraham Maslow and the Healthy 11.2.5: The Autokinetic Effect 419
Personality 391 11.2.6: Conformity and Independence Light Up
10.9.2: Carl Rogers’s Fully Functioning Person 392 the Brain Differently 419
10.9.3: Evaluating the Humanistic Theories 393 11.2.7: Resisting Conformity 420
 Contents xiii

11.2.8: Toddlers Conform, Apes Do Not 420 11.10.3: Comparing Milgram’s Research
11.2.9: Groupthink 420 to the Stanford Prison Experiment  453
11.3: Obedience to Authority 421 11.11: Chains of System Command 453
11.3.1: Milgram’s Research Revisited 423 11.11.1: The Systems Lesson 454
11.3.2: Variations on an Obedience Theme 424 11.11.2: Using Psychology to Understand
11.3.3: Heroic Defiance 425 the Abuses at Abu Ghraib  454
11.4: Cross-Cultural Tests of Milgram’s Research 426 11.12: Preventing Bullying by Systemic Changes
and Reframing 455
11.4.1: Does Milgram’s Obedience Power Still
Apply? 426 11.12.1: What Does Bullying Look Like Today? 456
11.4.2: Why Do We Obey Authority? 427 11.12.2: Effectively Preventing Bullying 457
11.4.3: Some Real-World Extensions of the Milgram Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn
Obedience to Authority Paradigm 427 Psychology 458
11.5: The Bystander Problem: The Evil of Inaction 428 Critical Thinking Applied: Is Terrorism a
11.5.1: Contrived Emergencies 429 “Senseless Act of Violence, Perpetrated by
11.5.2: Does Training Encourage Helping? 430 Crazy Fanatics”? 459
11.5.3: Need Help? Ask for It! 430 Summary: Social Psychology 461

Do It Yourself! What Makes a Samaritan

Good or Bad? 431 12 Psychological Disorders 464
Psychology Matters: On Being “Shoe” at Yale U 431
CHAPTER PROBLEM: Is it possible to distinguish
Key Question: Constructing Social Reality: mental disorder from merely unusual behavior?
What Influences Our Judgments of Others? 432 That is, are there specific signs that clearly indicate
11.6: Interpersonal Attraction 433 mental disorder? 465
11.6.1: Reward Theory: We (Usually) Prefer Key Question: What Is Psychological Disorder? 466
Rewarding Relationships 433 12.1: Changing Concepts of Psychological Disorder 467
11.6.2: Proximity 433 12.1.1: The Medical Model 467
11.6.3: Similarity 434 12.1.2: Psychological Models 468
11.6.4: Self-Disclosure 434
12.2: Indicators of Abnormality 469
11.6.5: Physical Attractiveness 434
12.2.1: What Are These Indicators? 470
11.6.6: Exceptions to the Reward Theory
12.2.2: Gender Differences in Mental
of Attraction 435
Disorders 470
11.7: Loving Relationships 437 12.2.3: A Caution to Readers 471
11.7.1: Long-Term Romantic Love 439
Psychology Matters: The Plea of Insanity: How
11.8: Making Cognitive Attributions 439 Big Is the Problem? 471
11.8.1: The Fundamental Attribution Error 439
Key Question: How Are Psychological Disorders
11.8.2: Biased Thinking About Yourself 440
Classified in the DSM-5? 472
11.8.3: Universal Dimensions of Social Cognition:
Warmth and Competence 440 12.3: Overview of the DSM-5 Classification System 472
11.8.4: Cross-Cultural Research on the Need for 12.4: Depressive Disorders 473
Positive Self-Regard 441 12.4.1: Major Depression 474
11.9: Prejudice and Discrimination 442 12.4.2: Incidence 474
11.9.1: Causes of Prejudice 442 Do It Yourself! A Depression Check 474
11.9.2: Combating Prejudice 445 12.4.3: Cross-Cultural Comparisons 475
11.9.3: Stereotype Threat 447 12.4.4: Biological Basis of Major Depression 475
11.9.4: Implicit Racial Bias Influences 12.4.5: Psychological Factors in Major
Criminal Sentencing 448 Depression 476
Psychology Matters: Is Social Pain Like 12.4.6: Major Depressive Disorder
Physical Pain? 449 with Seasonal Pattern 477
12.5: Bipolar Disorder 477
Key Question: How Do Systems Create Situations
That Influence Behavior? 450 12.6: Anxiety Disorders 478
12.6.1: Generalized Anxiety Disorder 478
11.10: The Stanford Prison Experiment 451
12.6.2: Panic Disorder 478
11.10.1: What Caused the Behavior
in the Stanford Prison Experiment?  452 12.6.3: Phobias 479
11.10.2: How Did the Stanford Prison 12.7: Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder 480
Experiment End Up?  452 12.7.1: Obsessions 481
xiv Contents

12.8: Somatic Symptom Disorders 481 Psychology Matters: Paraprofessionals Do

12.8.1: Illness Anxiety Disorder and Somatic Therapy, Too 502
Symptom Disorder 481
Key Question: How Do Psychologists Treat
12.8.2: Conversion Disorder 482
Psychological Disorders? 503
12.9: Dissociative Disorders 482
13.3: Insight Therapies 503
12.9.1: Dissociative Amnesia 483
13.3.1: Freudian Psychoanalysis 504
12.9.2: Depersonalization/Derealization
13.3.2: Neo-Freudian Psychodynamic Therapies 505
Disorder 483
13.3.3: Humanistic Therapies 506
12.9.3: Dissociative Identity Disorder 483
13.3.4: Cognitive Therapies 507
12.10: Schizophrenia 484
13.3.5: Group Therapies 508
12.10.1: Diagnosing Schizophrenia 485
13.4: Behavior Therapies 509
12.10.2: Possible Causes of Schizophrenia 485
13.4.1: Classical Conditioning Therapies 510
12.11: Neurodevelopmental Disorders 487
13.4.2: Operant Conditioning Therapies 511
12.11.1: Autism Spectrum Disorder 487
Do It Yourself! Behavior Self-Modification 511
12.11.2: Dyslexia and Other Specific Learning
Disorders 488 13.4.3: Participant Modeling: An Observational-
Learning Therapy 512
12.11.3: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD) 489 13.5: Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy:
A (Partial) Synthesis 513
12.12: Beyond the DSM-5: What’s Next? 489
13.5.1: Rational–Emotive Behavior Therapy 513
12.12.1: An Alternative View from NIMH 489
12.12.2: Of Brain “Hubs” and Mental Disorders 490 Do It Yourself! Examining Your Own Beliefs 514
12.12.3: In the Opinion of Your Authors 490 13.5.2: Positive Psychotherapy (PPT) 514
13.5.3: Changing the Brain by Changing the Mind 515
Psychology Matters: Shyness 490
13.6: Evaluating the Psychological Therapies 515
Key Question: What Are the Consequences 13.6.1: Eysenck’s Controversial Proclamation 516
of Labeling People? 491
Psychology Matters: Where Do Most People
12.13: Diagnostic Labels, Labeling, and Get Help? 517
Depersonalization 491
12.14: The Cultural Context of Psychological Key Question: How Is the Biomedical Approach
Disorder 492 Used to Treat Psychological Disorders? 517
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to 13.7: Drug Therapies 518
Learn Psychology 492 13.7.1: Antipsychotic Drugs 518
Critical Thinking Applied: Insane Places
13.7.2: Antidepressants and Mood Stabilizers 518
Revisited—Another Look at the Rosenhan Study 493 13.7.3: Antianxiety Drugs 520
Summary: Psychological Disorders 494 13.7.4: Stimulants 520
13.7.5: Evaluating the Drug Therapies 521

13 Therapies for Psychological

13.8: Other Medical Therapies for Psychological
Disorders 521
Disorders 497 13.8.1: Psychosurgery 521
CHAPTER PROBLEM: What is the best treatment 13.8.2: Brain-Stimulation Therapies 522
for Derek’s depression: psychological therapy, drug 13.9: Hospitalization and the Alternatives 523
therapy, or both? More broadly, the problem is this: 13.9.1: Deinstitutionalization and Community
How do we decide among the available therapies Mental Health 523
for any of the mental disorders? 498 13.9.2: Meeting the Unmet Need for Mental
Health Services 523
Key Question: What Is Therapy? 498
Psychology Matters: What Sort of Therapy
13.1: Entering Therapy 499
Would You Recommend? 524
13.1.1: The Therapeutic Alliance and the Goals
of Therapy 499 Key Question: How Do the Psychological Therapies
13.1.2: What Are the Components of Therapy? 499 and Biomedical Therapies Compare? 525
13.1.3: Who Does Therapy? 500 13.10: Schizophrenia: Psychological versus Medical
13.2: Therapy in Historical and Cultural Context 500 Treatment 525
13.2.1: History of Therapy 501 13.11: Depression and Anxiety Disorders: Psychological
13.2.2: Today’s Approaches to Therapy 501 versus Medical Treatment 526
13.2.3: Disorder and Therapy in a Cultural 13.11.1: CBT Versus Drugs 526
Context 501 13.11.2: ECT 526
 Contents xv

