The Contemporary World 2020

UNIT VI TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE WORLD

Coverage: Weeks 15 and 16

Duration: 6 hours

Sustainable Development (3 hours; week 15)

Global Food Security (3 hours; week 16)

Learning Objectives: After studying the unit, students should be able to:
● Examine the measures of the governments in addressing environmental crisis like
climate change
● Relate everyday encounters with the various environmental problems
● Analyze the effect of environmental problems that the world faces today
● Identify the four dimensions of food security
● Explain the issues, interventions and public policy implications of global food
security
● Identify the challenges in food security
● Critique existing models of global food security

1. Sustainable Development
2. Global Food Security

Sustainable Development and Climate Change

By its meaning, sustainable development has been variously defined, but one of
the most quoted definitions of this term is from the Brundtland Report also known as
Our Common Future, which is a publication released by the World Commission on
Environment and Development in 1987, “sustainable development is development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.” 207
As this term primarily relates to how the needs of the people basically through
the consumption and utilization of resources, sustainable development is often linked
with climate change which due to its hazardous effects in the environment is known to
be a major restriction in achieving sustainability.
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This link between sustainable development and climate change is considered

strong. Poor developing countries particularly those developed countries tend to be the
most severely affected by climate change. Undoubtedly, climate change is often seen
as a part of the broader challenge in sustainable development thru a two-fold link: 208
1. Impacts of climate change can severely hamper development efforts in
key sector (e.g. increased threat of natural disasters and growing water
stress will have to be factored into plans for public health infrastructure)
2. Development choice will influence the capacity to mitigate and adapt to
climate change (e.g. policies for forest conservation and sustainable
energy will improve communities’ resilience reducing thereby the
vulnerability of their sources of income to climate change)
In the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Member States express
their commitment to protect the planet from degradation and take urgent action on
climate change. The Agenda also identifies, in its paragraph 14, climate change as “one
of the greatest challenges of our time” and worries about “its adverse impacts
undermine the ability of all countries to achieve sustainable development. Increases in
global temperature, sea level rise, ocean acidification and other climate change impacts
are seriously affecting coastal areas and low-lying coastal countries, including many
least developed countries and Small Island Developing States. The survival of many
societies, and of the biological support systems of the planet, is at risk”. 209
Various efforts are underway to deal with climate. However, strong resistance on
the part of governments and corporations counters these. There are significant
challenges involved in implementing various measures such as “carbon tax” and
‘carbon neutrality” to deal with environmental problems. 210 It is also difficult to find
alternatives to fossil fuels. For instance, the use of ethanol as an alternative to gasoline
has an attendant set of problems - it is less efficient and it has led to escalation in the
price of corn, which currently serves as major source of ethanol. Although biofuels
themselves produce lower emissions, their extraction and transport contribute
significantly to total emissions. 211

The World’s Leading Environmental Problems

The Conserve Energy Future website 212
lists the following environmental
challenges that the world faces today:
1. Depredation caused by industrial and transportation toxins and plastic in the ground;
the defiling of the sea, rivers, and water beds by oil spills and acid rain; the dumping of
urban waste
2. Changes in global weather patterns (flash floods, extreme snowstorms, and the
spread of deserts) and the surge in ocean and land temperatures leading to a rise in

