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Stainless Steel
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stainless-steel equipment
Key People: Georg Jensen • Patrick Joseph Frawley, Jr. • Elwood Haynes
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Related Topics: martensitic steel • duplex stainless steel • precipitation-hardening stainless stain •
austenitic steel • ferritic steel ...(Show more)
Top Questions
Which type of stainless steel usually has the highest corrosion resistance? expand_more
Stainless steel, any one of a family of alloy steels usually containing 10 to 30 percent
chromium. In conjunction with low carbon content, chromium imparts remarkable
resistance to corrosion and heat. Other elements, such as nickel, molybdenum,
titanium, aluminum, niobium, copper, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, or selenium, may
be added to increase corrosion resistance to specific environments, enhance oxidation
resistance, and impart special characteristics.
Most stainless steels are first melted in electric-arc or basic oxygen furnaces and
subsequently refined in another steelmaking vessel, mainly to lower the carbon content.
In the argon-oxygen decarburization process, a mixture of oxygen and argon gas is
injected into the liquid steel. By varying the ratio of oxygen and argon, it is possible to
remove carbon to controlled levels by oxidizing it to carbon monoxide without also
oxidizing and losing expensive chromium. Thus, cheaper raw materials, such as high-
carbon ferrochromium, may be used in the initial melting operation.
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stainless steel
The nickel and chromium content of different types of stainless steel.
There are more than 100 grades of stainless steel. The majority are classified into five
major groups in the family of stainless steels: austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, duplex,
and precipitation-hardening. Austenitic steels, which contain 16 to 26 percent
chromium and up to 35 percent nickel, usually have the highest corrosion resistance.
They are not hardenable by heat treatment and are nonmagnetic. The most common
type is the 18/8, or 304, grade, which contains 18 percent chromium and 8 percent
nickel. Typical applications include aircraft and the dairy and food-processing
industries. Standard ferritic steels contain 10.5 to 27 percent chromium and are nickel-
free; because of their low carbon content (less than 0.2 percent), they are not
hardenable by heat treatment and have less critical anticorrosion applications, such as
architectural and auto trim. Martensitic steels typically contain 11.5 to 18 percent
chromium and up to 1.2 percent carbon with nickel sometimes added. They are
hardenable by heat treatment, have modest corrosion resistance, and are employed in
cutlery, surgical instruments, wrenches, and turbines. Duplex stainless steels are a
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combination of austenitic and ferritic stainless steels in equal amounts; they contain 21
to 27 percent chromium, 1.35 to 8 percent nickel, 0.05 to 3 percent copper, and 0.05 to
5 percent molybdenum. Duplex stainless steels are stronger and more resistant to
corrosion than austenitic and ferritic stainless steels, which makes them useful in
storage-tank construction, chemical processing, and containers for transporting
chemicals. Precipitation-hardening stainless steel is characterized by its strength, which
stems from the addition of aluminum, copper, and niobium to the alloy in amounts less
than 0.5 percent of the alloy’s total mass. It is comparable to austenitic stainless steel
with respect to its corrosion resistance, and it contains 15 to 17.5 percent chromium, 3
to 5 percent nickel, and 3 to 5 percent copper. Precipitation-hardening stainless steel is
used in the construction of long shafts.
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This article was most recently revised and updated by Adam Augustyn.
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Key People: Carl Wilhelm Scheele • Joseph Loschmidt • Viktor Meyer • Jean-Charles Galissard de Marignac
On the Web: Demo Pressbooks Network - Boundless Anatomy and Physiology - Inorganic Compounds
(Jan. 04, 2024) ...(Show more)
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calcium carbonate [CaCO3]), some cyanides (e.g., sodium cyanide [NaCN]), graphite,
carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide are classified as inorganic.
Read about the differences between inorganic compounds and organic compounds in
the article chemical compound.
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Inorganic compounds include compounds that are made up of two or more elements
other than carbon, as well as certain carbon-containing compounds that lack carbon-
carbon bonds, such as cyanides and carbonates. Inorganic compounds are most often
classified in terms of the elements or groups of elements that they contain. Oxides, for
example, can be either ionic or molecular. Ionic oxides contain O2− (oxide) ions and
metal cations, whereas molecular oxides contain molecules in which oxygen (O) is
covalently bonded to other nonmetals such as sulfur (S) or nitrogen (N). When ionic
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oxides are dissolved in water, the O2− ions react with water molecules to form hydroxide
ions (OH−), and a basic solution results. Molecular oxides react with water to produce
oxyacids, such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). In addition, inorganic
compounds include hydrides (containing hydrogen atoms or H− ions), nitrides
(containing N3− ions), phosphides (containing P3− ions), and sulfides (containing S2−
ions).