13.12: “The Worried Well” and Other Problems: Not Psychology Matters: Cognitive Appraisal
Everyone Needs Drugs 526 of Ambiguous Threats 556
13.12.1: Whatever Happened to Derek? 527
Key Question: Who Is Most Vulnerable to Stress? 557
13.12.2: Early Intervention and Prevention
14.5: Type A Personality and Hostility 558
Programs: A Modest Proposal  527
14.6: Locus of Control 559
Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn
Psychology 527 14.6.1: Locus of Control, Health, and Longevity 560
14.6.2: Culture Affects Locus of Control 560
Critical Thinking Applied: Evidence-Based

Practice 529 14.6.3: Is Locus of Control Innate or Learned? 560
Summary: Therapies for Psychological Disorders 532 14.7: Hardiness, Optimism, and Resilience 561
14.7.1: Optimism 562
14.7.2: Resilience 562
14 From Stress to Health and Psychology Matters: Using Psychology to Learn
Well-Being 535 Psychology 563

Key Question: How Can We Transform Negative

CHAPTER PROBLEM: Were the reactions and
Stress into Positive Life Strategies? 564
experiences of the 9/11 firefighters and others at
the World Trade Center attacks typical of people in 14.8: Psychological Coping Strategies 565
other stressful situations? And what factors explain 14.8.1: Defending Versus Coping 565
individual differences in our physical and 14.8.2: Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused
psychological responses to stress? 536 Coping 565
14.8.3: Cognitive Restructuring 566
Key Question: What Causes Distress? 538
14.8.4: Positive Emotions 567
14.1: Traumatic Stressors 539
14.8.5: Finding Meaning 567
14.1.1: Catastrophe 539
14.8.6: Psychological Debriefing: Help
14.1.2: Personal Loss 541 or Hindrance? 568
14.1.3: Posttraumatic Stress 543 14.9: Positive Lifestyle Choices: A “Two-for-One”
14.2: Chronic Stressors 545 Benefit to Your Health 569
14.2.1: Societal Stressors 545 14.9.1: Social Support 569
14.2.2: Burnout 546 14.9.2: Nutrition and Diet 570
14.2.3: Compassion Fatigue 547 14.9.3: Sleep and Meditation 571
14.2.4: Major Life Events 548 14.9.4: The Power of Exercise: Enhancing
Do It Yourself! The Undergraduate Stress Physical and Mental Health 571
Questionnaire: How Stressed Are You? 548 14.10: Putting It All Together: Developing Happiness
14.2.5: Daily Hassles 548 and Subjective Well-Being 573
Psychology Matters: Student Stress 549 Psychology Matters: Behavioral Medicine and
Health Psychology 575
Key Question: How Does Stress Affect Us
Critical Thinking Applied: Is Change Really
Physically? 550
Hazardous to Your Health? 577
14.3: Physiological Responses to Stress 551
Summary: From Stress to Health and Well-Being 578
14.3.1: The Fight-or-Flight Response 551
Glossary 582
14.3.2: The General Adaptation Syndrome 551
14.3.3: Tend and Befriend 554 References 604
14.4: Stress and the Immune System 555 Credits 671
14.4.1: Psycho-neuroimmunology 555
Name Index 677
14.4.2: Bi-directional Links Between the Brain
and Body 555 Subject Index 690
This page intentionally left blank
To the Student …
T Key Question: Why Does
here is one simple formula for academic suc-
cess, and the following demonstration will show
seconds:
you what it is. Study this array of letters for a few
IBMUFOFBILOL
Now, without peeking, write down as many of the letters
as you can (in the correct order).
Most people remember about five to seven letters cor-
rectly. A few people get them all. How do these exceptional
few do it? They find a pattern. (You may have noticed
some familiar initials in the array above: IBM, UFO, FBI,
LOL.) Finding the pattern greatly eases the task because
you can draw on material that is already stored in mem-
ory. In this case, all that needs to be remembered are four
“chunks” of information instead of 12 unrelated letters.
The same principle applies to material you study for
your psychology class. If you try to remember each piece
of information as a separate item, you will have a difficult
time. But if instead you look for patterns, you will find
your task greatly simplified—and much more enjoyable.
Using Psychology to Learn
Psychology
So, how can you identify the patterns? Your friendly
authors have developed several learning features that will
make meaningful patterns in the text stand out clearly:
Core Concepts  We have organized each major sec-
tion of every chapter around a single big idea called a Core
Concept. For example, one of the four Core Concepts in
Chapter 5, Memory, says:
Core Concept
Human memory is an information-processing system
that works constructively to encode, store, and retrieve
information.
The Core Concept, then, becomes the central theme
around which about 10 pages of material—including sev-
eral new terms—are organized. As you read each chapter,
keeping the Core Concept in mind will help you encode
the new terms and ideas related to that concept, store
them in your memory, and later retrieve them when you
are being tested. To borrow an old saying, the Core Con-
cepts become the “forest,” while the details of the chapter
become the “trees.”
Key Questions Each Core Concept is introduced by a
Key Question that also serves as a main heading in the chap-
ter. Here, for example, is a Key Question from the Memory
chapter:
Memory Sometimes Fail
Us, and What Can We Do
About It?
Key Questions such as this will help you anticipate the
most important point, or the Core Concept, in the section.
In fact, the Core Concept always provides a brief answer to
the Key Question. Think of the Key Question as the high
beams on your car, helping you focus on what lies ahead.
Our Key Questions should also serve as guides for you in
posing questions of your own about what you are reading.
Both the Key Questions and the Core Concepts later
reappear as organizing features of the Chapter Summary.
Psychology Matters Psychology has many capti-
vating connections with events in the news and in every-
day life, and we have explored one of these connections
at the end of each major section in every chapter. To illus-
trate, here are some examples from the Memory chapter:
• Would You Want a “Photographic” Memory?
• “Flashbulb” Memories: Where Were You When … ?
• On the Tip of Your Tongue
Such connections—practical, down to earth, and fascinat-
ing—will help you link your study of psychology with
your real-life experiences. They will also help you critically
evaluate many of the psychological ideas you encounter in
the media—as when you see news stories that begin with
“psychological research shows that …” By the end of this
course, you will become a much wiser consumer of such
information. Some of these features have a special focus on
applying psychology to learning and studying, so students
gain practical tips on how to “Use Psychology to Learn
Psychology.”
Do It Yourself! Throughout the text we have scat-
tered active-learning demonstrations like the one in which
you were asked to memorize the letters I B M U F O F B I
L O L. Besides being fun, these activities have the serious
purpose of illustrating important principles discussed in
the text. In Chapter 5, for example, one Do It Yourself! box
helps you find the capacity of your short-term memory;
another lets you test your “photographic memory” ability.
Key Terms The most important terms appear in bold-
face, with their glossary definitions readily accessible
when you rollover the term. We list these terms again
in the Chapter Summary. Then, at the end of the text, a
xvii
xviii To the Student …
comprehensive glossary gathers together all the key terms
and definitions from each chapter in one easy-to-find
location.
Chapter Summaries We have written our Chap-
ter Summaries to provide you with an overview of main
points in each chapter—to help you preview and review
the chapter. The summaries are organized around the Key
Questions and Core Concepts introduced within the chap-
ter to facilitate review and mastery of chapter material. But
we offer one caution: Reading the Chapter Summary will
not substitute for reading the entire chapter! Here’s a help-
ful hint: We recommend that you read the summary before
you read the rest of the chapter to get a flavor of what’s
ahead, then reread the summary after you finish the chap-
ter. Reading the summary before will provide a framework
for the material so that it can be more easily encoded and
stored in your memory. And, naturally, reviewing the sum-
mary after reading the chapter will reinforce what you
have just learned so that you can retrieve it when needed
on an examination.
Thinking Like a Psychologist
Learning all the facts and definitions of psychology won’t
make you a psychologist. Beyond the facts, thinking like a
psychologist requires learning some problem-solving skills
and critical thinking techniques that any good psychologist
should possess. With this goal in mind, we have added
two unique features to this text.
Chapter-Opening Problems Each chapter begins
with an important problem that you will learn how to solve
with the tools you acquire in your reading. Examples of the
chapter-opening problems include testing the claim that
sweet treats give children a “sugar high,” evaluating claims
of recovered memories, and judging the extent to which the
people we call “geniuses” are different from the rest of us.
Critical Thinking Applied At the end of each
chapter, you will be asked to consider issues disputed
among psychologists and issues raised in the media, such
as the nature of the unconscious mind and the effects of
subliminal persuasion. Each of these issues requires a
skeptical attitude and the application of a special set of
critical thinking skills that we will introduce in Chapter 1.
We have one final suggestion to help you succeed in
psychology: This text is filled with examples to illustrate the
most important ideas, but you will remember these ideas
longer if you generate your own examples as you study. This
habit will make the information yours as well as ours. And so
we wish you a memorable journey through the field we love.
Phil Zimbardo
Bob Johnson
Vivian McCann
Revel™
Educational technology designed for the way today’s stu-
dents read, think, and learn
When students are engaged deeply, they learn more
effectively and perform better in their courses. This simple
fact inspired the creation of REVEL: an immersive learn-
ing experience designed for the way today’s students read,
think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and
students nationwide, REVEL is the newest, fully digital
way to deliver respected Pearson content.
REVEL enlivens course content with media inter-
actives and assessments — integrated directly within
the authors’ narrative — that provide opportunities for
students to read about and practice course material in
tandem. This immersive educational technology boosts
student engagement, which leads to better understand-
ing of concepts and improved performance throughout
the course.
Learn more about REVEL by going to www.pearson-
highered.com/revel
New To This Edition
The new Psychology: Core Concepts, 8th ed., comes in an
electronic format, available from the “cloud” both on
standard computers and mobile devices. The features
you know and love from the seven earlier editions are
all there: Key Questions, Core Concepts, the Chapter
Problem, Critical Thinking Applied, and an emphasis on
diversity and cross-cultural psychology—all presented
with an engaging writing style and clear examples of
every concept.
The new electronic format takes reader interactivity
with the material to a new level through videos, slide-
shows, an interactive virtual brain, and click-and-reveal
activities aimed to promote deeper thinking and analysis
of topics and concepts. Assessment activities are woven
into each section, and include brief “journaling” questions
and Shared Writing (a form of discussion board activity),
all carefully crafted to encourage and improve critical
thinking.
And, of course, the new edition introduces many
new and exciting developments in psychology. Examples
include the exploding field of epigenetics and its implica-
tions for development, health, and mental disorder; initia-
tives to develop brain-based alternatives to the DSM-5;
Bandura’s theory of moral disengagement to help explain
immoral acts; and the amazing power of mindset, discov-
ered by Carol Dweck. All the new material is linked with
one of psychology’s Core Concepts.
This edition of Psychology: Core Concepts is certainly
no perfunctory revision or slap-dash update. In addition
to our revolutionary new Revel format, here is a more