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sea levels (as the polar ice caps melt because of the weather), plus the flooding of
many lowland areas across the world
3. Overpopulation
4. Exhaustion of the world’s natural non-renewable resources from oil reserves to
minerals to potable water
5. Waste disposal catastrophe due to excessive amount of waste (from plastic to food
packages to electronic waste) unloaded by communities in landfills as well as on the
ocean; and dumping of nuclear waste
6. Destruction of million-year-old ecosystems and the loss of biodiversity (destruction of
the coral reefs and massive deforestation) that have led to the extinction of particular
species and decline in the number of others
7. Reduction of oxygen and increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to
deforestation, resulting in the rise in ocean acidity by as much as 150 percent in the last
250 years
8. Depletion of ozone layer protecting the planet from the sun’s deadly ultraviolet rays
due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the atmosphere
9. Deadly acid rain as a result of fossil fuel combustion, toxic chemicals from erupting
volcanoes, and the massive rotting vegetables filling up garbage dumps or left on the
streets
10. Water pollution arising from industrial and community waste residues seeping into
underground water tables, rivers and seas
11. Urban sprawls that continue to expand as a city turns into a megalopolis, destroying
farmlands, increasing traffic gridlock, and making smog cloud a permanent urban fixture
12. Pandemics and other threats to public health arising from wastes with drinking water,
polluted environment that become the breeding grounds for mosquitoes and disease
carrying rodents, and pollution
13. A radical alteration of food systems because of genetic modifications in food
production

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Global Food Security

What is Food Security?

As said, food security exists when all people, at all times, have access to
adequate, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for
an active and healthy life. 213 This widely accepted definition of food security
emphasizes the four dimensions of food security 214 which are as follows:
1. food access: access to adequate resources to acquire a healthy and
nutritious diet
2. food use: use of food through adequate diet, clean water and health care to
reach the state of a healthy well-being
3. availability: availability of adequate supply of food, produced either through
domestic or foreign import, including as well the food aid received from outside
the country
4. stability: access to sufficient food at all times, without losing access to food
supply brought by either economic or climatic crisis

Global Food Security: Issues, Interventions and Public Policy Implications

The global food security situation and outlook remains delicately imbalanced
amid surplus food production and the prevalence of hunger, due to the complex
interplay of social, economic, and ecological factors that mediate food security
outcomes at various human and institutional scales. Food production outpaced food
demand over the past 50 years due to expansion in crop area and irrigation, as well as
supportive policy and institutional interventions that led to the fast and sustained growth
in agricultural productivity and improved food security in many parts of the world.
However, future predictions point to a slow-down in agricultural productivity and a food-
gap mainly in areas across Africa and Asia which are having ongoing food security
issues.

The problem of food insecurity is expected to worsen due to, among others, rapid
population growth and other emerging challenges such as climate change and rising
demand for biofuels. Climate change poses complex challenges in terms of increased
variability and risk for food producers and the energy and water sectors. There is a
need to look beyond agriculture and invest in affordable and suitable farm technologies
if the problem of food insecurity is to be addressed in a sustainable manner. This
requires both revisiting the current approach of agricultural intervention and reorienting
the existing agricultural research institutions and policy framework.

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Proactive interventions and policies for tackling food security are to be discussed
which include issues such as agriculture for development, ecosystem services from
agriculture, and gender mainstreaming, to extend the focus on food security within and
beyond the agriculture sector, by incorporating cross-cutting issues such as energy
security, resource reuse and recovery, social protection programs, and involving civil
society in food policy making processes by promoting food sovereignty. 215