Transition metals form a great variety of inorganic compounds. The most important of
these are coordination compounds in which the metal atom or ion is surrounded by two
to six ligands. Ligands are ions or neutral molecules with electron pairs that they can
donate to the metal atom to form a coordinate-covalent bond.
The resulting covalent bond is given a special name because one entity (the ligand)
furnishes both of the electrons that are subsequently shared in the bond. An example of
a coordination compound is [Co(NH3)6]Cl3, which contains the Co(NH3)63+ ion, a
cobalt ion (Co3+) with six ammonia molecules (NH3) attached to it, acting as ligands.
In the early days of the science of chemistry, there was no systematic approach to
naming compounds. Chemists coined names such as sugar of lead, quicklime, milk of
magnesia, Epsom salts, and laughing gas to describe familiar compounds. Such names
are called common or trivial names. As chemistry advanced, it became evident that, if
common names were used for all known compounds, which number in the millions,
great confusion would result. It clearly would be impossible to memorize trivial names
for such a large number of compounds. Therefore a systematic nomenclature (naming
process) has been developed. There are, however, certain familiar compounds that are
always referred to by their common names. The systematic names for H2O and NH3, for
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example, are never used; these vital compounds are known only as water and ammonia,
respectively.
Binary compounds
Binary ionic compounds
The nomenclature for binary ionic compounds simply entails naming the ions according
to the following rules:
1. The positive ion (called a cation) is named first and the negative ion (anion)
second.
2. A simple cation (obtained from a single atom) takes its name from its parent
element. For example, Li+ is called lithium in the names of compounds
containing this ion. Similarly, Na+ is called sodium, Mg2+ is called
magnesium, and so on.
3. A simple anion (obtained from a single atom) is named by taking the root of
the parent element’s name and adding the suffix -ide. Thus, the F− ion is
called fluoride, Br− is called bromide, S2− is called sulfide, and so on.
The following examples illustrate the nomenclature rules for binary ionic compounds:
KI K + , I− potassium iodide
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In the formulas of ionic compounds, simple ions are represented by the chemical
symbol for the element: Cl means Cl−, Na means Na+, and so on. When individual ions
are shown, however, the charge is always included. Thus, the formula of potassium
bromide is given as KBr, but, when the potassium and bromide ions are shown
individually, they are written K+ and Br−.
When a given metal atom can form more than one type of cation, the charge on the
particular cation present must be specified in the name of the compound. For example,
lead (Pb) can exist as Pb2+ or Pb4+ ions in ionic compounds. Also, iron (Fe) can form
Fe2+ or Fe3+ ions, tin (Sn) can form Sn2+ or Sn4+ ions, gold (Au) can form Au+ or Au3+
ions, and so on. Therefore, the names of binary compounds containing metals such as
these must include a Roman numeral to specify the charge on the ion. For example, the
compound FeCl3, which contains Fe3+, is named iron(III) chloride. On the other hand,
the compound FeCl2, which contains Fe2+, is designated as iron(II) chloride. In each
case, the Roman numeral in the name specifies the charge of the metal ion present.
H+ hydrogen H− hydride
Ca2+ calcium
Ba2+ barium
Al3+ aluminum
Ag+ silver
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An alternative system for naming compounds containing metals that form only two ions
is sometimes seen, especially in older literature. The ion with the higher charge has a
name ending in -ic, and the one with the lower charge has the suffix -ous. For example,
Fe3+ is called the ferric ion, and Fe2+ is called the ferrous ion. The names for FeCl3 and
FeCl2 are then ferric chloride and ferrous chloride, respectively.
1. The first element in the formula is given first, using the element’s full name.
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3. Prefixes are used to denote the numbers of atoms present. If the first element
exists as a single atom, the prefix mono- is omitted. For example, CO is called
carbon monoxide rather than monocarbon monoxide.
