SAINT JOSEPH SCHOOL Polynomial Functions MATHEMATICS GRADE 10 NOTE

Lesson 7
Zeros and Their Multiplicities
If the same factor of a polynomial 𝑓 and (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑘+1 is not factor of 𝑓, then 𝑐 is called a
zero of multiplicity 𝒌 of 𝒇.
Example
Find the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) and state its multiplicity.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 (𝑥 − 5)3 (𝑥 + 2)5 (𝑥 − 1)
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 25)(𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 25)
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2
Solution:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 (𝑥 − 5)3 (𝑥 + 2)5 (𝑥 − 1)
𝑓(𝑥) = 0 ⟹ 2𝑥 7 (𝑥 − 5)3 (𝑥 + 2)5 (𝑥 − 1)2 = 0
The zeros are 0,5, −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1.
 The factor 𝑥 occurs 4 times in 𝑓(𝑥)
Therefore, 0 has multiplicity 4
 The factor 𝑥 − 5 occurs 3 times in 𝑓(𝑥)
Therefore, 5 has multiplicity 3
 The factor 𝑥 + 2 occurs 5 times in 𝑓(𝑥)
Therefore, −2 has multiplicity 5
 The factor 𝑥 − 1 occurs one times in 𝑓(𝑥)
Therefore, 1 has multiplicity 1
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 25)(𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 25)
𝑓(𝑥) = 0
(𝑥 2 − 25)(𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 25) = 0
(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 5)2 = 0
Therefore, -5 is a zero of multiplicity 3 and 5 is a zero multiplicity 1.
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1
𝑥3 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0
𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 + 1) = 0
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 1) = 0
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
(𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 − 1) = 0
Therefore, -1 is a zero of multiplicity 2 and 1 is a zero multiplicity 1.
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SAINT JOSEPH SCHOOL Polynomial Functions MATHEMATICS GRADE 10 NOTE

d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2
𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 = 0
2 is one of its zeros.

𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥 𝑐 𝑟 𝑥2 𝑥 𝑐 𝑟
2 1 1 -3 -5 -2 -1 1 3 3 1
2 6 6 2 -1 -2 -1
1 3 3 1 0 1 2 1 0

(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1) = 0
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) = 0
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)2 = 0
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)3 = 0
Therefore, -1 is a zero of multiplicity 3 and 2 is a zero multiplicity 1.
Lesson 8
Location Theorem
A polynomial function with rational coefficients may have no rational root.
Examples:
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 2 has all irrational zeros
4±√42 −4(1)(−2)
Use quadratic formula, 𝑥 = , 𝑥 = 2 + √6 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2 − √6
2

2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2 has rational and irrational zeros

𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2 = 0
𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 1) − 2(𝑥 − 1) = 0
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 2) = 0
(𝑥 − 1) = 0 𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 2 − 2) = 0
𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 = 2
𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = ±√2
Location Theorem
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be real numbers such that 𝑎 < 𝑏. If 𝑓 is a polynomial function such
that 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) have opposite signs, then there is at least one zero of 𝑓 between
𝑎 and 𝑏.
Examples
1. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 – 6𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 12𝑥– 6. Construct a table of values and use the
location theorem to locate the zeros of 𝑓 between successive integers.

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SAINT JOSEPH SCHOOL Polynomial Functions MATHEMATICS GRADE 10 NOTE

Solution: Construct a table and look for changes in sign as follows:

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
f(x) 210 38 -10 -6 2 -10 -42 -70 -44 102

Since 𝑓(– 2) = 38 > 0 and 𝑓(– 1) = – 10 < 0, we see that the value of 𝑓(𝑥) changes
from positive to negative between –2 and –1. Hence, by the location theorem, there
is a zero of 𝑓 (𝑥) between 𝑥 = – 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = – 1. Since 𝑓 (0) = – 6 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 (1) = 2 >
0, there is also one zero between 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1.
Similarly, there are zeros between 𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 2 and between 𝑥 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 6.
2. Using the location theorem , show that the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 – 2𝑥 2 – 1
has a zero between x=1 and x= 2.
Solution: 𝑓(1) = – 2 < 0. And 𝑓(2) = 23 > 0.
Here, 𝑓(1) is negative and 𝑓(2) is positive. Therefore, there is a zero between
𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 2.

Lesson 9
Rational Root Test
𝑝
If the rational number , in its lowest terms, is a zero of the polynomial
𝑞

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑎0 with integer coefficients, then 𝑝 must be a factor

of 𝑎0 and 𝑞 must be a factor of 𝑎𝑛 .
1. Find the possible rational roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 6
Our constant factors are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6. These are the ones that go on top. The
leading factors are ±1, ±3. We'll stick these below. Let's write all the combinations
1 2 2
out: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ± 3 . Our final answer is − 3 , 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 .
2
So, by the factor theorem, 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 6 = (x − 1)(x − 3) (x + 3)

2. Find the possible rational roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 1

Possible roots: ±1.
𝑓(1) ≠ 0, 𝑓(−1) ≠ 0,
So, we can conclude that the given polynomial has no rational zeros.
3. Find all the roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 + 4.
Possible roots: ±1, ±2, and ±4.
Using the remainder theorem,
𝑓(1) = 0, 𝑓(−1) = 0, 𝑓(2) = 0, 𝑓(−2) = 0,

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SAINT JOSEPH SCHOOL Polynomial Functions MATHEMATICS GRADE 10 NOTE

Our roots are x = 1, -1, 2, and -2.

1 1
4. Find all the roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 − 2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥

Let 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑓(𝑥). Thus 𝑔(𝑥) will have the same zeros, but has integer coefficients.
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥
𝑥 is a factor, so 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − x + 4) = 𝑥𝑔(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥) has a constant term of 4 and leading coefficient of 1.
The possible zeros are ±1, ±2, ±4.
Using the remainder theorem, 𝑘 (1) = 0, 𝑘 (– 1) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 (4) = 0
So, by the factor theorem 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥– 1) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥– 4).
1
Hence, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥– 1) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥– 4) and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
2
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 – 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥– 4).
2

Therefore, the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑟𝑒 0, ±1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4.

Lesson 10
Graphs of Polynomial Functions

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