detailed, chapter-by-chapter look at the new material in
the 8th edition:
Chapter 1–Mind, Behavior, and Psychological Science
• The opportunities and ethical issues in using Social
Media Websites (SMWs) for research
• Applying Critical Thinking Guidelines to the issue of
whether childhood vaccinations cause autism
• Updated careers in psychology including environ-
mental psychology and geropsychology
Chapter 2–Biopsychology, Neuroscience, and Human
Nature
• Epigenetics, and how experiences change gene expres-
sion, including the effects of touch, exercise, nutrition,
and toxins on stress, health, and development
• New findings on plasticity, including the effects of
porn on the brain
• Traumatic brain injury and plasticity
• New research on the cerebellum’s important role in
cerebral functions, facilitating emotional, sensory, and
cognitive functioning – and possibly even involved in
schizophrenia
• The latest in brain implants
• Critically thinking about mirror neurons
Chapter 3–Sensation and Perception
• Understanding how Muller cells tunnel light through
the layers of the retina
• New research on pain
• Update on the psychology of hearing loss
• Update on the What and the Where pathways in the
brain
• Many new illustrations and illusions
Chapter 4–Learning and Human Nurture
• Expanded coverage of classical conditioning in adver-
tising, including humor, product placement, celebrity
endorsement, and evaluative conditioning
• Classical conditioning techniques applied to wildlife
management and conservation
• Expanded section on use of token economies in all lev-
els of education, from kindergarten to college, as well
as home and clinical uses
• An update on media and video-game violence
• New information and examples of social learning in
the animal world
• Applications of social learning theory to solve social prob-
lems (family planning, HIV awareness, adult literacy, etc.)
• New findings examining how social interactions pro-
mote political actions.
To the Student … xix
Chapter 5–Memory
• Chapter re-worked to emphasize application to study
strategies and students’ lives throughout
• The biological basis of transience – how remembering
can actually cause forgetting
• New research demonstrating that prospective memory
accounts for half of memory loss, including strategies
for overcoming this problem
• The neuroscience of PTSD and memory
Chapter 6–Thinking and Intelligence
• Use of analogies in engineering and marketing
• New examples of functional fixedness, mental set,
hindsight bias, and anchoring
• Nobel-laureate Daniel Kahneman’s 2-stage theory of
thinking
• Updated section on creativity, including Shelley Car-
son’s work on the minds of highly creative people
• New findings on intelligence, including changes in the
Flynn Effect
• The DSM-V and Intellectual Disability
• Theory of mind in animals
• The effects of poverty and nutrition on neural
development
• Carol Dweck’s work on fixed vs. growth mindsets
• The newest findings on stereotype threat and perfor-
mance, including interventions
• Do brain training programs like Lumosity really work?
What the research reveals
Chapter 7–Development Over the Lifespan
• The latest research on neural development in early life,
including plasticity, pruning and possible connection
to autism, and sensitive periods
• Oxytocin in infant massage and optimal development
• Effects of poverty and nutrition on development
• Updated and expanded section on ADHD, including a
positive viewpoint on ADHD
• Updated research on body image and sexuality in ado-
lescence
• Bandura’s theory of moral disengagement, and its
application to understanding immoral actions, includ-
ing bullying and cyberbullying
• Zimbardo’s work on the Demise of Guys – challenges
young men are experiencing in the 21st century
• The sexualization of girls
Chapter 8–States of Consciousness
• The newest research on patients’ awareness during
coma and persistent vegetative states, and what family
xx To the Student …
and medical professionals can do to help a person
recover from this state
• Updated section on the default network in daydreaming
• Revised and updated section on dreaming, including
the latest research on dreaming and memory, as well
as cultural perspectives on dreaming
• The latest data on trends in drug use in teens and adults
• Medical uses of marijuana
Chapter 9–Motivation and Emotion
• How social and emotional learning enhances student
achievement
• The new psychology of pride
• Emotional influences on memory
• Update on the biopsychology and evolutionary psy-
chology of weight control and of sexuality
• Update on facial expressions of emotion
• Update on Walter Mischel and his “marshmallow test”
Chapter 10–Personality
• All major theories of personality organized around case
study of Mary Calkins, pioneering female psychologist
• Personality disorders introduced here (and revisited in
Disorders chapter)
• Understanding people who engage in unusual behav-
ior, such as mass murder
• Big Five traits related to US geography and Facebook
user styles
• Positivity as core of personality and well-being
• Updated presentation of the Myers-Briggs (MBTI)
• Existential approach to understanding personality,
and logo therapy
• Updated research on Hardiness and grit
• Time Perspectives as a personality style
• Adverse economic conditions, like unemployment,
impact personality functioning
• Role of contexualism in understanding cultural shap-
ing of personality
• Uniqueness of individual personality–much like fin-
gerprints and snowflakes
Chapter 11–Social Psychology
• New Hollywood movies on Milgram’s research, Exper-
imenter, 2015, and Zimbardo’s prison study, The Stan-
ford Prison Experiment, 2015.
• Heroic defiance of evil situations, with powerful
examples.
• Updated examples of Milgram obedience study power
effects and recent real world instances.
• Expanded section on dehumanization and its role in
recent genocides.
• Implicit racial bias in criminal sentencing.
• Expanded treatment of system power.
• Expanded, updated treatment of bullying.
• Expanded, updated treatment of terrorism.
• Social pain from various sources is comparable to
physical pain.
Chapter 12–Psychological Disorders
• Just as the new DSM-5 comes out, the NIMH and other
powerful groups are re-conceptualizing mental disor-
ders along the lines suggested by brain research
• Epigenetics plays a role in mental disorder
• Hallucinations are influenced by culture: The voices
can be comforting for some
• Has a biological marker for schizophrenia been found
at last?
• Autism may reflect a failure to “prune” synapses in
the first few years of life
Chapter 13–Therapies for Psychological Disorders
• New, nontraditional therapies: teletherapy, exercise,
and culturally adapted therapies
• Reasons for the increased use of biomedical therapies
• Ethical debate: Use of memory-numbing drugs for
PTSD and for soldiers in combat
• Update on evidence-based practice
• Update on electro-convulsive therapy
Chapter 14–Stress, Health, & Well-Being
• Social rejection, being shunned as “silent bullying”,
with personal account by Zimbardo
• PTSD, new research on neurobiological effects of blast
exposure, as well as effective treatment with time per-
spective therapy
• Negative effects of growing up in poverty on brain
functioning
• Expanded and updated section on burnout and job
stress
• Frankel’s search for meaning in existence
• The power of physical exercise in mental and physical
health
• The failure of national health promotion campaigns
• Happiness research and personal applications
A Note of Thanks
Nobody ever realizes the magnitude of the task when
taking on a textbook-writing project – a process that
grew exponentially this edition with our transition to the
digital format. Pearson Content Manager Carly Czech
superbly reigned over the process, gracefully managing