Challenges in Food Security

Demand for food will be 60% greater than it is today and the challenge of food
security requires the world to feed 9 billion people by 2050. Global food security means
delivering sufficient food to the entire world population. It is, therefore, a priority of all
countries, whether developed or less developed. The security of food also means the
sustainability of society such as population growth, climate change, water scarcity, and
agriculture. The case of India show how complex the issue of food security is in relation
to other factors:
Agriculture accounts for 18% of the economy’s output and 47% of its workforce.
India is the second biggest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. Yet,
according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, some
194 million Indians are undernourished, the largest number of hungry people in any
single country. An estimated 15.2% of the population of India are too malnourished to
lead a normal life. A third of the world’s malnourished children live in India (n.p.) 216
But perhaps the closest aspect of human life associated with food security is the
environment. A major environmental problem is the destruction of natural habitats,
particularly through deforestation. 217 Industrial fishing has contributed to a significant
destruction of marine life and ecosystems. 218 Biodiversity and usable farmland have
also declined at a rapid pace.
Another significant environmental challenge is that of the decline in the
availability of fresh water. 219 Because of the degradation of soil or desertification,
decline in water supply has transformed what was once considered a public good into a
privatized commodity. 220 The poorest areas of the globe experience a disproportionate
share of water-related problems. The problem is further intensified by the consumption
of “virtual water”, wherein people use up water from elsewhere to produce consumer
products.221 The destruction of the water ecosystem may lead to the creation of “climate
refugees, people who are forcibly displaced due to effects of climate change and
disasters.222
Pollution through toxic chemicals has had a long-term impact on the environment.
The use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) has led to significant industrial pollution.
223
Greenhouse gases, gases that trap sunlight and heat in the earth’s atmosphere,
contribute greatly to global warming. In turn, this process causes the melting of land-
based and glacial ice with potentially catastrophic effects 224, the possibility of
substantial flooding, a reduction in the alkalinity of the oceans, and the destruction of
existing ecosystems. Ultimately, global warming poses a threat to the global supply of
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food as well as to human health. 225 Furthermore, population growth and its attendant
increase in consumption intensify ecological problems. The global flow of dangerous
debris is another major concern, with electronic waste often dumped in developing
countries.
There are different models and agenda pushed by different organizations to
address the issue of global food security. One of this is through sustainability. The
United Nations has set ending hunger, achieving food security and improved security,
and promoting sustainable agriculture as the second of its 17 Sustainable Goals (SDGs)
for the year 2030. The World Economic Forum (2010) also addressed this issue through
the New Vision of Agriculture (NVA) in 2009 wherein public-private partnerships were
established. 226 It has mobilized over $10 billion that reached smallholder farmers.

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UNIT VII GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP

Coverage: Weeks 17

Duration: 3 hours

Learning Objectives: After studying the unit, the students should be able to:
● Define global citizenship
● Distinguish the salient features of global citizenship
● Relates global citizenship with global economy and governance
● Articulate a personal definition of global citizenship

GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP

Global Citizenship as Defined

As there is no widely accepted definition of global citizenship, oftentimes,
educators use this term loosely. Having been derived from the word city, the term
citizenship tends to suggest allegiance to one’s own country or state. Quitely so, the
concept of citizenship has taken on a new meaning from its historical usage as it has
gone “global”. 227
According to Oxfam International, global citizenship is the idea that, as people,
we are all citizens of the globe who have an equal responsibility for what happens on,
and to our world. 228 This means to say that every global citizen has a duty to address
issues affecting our being citizens. As there could be no formal process to become a
global citizen, holding this citizenship status is something that we all have a right to and
obligation as well.
Given this above definition, citizenship can thus be associated with rights and
obligations. For instance, the right to vote and the obligation to pay taxes. Both rights
and obligations link the individual to the state. It also has to do with our attitude. We
need to be willing to engage and to spend time and effort to the community of which we
feel part of.
Caecilia Johanna van Peski (as cited in Baraldi, 2012) defined global citizenship
“as a moral and ethical disposition that can guide the understanding of individuals or
groups of local and global contexts, and remind them of their relative responsibilities
within various communities.” Global citizens are the glue which binds local communities
together in an increasingly globalized world. In van Peski’s words, “global citizens might
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be a new type of people that can travel within these various boundaries and somehow
still make sense of the world”. 229