These examples show how the rules are applied for the covalent compounds formed by
nitrogen and oxygen:
N 2O 3 dinitrogen trioxide
N 2O 4 dinitrogen tetroxide
N 2O 5 dinitrogen pentoxide
To avoid awkward pronunciations, the final o or a of the prefix is often dropped when
the element name begins with a vowel. For example, N2O4 is referred to as dinitrogen
tetroxide, not dinitrogen tetraoxide, and CO is called carbon monoxide, not carbon
monooxide.
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Prefixes used in
chemical nomenclature
mono- 1
di- 2
tri- 3
tetra- 4
penta- 5
hexa- 6
hepta- 7
octa- 8
Nonbinary compounds
Ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions
A special type of ionic compound is exemplified by ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3),
which contains two polyatomic ions, NH4+ and NO3−. As the name suggests, a
polyatomic ion is a charged entity composed of several atoms bound together.
Polyatomic ions have special names that are used in the nomenclature of the
compounds containing them.
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*Bisulfate and **bicarbonate are widely used common names for hydrogen sulfate
and hydrogen carbonate, respectively.
Several series of polyatomic anions exist that contain an atom of a given element in
combination with different numbers of oxygen atoms. Such anions are called oxy
anions. When the series contains only two members, the name of the ion with fewer
oxygen atoms ends in -ite, and the name of the other ion ends in -ate. For example,
SO32− is called sulfite and SO42− is called sulfate. In those cases where more than two
oxy anions constitute the series, hypo- (less than) and per- (more than) are used as
prefixes to name the members of the series with the smallest and the largest number of
oxygen atoms, respectively. The chlorine-containing oxy anions provide an example:
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ClO− hypochlorite
ClO2− chlorite
ClO3− chlorate
ClO4− perchlorate
Naming ionic compounds that contain polyatomic ions is similar to naming binary ionic
compounds. For example, the compound NaOH is called sodium hydroxide, because it
contains the Na+ (sodium) cation and the OH− (hydroxide) anion. As in binary ionic
compounds, when a metal that can form multiple cations is present, a Roman numeral
is required to specify the charge on the cation. For example, the compound FeSO4 is
called iron(II) sulfate, because it contains Fe2+.
Acids
An acid can be thought of as a molecule containing at least one hydrogen cation (H+)
attached to an anion. The nomenclature of acids depends on whether the anion contains
oxygen. If the anion does not contain oxygen, the acid is named with the prefix hydro-
and the suffix -ic. For example, HCl dissolved in water is called hydrochloric acid.
Likewise, HCN and H2S dissolved in water are called hydrocyanic and hydrosulfuric
acids, respectively.
If the anion of the acid contains oxygen, the name is formed by adding the suffix -ic or -
ous to the root name of the anion. If the anion name ends in -ate, the -ate is replaced by
-ic (or sometimes -ric). For example, H2SO4 contains the sulfate anion (SO42−) and is
called sulfuric acid; H3PO4 contains the phosphate anion (PO43−) and is called
phosphoric acid; and HC2H3O2, which contains the acetate ion (C2H3O2−), is called
acetic acid. For anions with an -ite ending, the -ite is replaced by -ous in naming the
acid. For example, H2SO3, which contains sulfite (SO32−), is called sulfurous acid; and
HNO2, which contains nitrite (NO2−), is named nitrous acid. The acids of the oxy anions
of chlorine are used here to illustrate the rules for naming acids with oxygen-containing
cations.
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formula name
H 4 P2 O7 pyrophosphoric acid
(HPO3keyboard_arrow_right
Home )3 Visual trimetaphosphoric acid
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H 2 S2 O3 thiosulfuric acid
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formula name
HF hydrofluoric acid
HI hydroiodic acid
Category: Artschlorite
HClO & Culture chlorous acid
2
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Jensen was apprenticed to a goldsmith at age 14. His artistic talents were briefly focused
on sculpture, but he returned to metalwork, primarily jewelry and silver pieces,
produced in the workshop he opened in Copenhagen in 1904. Jensen exhibited his
works at several major foreign exhibitions (winning a gold medal at the Brussels
Exhibition of 1910) and quickly built a reputation as an outstanding and highly original
silversmith. He moved to a larger workshop in 1912 and acquired his first factory
building in 1919.
By 1935 the firm had branches all over the world and carried more than 3,000 patterns
in open stock. Out of fairness to his customers, Jensen refused to discontinue old
patterns, a practice common among manufacturers of fine silver and tableware. After
his death the business was carried on by his son, Søren Georg Jensen. In 1973 the
company became part of the Royal Scandinavia Group.
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