to balance a big-picture view of scheduling and work-
flow with careful attention to the details of each chapter
and the text as a whole, while keeping the entire team
on track and supported at every turn and ensuring that
our text meets our many mutual goals. Project Manager
Mickey Mankus deftly guided (and prodded) us through
this process, providing timely reminders and friendly
encouragement when deadlines loomed. The keen eye
of Developmental Editor Julie Kelly helped ensure that
our narrative remained tight and student-friendly, and
Julie also juggled the multiple movements of each chap-
ter between the authors and many other members of our
team, somehow keeping track of it all. The vision of the
eighth edition blossomed into reality under the skillful
guidance of Rashida Patel and Shobhita Tripathi, our
brilliant Instructional Designers, who has made this new
edition a learning package that we had previously only
dreamed of.
The job of making the manuscript into the dual offer-
ing of both a digital product and a printed textbook fell to
Production Project Manager Megha Bhardwaj and Kristin
Landon, our copyeditor. We think they did an outstanding
job—as did our tireless photo researcher, Jen Simmons.
We are sure that none of the above would be offended
if we reserve our deepest thanks for our spouses, closest
colleagues, and friends who inspired us, gave us the caring
support we needed, and served as sounding boards for our
ideas. Phil thanks his wonderful wife, Christina Maslach,
for her endless inspiration and for modeling what is best
in academic psychology. He has recently passed a mile-
stone of 50 years of teaching the introductory psychology
course, from seminar size to huge lectures to more than
1,000 students. Phil continues to give lectures and col-
loquia to college and high school groups throughout the
country and overseas. He still gets a rush from lecturing
and from turning students on to the joys and fascination
of psychology. His new “psych rock star” status comes
mostly from generations of students who have grown up
watching him perform on the Discovering Psychology video
series in their high school and college psychology courses.
Bob is grateful to his spouse, best friend, and best edi-
tor Michelle, who has for years put up with his rants on
topics psychological, his undone household chores, and
much gratification delayed—mostly without complaint.
She has been a wellspring of understanding and loving
support and the most helpful of reviewers. His thanks,
too, go to Rebecca, their daughter, who has taught him the
practical side of developmental psychology—and now,
much to her own astonishment and an undergraduate
lapse into sociology, possesses her own graduate degree
in psychology. In addition, he is indebted to many friends,
most of whom are not psychologists but who are never-
theless always eager to raise and debate interesting issues
To the Student … xxi
about the applications of psychology to everyday life.
Readers will find topics they have raised throughout the
text and especially in the chapter-opening “problems” and
in the critical thinking sections at the end of each chapter.
Vivian’s thanks go first to her husband, Shawn for
his love , support, and impish humor in times of stress.
Writing two books at the same time - while still teach-
ing full-time – turned out to be a challenge beyond our
wildest dreams (or nightmares), and Shawn and their
son Blaze graciously endured months of wondering if
Vivian would ever emerge from her office! They pitched
in like the champs they are, though, keeping the house-
hold chores done, finding ways to amuse and occupy
themselves and our dogs, and suffering through way too
much fast food. Vivian also appreciates the many stu-
dents, friends, and colleagues who have both encouraged
and challenged her over the years, along with Executive
Editor Stephen Frail for first suggesting that she join the
author team of Phil Zimbardo and Bob Johnson. Many
psychological experts and expert teachers of introduc-
tory psychology also shared their constructive criticism
with us on every chapter and feature of the eighth edi-
tion of this text: Chris Brill, Old Dominion Univer-
sity; Allison Buskirk, Cohen, Delaware Valley College;
Christie Chung, Mills College; Elizabeth Curtis, Long
Beach City College; Linda DeKruif, Fresno City College;
Carrie E. Hall, Miami University; Jeremy Heider, Stephen
F. Austin State University; Brian Littleton, Kalamazoo
Valley Community College; Lillian McMaster, Hudson
County Community College; Nancy Melucci, Long Beach
City College; Jared Montoya, The University of Texas at
Brownsville; Suzanne Morrow, Old Dominion Univer-
sity; Katy Neidhardt, Cuesta Community College; Donna
Nelson, Winthrop University; Barbara Nova, Dominican
University of California; Karl Oyster, Tidewater Commu-
nity College; Sylvia Robb, Hudson County Community
College; Hildur Schilling, Fitchburg State College; Hilary
Stebbins, Virginia Wesleyan College; Doris Van Auken,
Holy Cross College
We also thank the reviewers of the previous editions
of Psychology: Core Concepts and hope that they will recog-
nize their valued input in all that is good in this text.
Finally, we offer our thanks to all of the colleagues
whose feedback has improved our book. Thanks also to all
instructors of this most-difficult-to-teach course for taking
on the pedagogical challenge and conveying to students
their passion about the joys and relevance of psychological
science and practice.
If you have any recommendations of your own
that we should not overlook for the next edition,
please write to us! Address your comments to our Face-
book page: https://www.facebook.com/Psychology-
Core-Concepts-214526791978469/.
This page intentionally left blank
About the Authors
Philip Zimbardo, PhD, Stanford University professor, has
been teaching the introductory psychology course for 50
years and has been writing the basic text for this course,
as well as the faculty guides and student workbooks, for
the past 35 years. In addition, he has helped to develop
and update the PBS-TV series, Discovering Psychology,
which is used in many high school and university courses
both nationally and internationally. He has been called
“The Face and Voice of Psychology” because of this pop-
ular series and his other media presentations. Phil also
loves to conduct and publish research on a wide variety of
subjects, as well as teach and engage in public and social
service activities. He has published more than 400 pro-
fessional and popular articles and chapters, including 50
books of all kinds. He recently published a trade book on
the psychology of evil, The Lucifer Effect, that relates his
classic Stanford Prison Experiment to the abuses at Iraq’s
Abu Ghraib Prison. In addition, Phil is delighted by the
new Hollywood movie, The Stanford Prison Experiment
(2105) on which he actively consulted. His newest books
are The Time Paradox, and The Time Cure, but his new
passion is helping to create wise and effective everyday
heroes as part of his Heroic Imagination Project. Please
see these websites for more information: www.zimbardo.
com; www.prisonexp.org; www.PsychologyMatters.org;
www.theTimeParadox.com; www.LuciferEffect.com;
www.HeroicImagination.org.
Robert Johnson, PhD, taught introductory psychology for
28 years at Umpqua Community College. He acquired an
interest in cross-cultural psychology during a Fulbright sum-
mer in Thailand, followed by many more trips abroad to
Japan, Korea, Latin America, Britain, and, most recently, to
Indonesia. Currently, he is working on a book on the psy-
chology in Shakespeare. Bob is especially interested in apply-
ing psychological principles to the teaching of psychology
and in encouraging linkages between psychology and other
disciplines. In keeping with those interests, he founded the
Pacific Northwest Great Teachers Seminar, of which he was
the director for 20 years. Bob was also one of the founders
of Psychology Teachers at Community Colleges (PT@CC),
serving as its executive committee chair during 2004. That
same year, he also received the Two-Year College Teaching
Award given by the Society for the Teaching of Psychology.
Bob has long been active in APA, APS, the Western Psycho-
logical Association, and the Council of Teachers of Under-
graduate Psychology.
Vivian McCann, a senior faculty member in psychology at
Portland Community College in Portland, Oregon, teaches
a wide variety of courses, including introductory psychol-
ogy, human relations, intimate relationships, personality,
and social psychology. Born and raised in the California
desert just 10 miles from the Mexican border, she quickly
learned the importance of understanding cultural back-
grounds and values in effective communication, which
laid the foundation for her lifelong interest in teaching and
learning psychology from diverse cultural perspectives.
Vivian loves to explore new cultures through travel, and
to nurture the same interests in her students. She has led
groups of her students on four trips abroad, and in her
own travels has visited 35 countries so far. Her most recent
adventure took her to Africa for four months, where she
volunteered with women in Tanzania, worked with ele-
phants and endangered rhinos in Zimbabwe, and trekked
into the mountains of Rwanda to observe gorillas in the
wild. Vivian maintains a strong commitment to teaching
excellence and has developed and taught numerous work-
shops in that area. She has served on the APA’s executive
committee for Psychology Teachers at Community Col-
leges (PT@CC) and is an active member of the Western
Psychological Association and APS. She is also the author
of Human Relations: The Art and Science of Building Effective
Relationships. Her most recent passion involves working
with The Heroic Imagination Project, a non-profit organi-
zation dedicated to teaching people of all ages to stand up,
speak out, and develop their own inner heroes in pursuit
of a more compassionate world.
xxiii
This page intentionally left blank
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
regarded in the light of a leader, since his decision seems to have
been esteemed by them as a sort of law; and the perfect
acquiescence of even the most troublesome in the course which he
recommended, is a proof of his predominant influence. The tone and
style of the address itself, also imply that the speaker thought he had
good reason to believe that others were looking to him in particular,
for the decision which should regulate their opinions on this doubtful
question. After Simon Peter, as the great chief of the apostles, had
first expressed his opinion on the question under discussion, and
had referred to his own inspired divine revelations of the will of God
in respect to the Gentiles, Paul and Barnabas next gave a full
account of their operations, and of the signs and wonders with which
God had followed their labors.

After the full exposition made by Paul and Barnabas, of all their
conduct, James arose to make his reply in behalf of the close
adherents of Mosaic forms, and said, “Men and brethren! listen to
me. Simeon has set forth in what manner God did first condescend
to take from the heathen a people for his name. And with this, all the
words of the prophets harmonize, as it is written, ‘After these things I
will turn back, and will rebuild the fallen tabernacle of David; I will
both rebuild its ruins and erect it again, in order that the rest of
mankind may seek out the Lord, together with all the heathen who
are called by my name, saith the Lord who made all things.’ ‘Well
known to God are all his works from eternity.’ So I think that we
ought not to make trouble for those who have turned from the
heathen, to God; but that we should direct them to refrain from things
that have been offered unto idols, and from fornication, and from
what has been strangled, and from blood. For Moses has, from
ancient generations, in these cities, those who make him
known,――his law being read every sabbath day.” This opinion,
formed and delivered in a truly Christian spirit of compromise, seems
to have had the effect of a permanent decision; and the great leader
of the rigid Judaizers, having thus renounced all opposition to the
adoption of the converted heathen into full and open Christian
communion, though without the seals of the Mosaic covenant,――all
those who had originated this vexatious question, ceased their
attempts to distract the harmony of the apostles; and the united
opinions of the great apostolic chief, who had first opened the gates
of Christ’s kingdom to the heathen, and of the eminent defender of
Mosaic forms, so silenced all discussion, that thenceforth these
opinions, thus fully expressed, became the common law of the
Christian churches, throughout the world, in all ages.