Salient Features of Global Citizenship

Global citizenship may seem to have far broader meanings than the above given
ones. Equally, it is still important to note its salient features 230 for a better understanding
of this concept.
1. Global citizenship as a choice and a way of thinking
People come to consider themselves as global citizens through various formative
life experiences and have different interpretations of what it means to them. For many,
the practice of global citizenship is primarily exercised at home through engagement in
global issues or with different cultures in a local setting. For others, global citizenship
means firsthand experience with different countries, people and cultures.
2. Global citizenship as self-awareness and awareness of others
Self-awareness helps students identify with the universalities of human
experience, thus increasing their identification with fellow human beings and their sense
of responsibility toward them.
3. Global citizenship as they practice cultural empathy
Cultural empathy or intercultural competence is commonly articulated as a goal
of global education. Intercultural competence occupies a central position in higher
education’s thinking about global citizenship and is seen as an important skill in the
workplace.
4. Global citizenship as the cultivation of principled decision making
Global citizenship entails an awareness of the interdependence of individuals
and systems as well as a sense of responsibility that follows from it. Although the goal
of undergraduate education should not be to impose a correct set of answers, critical
thinking, cultural empathy and ethical systems and choices are an essential foundation
to principled decision making.
5. Global citizenship as participation in the social and political life of one’s community
There are various types of communities that range from local to global, from
religious to political group. Global citizens feel a sense of connection towards their
communities and translate this connection to participation.

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Global Citizenship and Globalization

Global citizenship does not automatically entail a single attitude and a particular
value with globalization. We must remember that globalization is not a single
phenomenon; rather, there are many globalizations. They are bound to be multiple
futures for multiple globalizations. These globalizations created enemies because
according to one broad view, globalization failed to deliver its promises. 231 The so-
called bottom billion lacks infrastructures and has been disenfranchised. The opponents
of globalization blame either Westernization or global capitalism. Thus, the enemies
resist globalization, especially when it comes to global economy and global governance.

Global Citizenship and Global Economy

There are three approaches to global economic resistance. Trade protectionism
involves the systematic government intervention in foreign trade through tariffs and non-
tariff barriers in order to encourage domestic producers and deter their foreign
competitors. 232 Although there exists a widespread consensus regarding its inefficiency,
trade protectionism is still popular since it shields the domestic economy from systemic
shocks. Fair trade is a different approach to economic globalization, which emerged as
a counter to neoliberal “free trade” principles. 233
Fair trade aims at a moral and equitable global economic system in which, for
instance, price is not set by the market; instead, it is negotiated transparently by both
producers and consumers. Its ability to supply a mass market and its applicability to
manufacture products are also doubted. The third form of resistance to economic
globalization relates to helping the bottom billion. 234 Increasing aid is only one of the
many measures that is required. International norms and standards can be adapted to
the needs of the bottom billion. The reduction of trade barriers would also reduce the
economic marginalization of these people and their nations.

Global Citizenship and Global Governance

When it comes to dealing with political globalization, increased accountability 235
and transparency are the key issues. All political organizations, at different levels,
should be more accountable for their actions because they are now surrounded by an
“ocean of opacity”.236 Increased transparency has been aided by various mechanism
such as transnational justice systems, international tribunals, civil society and
particularly the Transparency International.
Like globalization, resistance to globalization is multiple, complex, contradictory,
and ambiguous. This movement also has the potential to emerge as the new public
sphere, which may uphold progressive values such as autonomy, democracy, peace,
ecological sustainability, and social justice. These forces of resistance are products of
globalization and can be seen as globalization from below. 237 The impetus for such a

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movement comes from individuals, groups and organizations which are oppressed (i.e.,
self-perception) by globalization from above (neoliberal economic systems or
aggressively expanding nations and corporations). They seek a more democratic
process of globalization. However, globalization from below also involves less visible,
more right-wing elements, such as the America First Party and the Taliban. 238
The World Social Forum (WSF) is centered on addressing the lack of democracy
in economic and political affairs. 239 However, the diversity of elements involved in WSF
hinders the development of concrete political proposals. A significant influence on WSF
has been that of cyberactivism, which is based on the “cultural logic of networking” and
“virtual movements”, such as Global Huaren. This cyberpublic was formed as a protest
against the violence, discrimination, and hatred experienced by Chinese residents in
Indonesia after the 1997 Asian financial crisis. In 1998, worldwide rallies condemning
the violence were made possible through the Global Huaren.
Given that there is no world government, the idea of global citizenship demands
the creation of rights and obligations. However, fulfilling the promises of globalization
and the solution to the problems of the contemporary world does not lie on single entity
or individual, but on citizens, the community, and the different organization in societies.

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