This address of James (Acts xv. 13‒21.) may justly be pronounced the most obscure
passage of all that can be found in the New Testament, of equal length,――almost every
verse in it containing some point, which has been made the subject of some dispute.
Schoettgen (quoted by Bloomfield,) thus analyzes this discourse:――“It consists of three
parts;――the Exordium, (verse 13,) in which the speaker uses a form of expression
calculated to secure the good-will of his auditors;――the Statement, (verses 16‒18,)
containing also a confirmation of it from the prophets, and the reason;――the Proposition,
(verses 19‒20,) that the Gentiles are not to be compelled to Judaism, but are only to
abstain from certain things particularly offensive to the spirit of the Mosaic institutions.”

Simeon. (verse 14.) This peculiar form of Peter’s first name, has led some to suppose
that he could not be the person meant, since he is mentioned in all other narratives by the
name of Simon. Wolf imagines that Simon Zelotes must have been the person thus
distinguished, though all the difficulties are the same in his case as in Peter’s. But Simeon
(Συμεων) and Simon are the same name, the latter being only an abridged form, better
suited to the inflections of the Greek than the former.――This preference of the full Hebrew
form was doubtless meant to be characteristic of James, who seems to have been in
general very zealous for ancient Jewish usages in all things.

Has condescended to take. Common translation: “did visit them to take,” &c. This much
clearer translation is justified by the meaning which Bretschneider has given to επισκεπτομαι,
benigne voluit, &c., for which he quotes the Greek of the Alexandrian version.

Harmonize. (verse 15.) The original (συμφωνοῦσιν) refers in the same manner as this
word does to the primary idea of accordance in sound, (symphony,) and thence by a
metonymy is applied to agreement in general. The passage of prophecy is quoted by James
from Amos ix. 11, 12, and accords, in the construction which he puts upon it, much better
with the Alexandrian Greek version, than with the original Hebrew or the common
translations. The prophet (as Kuinoel observes) is describing the felicity of the golden age,
and declares that the Jews will subdue their enemies and all nations, and that all will
worship Jehovah. Now this, James accomodates to the present purpose, and applies to the
propagation of the gospel among the Gentiles, and their reception into the Christian
community. (See Rosenmueller, Acts, xv. 17, for a very full exegesis of this passage.)

Well known to God are all his works. These words have been made the subject of a
great deal of inquiry among commentators, who have found some difficulties in ascertaining
their connection with the preceding part of the discourse. Various new and unauthorized
renderings of the words have been proposed, but have been generally rejected. It seems to
me that the force of the passage is considerably illustrated by throwing the whole emphasis
of the sentence upon the word “all,”――“Known unto God are all his works from the
beginning of ages.” James is arguing on the equal and impartial grace of God, as extended
not only to the Jews, but also to the Gentiles;――not to one nation merely, but to all his
creatures. “Thus saith the Lord who makes (or does) all things.” The original Hebrew of the
prophecy indeed, does not contain this, but that is itself a circumstance which shows that
James had a particular object in this ♦ accommodation of the words to this form and
purpose.

♦ “accomodation” replaced with “accommodation”

So I think, &c. (verse 19.) Hammond and others have attempted to find in the original of
this verb (κρινω) a peculiar force, implying that James announced his decision with a kind of
judicial emphasis, in the character of “Bishop of Jerusalem.” The groundlessness of this
translation is shown by Bloomfield’s numerous references to classical authority for the
simple meaning of “think.” The difficulties in the twentieth verse are so numerous and
weighty, and have been made the subject of such protracted and minute discussions by all
the great commentators, that it would be vain to attempt any account of them here.

The great eminence of James among the apostles is very fully

shown in several incidental allusions made to him in other passages
of the apostolic writings. Thus when Peter, after his miraculous
release from prison, came to the house of Mary the mother of John
Mark, he, at departing from the Christians there assembled, told
them to tell James and the brethren; implying, of course, that James
was altogether the most prominent person among them, and might
justly be considered chief apostle in the absence of Peter; and that
to him any message intended for all, might be appropriately first
addressed. In the same way did the angel, at the resurrection of
Jesus, distinguish Peter among all the apostles, mentioning him
alone by name, as the individual person to whom the divine
message was to be delivered.

But no where is his eminence among the apostles so strongly

marked, as in Paul’s account of his own visits to Jerusalem, and the
incidents connected with them. He there mentions “James, the
brother of our Lord,” in such terms as to show that he must have
been one of the apostles; thus adding a valuable confirmation to the
testimony above adduced in favor of this very point, that James, the
brother of Jesus, was an apostle. Paul’s words are, “Other of the
apostles, (besides Peter,) saw I none, except James, the Lord’s
brother;” an expression which all analogy requires to be construed
into a clear assertion that this James was an apostle. In speaking of
his second visit, fourteen years after, Paul also bears a noble
testimony to the eminence of James, and, what is remarkable, gives
him the very first place among those three whom he mentions by
name. He says, “When James, Cephas, and John, who seemed to
be pillars, perceived the grace that was given to me, they gave to me
and Barnabas the right hand of fellowship.” This very peculiar
arrangement of these three great names, has seemed so strange to
the more stubborn Papists, that they can not believe that the Cephas
here mentioned in the second place, is their great idol, Peter; and
many of them have maintained, in long arguments, that he was not
Peter,――a notion which might seem plausible at first glance, from
the circumstance, that throughout his whole narrative, Paul has been
speaking of Peter by the common Greek form of his surname, while
in this particular passage, he uses the original Hebrew word,
Cephas. But this verbal change is of no consequence whatever,
except as showing that in this connection there was something which
suggested a preference of the Hebrew name, while mentioning him
along with the two other great apostolic chiefs, James and John. And
even this very peculiar promotion of James to the first place, is easily
explained by a consideration of the subject in connection with which
these personages are mentioned. James was unquestionably the
great leader of the sticklers for Mosaic forms; and he is therefore the
most important person to be quoted in reference to Paul’s reception,
while the dissensions about circumcision were raging. Peter, on the
other hand, being himself the great champion of open Gentile
communion, from his having been himself the first of all men to bring
them under the gospel, was, of course, understood to be a favorer of
Paul’s views, of the noble catholic extension of Christianity; and his
name was therefore of really less importance in Paul’s statement,
than the name of James, who was everywhere known as the head of
the circumcision party, and being mentioned as having shown such
respect to Paul, would make it evident that the two Hellenist apostles
were taken into favor by all parties, and heartily commended to the
great work of evangelizing the heathen.
 The especially watchful zeal of James, for the preservation of
Mosaic forms, is very distinctly implied in another passage of the
same epistle. He had, in a nobly considerate spirit of compromise,
agreed that it was best to receive all the Gentile converts as
Christian brethren, though they conformed only very partially to the
Mosaic institutions. It was perfectly a matter of common sense, to
every reasonable man, that the progress of the gospel would be
greatly hindered, and almost brought to a stand, among the heathen,
if a minute adherence to all the corporeal observances of the
Levitical code, were required for Christian communion; and James,
though profoundly reverencing all the requirements of his national
religion, was too wise to think of imposing all these rituals upon
those whose whole habits would be at war with the observance of
them, though in heart and in life they might be fully fitted to
appreciate and enjoy the blessings of Christ’s spiritual covenant. He
therefore distinctly expressed his accordance with Peter, in these
general principles of Christian policy, yet, as subsequent events
show, he was by no means disposed to go to all lengths with the
more zealous chief of the apostles, in his readiness to renounce, in
his own person, all the peculiarities of Jewish habits; and seems to
have still maintained the opinion, that the original, pure Hebrew
apostles, should live in the most scrupulous observance of their
religious exclusiveness, towards those whom the Levitical law would
pronounce unclean, and too much polluted with various defilements,
to be the familiar associates of a truly religious Jew. This sentiment
of James appears to have been well known to Peter, who, conscious
of the peculiar rigidity of his great apostolic associate, on these
points, wisely sought to avoid all occasions of needlessly exciting
complaints and dissensions among the chief ministers of the word of
truth. For this reason, as has already been narrated in his life, when
he was at Antioch, though during the first part of his residence there,
he had, without the slightest scruple, gone familiarly and frequently
into the company of the unbelieving Gentiles, eating and drinking
with them, without regard to any liability to corporeal pollutions, that
were against the rules of Levitical purity,――yet when some persons
came down from ♦ Jerusalem, from James, he entirely withdrew
himself, all at once, within the strict bounds of Mosaic observances.
Perhaps these visitors from James had been specially instructed by
him to note the demeanor of Peter, and to see whether, in his zeal
for removing all obstruction out of the way of the Gentile converts, he
might not forget what was due to his own character as a descendant
of Abraham, and a disciple of him who so faithfully fulfilled all the
righteousness of the law. However this might be, Peter’s actions
plainly expressed some dread of offending James, and those who
came from him; else he certainly would not have refrained, in this
remarkable manner, from a course of conduct, which he had before
followed unhesitatingly, as though he had not the slightest doubt of
its perfect moral propriety; and the conclusion is reasonable, that he
now changed his demeanor, only from views of expediency, and a
regard to the jealous sensitiveness of his great associate, on points
of Levitical law.

♦ “Jerasalem” replaced with “Jerusalem”

his apostolic office.

From these and other passages, implying a great eminence of

James in the direction of the plans of evangelization, it is evident,
that, in the absence of Peter, he must have been the most important
person among the apostles at Jerusalem; and after the permanent
removal of the commissioned apostolic chief, to other and wider
fields of action, his rank, as principal person among all the ministers
of Christ in Jerusalem, must have been very decidedly established.
From this circumstance has originated the notion that he was “bishop
of Jerusalem;” and this is the title with which the later Fathers have
attempted to decorate him,――as if any honor whatever could be
conferred on an apostle, by giving him the title of a set of inferior
ministers appointed by the original commissioned preachers of
Christ, to be merely their substitutes in the instruction and
management of those numerous churches which could not be
blessed by the presence of an apostle, and to be their successors in
the supreme earthly administration of the affairs of the Christian
community, when the great founders had all been removed from their
labors, to their rest. How nearly the duties performed by James
corresponded to the modern episcopal function, it is utterly
impossible to say, for the simple reason that not the slightest record
of his actions is left, to which references can be made, on this
interesting question. That he was the most eminent of the apostles
resident at Jerusalem, is quite clear; and that by him, under these
circumstances, were performed the great proportion of the pastoral
duties among the believers in that city, may be most justly supposed;
and his influence over Christian converts would by no means be
limited by the walls of the Holy city. In his apostolic functions, he, of
course, became known to all resorting to that place; and his faithful
and eminent ministry in the capital of the Jewish religion would
extend not only his fame, but the circle of his personal
acquaintances, throughout all parts of the world, from which pilgrims
came to the great annual festivals in Jerusalem. His immense
apostolic diocese, therefore, could not be very easily bounded, nor
was it defined with any exactness, to prevent it from running into the
limits of those divisions of the fields of duty, in which Peter, Paul,
John and others, had been more especially laboring. His influence
among the Jews in general, (whether believers in Christ or not,)
would, from various accounts, appear to have been greater than that
of any other apostle; and this, combined with the circumstances of
his location, would seem to entitle him very fairly to the rank and
character of the apostle of the “Dispersion.” This was a term
transferred from the abstract to the concrete sense, and was applied
in a collective meaning to the great body of Jews in all parts of the
world, through which they were scattered by chance, choice, or
necessity.

Bishop of Jerusalem. The first application of this title to James, that appears on record,
is in Eusebius, who quotes the still older authority of Clemens Alexandrinus. (Church
History, II. 1.) The words of Eusebius are, “Then James, who was called the brother of our
Lord, because he was the son of Joseph, and whom, on account of his eminent virtue,
those of ancient times surnamed the Just, is said to have first held the chair of the bishopric
of Jerusalem. Clemens, in the sixth book of his Institutes, distinctly confirms this. For he
says that ‘after the Saviour’s ascension, although the Lord had given to Peter, James, and
John, a rank before all the rest, yet they did not therefore contend among themselves for
the first distinction, but chose James the Just, to be bishop of Jerusalem.’ And the same
writer, in the seventh book of the same work, says these things of him, besides: ‘To James
the Just, and John, and Peter, did the Lord, after the resurrection, grant the knowledge, [the
gnosis, or knowledge of mysteries,] and these imparted it to the other disciples.’”

In judging of the combined testimony of these two ancient writers, it should be observed
that it is not by any means so ancient and direct as that of Polycrates, on the identity of
Philip the apostle, and Philip the deacon, which these very Fathers quote with assent. Nor
can their opinion be worth any more in this case than in the other. On no point, where a
knowledge of the New Testament, and a sound judgment are the only guides, can the
testimony of the Fathers be considered of any value whatever; for the most learned of them
betray a disgraceful ignorance of the Bible in their writings; nor can the most acute of them
compare, for sense and judgment, with the most ordinary of modern commentators. The
whole course of Patristic theology affords abundant instances of the very low powers of
these writers, for the discrimination of truth and falsehood. The science of historical criticism
had no existence among them――nor indeed is there any reason why they should be
considered persons of any historical authority, except so far as they can refer directly to the
original sources, and to the persons immediately concerned in the events which they
record. On all matters of less unexceptionable authority, where their testimony does not
happen to contradict known truth or common sense, all that can be said in their favor, is,
that the thing thus reported is not improbable; but all supplements to the accounts given in
the New Testament, unless they refer directly to eye-witnesses, may be pronounced very
suspicious and wholly uncertain. In this case, Eusebius’s opinion that James, the brother of
our Lord was the son of Joseph, is worth no more than that of the latest commentator;
because he had no more historical aids than the writers of these days. Nor is the story of
Clemens, that James was bishop of Jerusalem, worth any more; because he does not refer
to any historical evidence.

his epistle.

Noticing some peculiar circumstances in the condition of his

countrymen, throughout this wide dispersion, the apostle addressed
to them a written exhortation, suited to their spiritual necessities. In
the opening, he announces himself simply by the title of “James, the
servant of Jesus Christ,” not choosing to ground any claim for their
respect or obedience on the accidents of birth or relationship, but on
the mere character of one devoted to the cause of Christ for life and
for death,――and entitled, by the peculiar commission of his Lord, to
teach and direct his followers in his name. In consequence of this
omission of the circumstance of relationship, a query has been even
raised whether the author of this epistle could really be the same
person as the brother of Jesus. But a trifle of this kind can never be
allowed to have any weight in the decision of such a question. He
directs himself, in general terms, to all the objects of his extended
apostolic charge;――“to the twelve tribes that are in the Dispersion.”

A brief review of the contents of the epistle will furnish the best
means of ascertaining its scope and immediate object, and will also
afford just ground for tracing the connection, between the design of
the apostle and the remarkable events in the history of those times,
which are recorded by the other writers of that age. He first urges
them to persevere in faith, without wavering or sinking under all the
peculiar difficulties then pressing on them; and refers them to God as
the source of that wisdom which they need for their direction. From
him alone, all good proceeds; but no sin, nor temptations to sin. The
cause of that, lies in man himself: let him not then blasphemously
ascribe his evil dispositions nor the occasions of their development,
to God; but seeking wisdom and strength from above, let him resist
the tempter:――blessed is the man that thus endures and
withstands the trial. He next points out to them the utter
worthlessness of all the distinctions of rank and wealth among those
professing the faith of Jesus. Such base respect of persons on the
score of accidental worldly advantages, is denounced, as being
foreign to the spirit of Christianity. True religion requires something
more than a profession of faith; its substance and its signs are the
energetic and constant practice of virtuous actions, and it allows no
dispensations or excuses to any one. He next dwells especially on
the high responsibilities of those who assume the office of teaching.
The tongue requires a most watchful restraint, lest passion or haste
pervert the advantages of eminence and influence, into the base
instruments of human wrath. The true manifestations of religious
knowledge and zeal, must be in a spirit of gentleness, forbearance,
and love,――not in the expressions of hatred, nor in cursing. But of
this pure, heavenly spirit, their late conduct had shown them to be
lamentably destitute. Strifes, tumults, and bitter denunciations, had
betrayed their un-Christian character. They needed therefore, to
humbly seek this meek spirit from God, and not proudly to assume
the prerogatives of judgment and condemnation, which belonged to
Him alone. His condemnation was indeed about to fall on their
country. With most peculiar ruin would it light on those now reveling
in their ill-gotten riches, and rejoicing in the vain hope of a perpetual
prosperity. But let the faithful persevere, cheered by the memory of
the bright examples of the suffering pious of other days, and by the
hope of the coming of their Lord, whose appearance in glory and
judgment, would soon crown their fervent prayers. Meanwhile,
supported by this assurance, let them continue in a virtuous course,
watching even their words, visiting the sick in charity and mercy, and
all exhorting and instructing each other in the right way.

The peculiar difficulties of the times here referred to, are――a

state of bloody intestine commotion, disturbing the peace of society,
and desolating the land with hatred, contention and murder;――a
great inequality of condition, in respect to property,――some
amassing vast wealth by extortion, and abusing the powers and
privileges thereby afforded, to the purposes of
tyranny,――condemning and killing the just;――a perversion of laws
for the gratification of private spite;――and everywhere a great
occasion for good men to exercise patience and faith, relying upon
God alone, for the relief of the community from its desperate
calamities. But a prospect was already presented of a consummation
of these distracting troubles, in the utter ruin of the wicked; a change
in the condition of things was about to occur, which would bring
poverty and distress upon the haughty oppressors, who had heaped
treasure together only for the last days. The brethren therefore, had
but a little time to wait for the coming of the Lord. Both of these two
latter expressions point very clearly at the destruction of
Jerusalem,――for this is the uniform reference which these terms
had, in those days, among the Christians. Jesus had promised his
chosen disciples, that their generation should not pass away, till all
those awful calamities which he denounced on the Jewish state,
should be fulfilled; and for this event all his suffering followers were
now looking, as the seal of the truth of Christ’s word. Searching in
the history of the times, a few years previous to that final desolation,
it is found in the testimony of impartial writers, that these were the
too faithful details of the evils which then raged in Palestine. “For,
under Felix, and again under Portius Festus, desperate patriots
marched through the country, in whole bodies, and forcibly tore away
with them the inhabitants of open places, and if they would not follow
them, set fire to the villages, and enacted bloody scenes. They even
made their appearance in the capital and at the feasts, where they
mixed among the crowd of people, and committed many secret
assassinations with concealed weapons. As to that which regards
the external circumstances and the civil condition of the Jews and
Jewish Christians, they were far from being agreeable. The praetors,
under all manner of pretexts, made extortions, and abused their legal
authority for the sake of enriching themselves; a person was obliged
to purchase with money his liberation from their prisons, as well as
his safety and his rights; he might even purchase a license to commit
crimes. In this state, under these circumstances, and in this degree
of civil disorder, the author might probably have regarded his
countrymen; for, although he wrote to the whole world, yet his native
land passed more immediately before his eyes.”
For the sources, and for the minuter proofs and illustrations of these views, see Hug’s
Introduction, as translated by Wait, Vol. II. §§ 148‒159.

In the immediate consideration of all these present iniquities and

coming desolations, he wrote to prepare the believing Jews, in
Palestine more particularly, but also throughout the world, for the
overwhelming consummation of their nation’s destiny. Terrible as
would be this doom, to the wicked, and mournful as would be these
national desolations, to all, the righteous should find consolations in
the peaceful establishment of the spiritual kingdom of their Lord,
over the ruins of the dominion of his murderers,――of those who
had “condemned and killed the just One, though he did not resist
them.” But in all these awful signs, should the faithful see the
forewarned coming of the Son of Man; and as he himself told his
chosen apostles, “then should they lift up their heads; for their
redemption drew nigh.”

Besides these external troubles, there were others of a different

character, arising and existing solely among those who professed
the religion of Christ. The instructions given by Paul, in reference to
the absolute necessity of faith, and the insufficiency of a mere formal
routine of religious duties, had been most grossly perverted into a
warrant for the all-sufficiency of a mere belief, as the means of
salvation;――an error by no means limited in its mischievous
existence, to the days of the apostles, but so comfortable to the
minds of mere religious formalists, in all ages of Christianity, that a
new revelation, like that here made by James, though directly
repeated through every century of the Christian era, would be
equally vain, for the prevention or the remedy of this never-dying
heresy. All the words of James on the subject of faith and works, are
evidently aimed at the refutation of those who had taken advantage
of the opinions which Paul had expressed, on the same subjects; but
which were expressed with a totally different reference, being stated
not generally nor abstractly, but in application to some particular
dogmatic errors. James, after distinctly condemning the “unlearned
and unstable, who thus wrested to their own destruction the things
hard to be understood in the writings of Paul,” next attacks certain
persons who, without being authorized or qualified, had assumed the
station and responsibility of religious teachers. Many persons taking
up the office of instructors in this manner, had caused great
confusion, by using their hasty tongues, in mere polemic and
denunciatory discourse, condemning and cursing, in unmeasured
terms, those who differed from them in opinion. These he rebukes,
as thus “giving occasion for offense and error to all;” and sets forth
the character of that true wisdom which comes from above, and
which is peaceable, “sowing the fruit of righteousness in peace.”

Many teachers. In order to understand this reference, it should be noticed that the word
masters in the common translation of chap. iii. verse 1, of this epistle, is not to be taken in
the common modern sense, but in that of “religious teachers.” The original is not Κυριοι
(Kurioi,) “Lords,” “Masters,”――but διδασκαλοι (didaskaloi,) “teachers.” The translators
probably intended it only in the latter sense; for the word “Master” really has that meaning in
such connections, in good authors of that age; and even at this day, in England, the same
usage of the word is very common, though almost unknown in this country, except in
technical phrases.

his death.
 The epistle was probably the last great act of his life. No record,
indeed, of any of his labors, except this living instance, exists of his
later years; but there is certain ground for supposing that his
residence in Jerusalem was characterized by a steady course of
apostolic labors, in the original sphere of action, to which the twelve
had first confined themselves for many years. When, by the special
calls of God, in providences and in revelations, one and another of
the apostles had been summoned to new and distant fields, east,
west, north and south, “preaching repentance and remission of sins,
in his name, among all nations, beginning at Jerusalem,” and
bearing witness of his works, thence, “through Judea, and Samaria,
and unto the uttermost part of the earth,” there was still needed one,
who, highly “indued with power from on high,” might remain in that
city to which all the sons of Israel, throughout the world, looked as
the fountain of religious light. There too was the scene of the first
great triumphs of the Christian faith, as well as of the chief toils, the
trials, and the death of the great founder himself. All these
circumstances rendered Jerusalem still an important post to the
apostles; and they therefore left on that station the apostle, whose
steady courage in the cause of Christ, and blameless yet jealous
conformity to the law of Moses, fitted him at once for the bold
maintenance of his Master’s commission, and for the successful
advancement of the gospel among the faithful believers of the
ancient covenant. Thus James continued at Jerusalem throughout
his life, being kept at this important station, perhaps on account of
his age, as well as for his fitness in other respects; as there is some
reason to think that he was older than those more active apostles
who assumed the foreign departments of the work. His great weight
of character, as evinced in the council of the apostles, and by the
fear which Peter showed of offending him, very naturally gives the
idea of a greater age than that of the other apostles; and this notion
is furthermore confirmed by the circumstance that the brethren of
Jesus, among whom this apostle was certainly included, are
mentioned as assuming an authority over their divine relation, and
claiming a right to control and direct his motions, which could never
have been assumed, according to the established order of Jewish
families, unless they had been older than he. It is therefore a rational
supposition, that James was one of the oldest, perhaps the oldest, of
the apostles; and at any rate he appears to have been more
advanced in life than any of those who are characterized with
sufficient distinctness to offer the means of conjecture on this point.

From the high charge of this great central apostolic station, in

which he had, through a course of more than twenty-five years,
accumulated the ripe honors of a “righteous” name upon his hoary
head, James was now called to end a career, which so much
resembled that of the ancient prophets, by a death equally
assimilated to the bloody fate to which so many of them had been
doomed by the subjects of their reproofs. The fact and
circumstances of his death are given on an authority so blameless
and disinterested as not to admit of dispute; nor is there any thing in
the narrative which can throw the slightest suspicion upon it. The
eminent Jewish historian, Josephus, himself a resident in Jerusalem
at that time, and an eye-witness of these events, and acquainted by
sight and fame, at least, with James, has given a clear account of
the execution of this apostle, which can best evince its own merit by
being given entire.

The account which Josephus has given, shows that the death of
James, must have happened during Paul’s imprisonment, and is
delivered in the following words:――“The emperor, being informed of
the death of Festus, sent Albinus to be prefect of Judea. But the
younger Ananus, who, as we said before, was made high priest, was
haughty in his behavior, and very ambitious. He was also of the sect
of the Sadducees, who, as we have also observed before, are above
all other Jews severe in their judicial sentences. This then being the
temper of Ananus, he, thinking he had a convenient opportunity,
because Festus was dead, and Albinus was not yet arrived, called a
council, and brought before it James, brother of Jesus, who was
called Christ, with several others, where they were accused of being
transgressors of the law, and stoned to death. But the most
moderate men of the city, who were also the most learned in the
laws, were offended at this proceeding. They sent therefore privately
to the king, and entreated him to give orders to Ananus to abstain
from such conduct in future. And some went to meet Albinus, who
was coming from Alexandria, and represented to him, that Ananus
had no right to call a council without his permission. Albinus,
approving of what they said, wrote a very severe letter to Ananus,
threatening to punish him for what he had done. And king Agrippa
took away from him the priesthood, after he had possessed it three
months, and appointed in his stead Jesus, the son of Damnaeus.”
From this account of Josephus we learn, that James,
notwithstanding he was a Christian, was so far from being an object
of hatred to the Jews, that he was rather beloved and respected. At
least his death excited very different sensations from that of the first
James; and the Sadducean high priest, at whose instigation he
suffered, was punished for his offense by the loss of his office.

This translation is taken from Marsh’s Michaelis, (Introduction, Vol. IV. pp. 287, 288.) The
original is in the Jewish Antiquities of Josephus. (XX. ix. 1.)

This however, is not the statement which the early Christian

writers give of the death of James the Just; but from the oldest
historian of the church, is derived another narrative, so highly
decorated with minute particulars, that while it is made very much
more interesting than the concise and simple account given by
Josephus, it is at the same time rendered altogether suspicious by
the very circumstance of its interesting minuteness. Josephus had
no temptation whatever to pervert the statement. He gives it in terms
strongly condemnatory of the whole transaction; but the Christian
writers, as they have shown in other such instances, are too often
disposed to sacrifice truth, for the sake of making a story whose
incidents harmonize best with their notions of a desirable martyrdom.
The story however, deserves a place here, both for the sake of a fair
comparison, and on account of its own interesting character.

“James, the brother of our Lord, surnamed the Just, was holy from
his mother’s womb. He drank neither wine, nor strong drink; nor ate
any creature wherein was life. There never came a razor upon his
beard;――he anointed not himself with oil, neither did he use a bath.
To him only it was lawful to enter into the holy of holies. He wore no
woolen, but only linen garments; and entered the temple alone,
where he was seen upon his knees, supplicating for the forgiveness
of the people, till his knees became hard, and covered with a callus,
like those of a camel. On account of his eminent righteousness, he
was called the Just, and Oblias, which signifies ‘the people’s
fortress.’ Then, after describing the divisions among the people
respecting Christianity, the account states, that all the leading men
among the Scribes and Pharisees, came to James, and entreated
him to stand up on the battlements of the temple, and persuade the
people assembled at the passover, to have juster notions concerning
Jesus; and that, when thus mounted on the battlements, he cried
with a loud voice, ‘Why do ye question me about Jesus, the Son of
Man? He even sits in heaven, at the right hand of great power, and
will come in the clouds of heaven.’ With this declaration, many were
satisfied, and cried ‘Hosanna to the Son of David.’ But the
unbelieving Scribes and Pharisees, mortified at what they had done,
produced a riot; for they consulted together, and then cried out, ‘Oh!
oh! even the Just one is himself deceived.’ They went up, therefore,
and cast down the Just, and said among themselves, ‘Let us stone
James the Just.’ And they began to stone him, for he did not die with
his fall; but turning, he kneeled, saying, ‘I entreat, O Lord God the
Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do.’ And while they
were stoning him, one of the priests, of the sons of Rahab, spoken of
by Jeremiah the prophet, cried out, ‘Cease; what do ye? Justus
prays for us.’ But a certain one among them, a fuller, took a lever,
such as he had used to squeeze garments, and smote Justus on the
head. Thus he suffered martyrdom; and they buried him in that
place, and his grave-stone yet remains near the temple.”

This story is from Hegesippus, as quoted by Eusebius, to whom alone we owe its
preservation,――the works of the original author being all lost, except such fragments,
accidentally quoted by other writers. The translation I have taken from the MS. of the Rev.
Dr. Murdock, to whose research I am already so much indebted in similar instances.

The comments of Michaelis on these two testimonies, may be appropriately subjoined.

(Introduction, Vol. IV. pp. 288, 291. Marsh’s translation.)
 “The account given by Hegesippus, contains an intermixture of truth and fable; and in
some material points contradicts the relation of Josephus, to ♦which no objection can be
made. It confirms however the assertion, that James was in great repute among the Jews,
even among those who did not believe in Christ; and that they paid him much greater
deference than we might suppose they would have shown to a Christian bishop, and a
brother of Christ, whom they had crucified. Many parts of the preceding account are
undoubtedly fabulous, especially that part which relates to the request of the Jews, that
James would openly declare from the battlements of the temple, that Jesus was not the
Messiah. Indeed, if this were true, it would not redound to his honor; for it would imply that
he had acted with duplicity, and not taken a decided part in favor of Christianity, or the Jews
could never have thought of making such a request. But that a person, who was the head of
the church in Jerusalem, should have acted such a double part as to leave it undecided
what party he had embraced, and that too for thirty years after the ascension, is in itself
almost incredible. It is inconsistent likewise with the relation of Josephus, and is virtually
contradicted both by Paul and by Luke, who always speak of him with the utmost respect,
and have no where given the smallest hint, that he concealed the principal doctrines of the
Christian religion.”

♦ “whieh” replaced with “which”

Thus gloriously ended the steady, bright career of “the second

apostolic martyr.” Honored, even by the despisers of the faith and
haters of the name of Christ, with the exalted title of “the just,” he
added the solemn witness of his blood, to that of his divine brother
and Lord, and to that of his young apostolic brother, whose name
and fate were equally like his,――a testimony which sealed anew
the truth of his own record against the sins of the oppressors,
published in his last great earthly work:――“Ye have condemned
and killed the just; yet he doth not resist you.”
 SIMON ZELOTES.
his name.

The ever-recurring difficulty about the distinctive appellations of

the apostles, forms the most prominent point of inquiry in the life of
this person, otherwise so little known as to afford hardly a single
topic for the apostolic historian. The dispute here indeed involves no
question about personal identity, but merely refers to the coincidence
of signification between the two different words by which he is
designated in the apostolic lists, to distinguish him from the illustrious
chief of the twelve, who bore the same name with him. Matthew and
Mark in giving the names of the apostles,――the only occasion on
which they name him,――call him “Simon the Cananite;” but Luke, in
a similar notice, mentions him as “Simon Zelotes;” and the question
then arises, whether these two distinctive appellations have not a
common origin. In the vernacular language of Palestine, the word
from which Cananite is derived, has a meaning identical with that of
the root of the Greek word Zelotes; and hence it is most rationally
concluded, that the latter is a translation of the former,――Luke, who
wrote entirely for Greeks, choosing to translate into their language a
term whose original force could be apprehended only by those
acquainted with the local circumstances with which it was connected.
The name Zelotes, which may be faithfully translated by its English
derivative, Zealot, has a meaning deeply involved in some of the
most bloody scenes in the history of the Jews, in the apostolic age.
This name, or rather its Hebrew original, was assumed by a set of
ferocious desperadoes, who, under the honorable pretense of a holy
zeal for their country and religion, set all law at defiance, and
constituting themselves at once the judges and the executors of
right, they went through the land waging war against the Romans,
and all who peacefully submitted to that foreign sway. This sect,
however, did not arise by this name until many years after the death
of Jesus, and there is no good reason to suppose that Simon derived
his surname from any connection with the bloody Zealots who did
their utmost to increase the last agonies of their distracted country,
but from a more holy zeal displayed in a more righteous manner. It
may have been simply characteristic of his general conduct, or it
may have referred to some particular occasion in which he decidedly
evinced this trait of zeal in a righteous cause.

The Cananite.――In respect to this name, a most absurd and unjustifiable blunder has
stood in all the common versions of it, which deserves notice. This is the representation of
the word in the form, “Canaanite,” which is a gross perversion of the original. The Greek
word is Κανανιτης, (Kananites,) a totally different word from that which is used both in the
New Testament, and in the Alexandrian version of the Old, to express the Hebrew term for
an inhabitant of Canaan. The name of the land of Canaan is always expressed by the
aspirated form, Χανααν, which in the Latin and all modern versions is very properly
expressed by “Chanaan.” In Matthew xv. 22, where the Canaanitish woman is spoken of,
the original is Χαναναια, (Chananaia,) nor is there any passage in which the name of an
inhabitant of Canaan is expressed by the form Κανανιτης, (Cananites,) with the smooth K,
and the single A. Yet the Latin ecclesiastic writers, and even the usually accurate Natalis
Alexander, express this apostle’s name as “Simon Chananaeus,” which is the word for
“Canaanite.”

The true force and derivation of the word is this. The name assumed in the language of
Palestine by the ferocious sect above mentioned, was derived from the Hebrew primitive ‫קנא‬
(Qana or Kana,) and thence the name ‫( קנני‬Kanani) was very fairly expressed, according to
the forms and terminations of the Greek, by Κανανιτης, (Kananites.) The Hebrew root is a
verb which means “to be zealous,” and the name derived from it of course means, “one who
is zealous,” of which the just Greek translation is the word Ζηλωτης, (Zelotes,) the very
name by which Luke represents it in this instance. (Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13.) One of these
names is, in short, a mere translation of the other,――nor is there any way of evading this
construction, except by supposing that Luke was mistaken in supposing that Simon was
called “the Zealot,” being deceived by the resemblance of the name “Cananites” to the
Hebrew name of that sect. But no believer in the inspiration of the gospel can allow this
supposition. Equally unfounded, and inconsistent with Luke’s translation, is the notion that
the name Cananite is derived from Cana the village of Galilee, famous as the scene of
Christ’s first miracle.

The account given in the Life of Matthew shows the character of this sect, as it existed in
the last days of the Jewish state. Josephus describes them very fully in his history of the
Jewish War, (iv. 3.) Simon probably received this name, however, not from any connection
with a sect which arose long after the death of Christ, but from something in his own
character which showed a great zeal for the cause which he had espoused.

his history.
 No very direct statement as to his parentage is made in the New
Testament; but one or two incidental allusions to some
circumstances connected with it, afford ground for a reasonable
conclusion on this point. In the enumeration which Matthew and
Mark give of the four brothers of Jesus, in the discourse of the
offended citizens of Nazareth, Simon is mentioned along with
James, Juda and Joses. It is worthy of notice, also, that on all the
apostolic lists, Simon the apostle is mentioned between the brothers
James and Juda; an arrangement that can not be accounted for,
except by supposing that he was also the brother of James. The
reason why Juda is distinctly specified as the brother of James, while
Simon is mentioned without reference to any such relationship, is,
doubtless, that the latter was so well known by the appellation of the
Zealot, that there was no need of specifying his relations, to
distinguish him from Simon Peter. These two circumstances,
incidentally mentioned, may be considered as justifying the
supposition, that Simon Zelotes was the same person as Simon the
brother of Jesus. In this manner, all the old writers have understood
the connection; and though such use is no authority, it is worth
mentioning that the monkish chroniclers always consider Simon
Zelotes as the brother of Juda; and they associate these two, as
wandering together in eastern countries, to preach the gospel in
Persia and Mesopotamia. Others carry him into much more
improbable wanderings. Egypt and Northern Africa, and even Britain,
are mentioned as the scenes of his apostolic labors, in the ingenious
narratives of those who undertook to supply almost every one of the
nations of the eastern continent with an apostolic patron saint. All
this is very poor consolation for the general dearth of facts in relation
to this apostle; and the searcher for historical truth will not be so well
satisfied with the tedious tales of monkish romance, as with the
decided and unquestionable assurance, that the whole history of this
apostle, from beginning to end, is perfectly unknown, and that not
one action of his life has been preserved from the darkness of an
utterly impenetrable oblivion.