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Biological
Approach

Ms. Stephanie Bugeja

Dr. Olivia Galea-Seychell
Dr. Miriam Geraldi-Gauci
Dott. Mireille Vila
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Additional compulsory reading

• Chapter: 4
• Book: Simply Psychology
• Author: Michael W. Eysenck

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Biological Approach
What is the Biological Approach?

-Our behaviour is strongly influenced by the brain - both the

structure and the functions of the brain.

-The biological approach underpins the importance of the brain

and it also focuses on how our nature (hereditary aspects) are
significant to the structure and functioning of the brain.

-The biological approach was developed in Psychology as a direct

influence of the work of Charles Darwin – Theory of Evolution.

-This eventually lead to the development of Evolutionary

Psychology.

Evolutionary Psychology

- According to Evolutionary Psychology, evolution has

shaped the brain, body and behaviour.
- Because of evolutionary pressures there was no other
option but to adapt.
- So humans inherited characteristics (nature) that were
pivotal to their survival in the environment they inhabited.
- As a result of evolution, the brain has also increased in size
over the millenia.
- The human brain is much larger and more efficient in its
functioning than it was. This adaptation was necessary to
develop the ability to think and reason.

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A very famous debate:

Nature and Nurture

Heredity Environment
Genetics determine Experience
who determines who we
we are are

Nature vs Nurture
(Heredity vs Experiences)
- Differences in humans can be either due to nature (heredity)
or nurture (experiences) or both.
- The biological approach considers heredity (nature) as being
very important.
- Although there is an amount of instinctive behaviour
(e.g. reflexes) in humans, the majority of behaviour is
learnt through experiences.
- However, we cannot ignore innate/genetic (heredity)
factors.
- By means of family and twin studies (monozygotic and
dizygotic twins), researchers focused on the way genetic
factors affect behaviour.

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Nature vs Nurture
(Heredity vs Experiences)
- Family Studies have focused on how similar are family
members with respect to a trait
(example: personality or the occurrence of
schizophrenia).
- Twin Studies focused on monozygotic (identical) twins
and dizygotic (fraternal) twins and assessed the
similarities in both appearance and behaviour (studies
on intelligence) amongst others.
- In some cases, twins were adopted by separate families
and so it was possible to research, which traits were a
result of heredity and which influenced by the
environment.

Nature vs Nurture
(Heredity vs Experiences)
In the discussion about the significance of nature and
nurture, the following is pivotal:
— Active covariation: Children of differing genetic abilities
look for situations that reinforce their genetic
differences.
— Passive covariation: Parents of high genetic ability
provide a more stimulating environment than parents of
low genetic ability.
— Reactive covariation: Individuals of high genetic abilities
receive a different treatment. Their abilities influence
how others treat them. They are more often than not
treated better or given more opportunities.

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The Nervous System

The Nervous system contains all the nerve cells in the

body. It is made up of between 15 to 20 billion
neurons (nerve cells) and a larger number of glia
(small cells).
It is is divided in two (2) sub-systems:

ØThe Central Nervous System (CNS)

ØThe Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Central Nervous System

• The Central Nervous system (CNS) consists of

the brain and spinal cord.

• It is protected by bone and fluid circulating

around it.

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Central Nervous System - – Spinal

Cord
—Spinal cord - nerves running from the
brain to the lower part of the back.
—The spinal cord and brain are
interconnected and so they work
together.
—The spinal cord has 2 major functions.

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Transmission of Information
Function 1
Sensory information into the Peripheral Nervous system
which is then relayed to the brain(CNS).
This is done through the use of receptor nerves.

Function 2
Motor information from the brain(CNS) to the Peripheral
Nervous System.
This is done through the effector nerves.

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Receptor nerves transmit information to the brain via the spinal cord.

Instructions from the brain are sent via the effector nerves.

However, with reflexes the information does not go to the brain but
goes directly from receptor nerves to effector nerves.

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The Inner and Outer Parts of the Nervous System

- The central nervous system - The peripheral nervous

[CNS] consists of the brain and
spinal cord.
- The CNS makes decisions for
the body.
system [PNS] consists of
‘the rest’ of the nervous
system.
- It gathers and sends
information to and from the
rest of the body.

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Peripheral Nervous System

(henceforth PNS)

—The PNS consists of all the nerve cells of the

body not contained within CNS.
—It is used to transmit information between the
CNS and receptors and effectors outside the
CNS.
—Peripheral nervous system is linked with
external sensory organs and receptors in
internal structures.

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Peripheral Nervous System

(henceforth PNS)

The PNS is composed of the somatic nervous system and the

autonomic nervous system.
• The Somatic nervous system is concerned with
interactions with external world and so voluntary
movements of the skeletal muscles.
• The Autonomic nervous system is concerned with
body’s internal environment and so involuntary
movement of the non-skeletal muscles.

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Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic NS - controls voluntary movements of
skeletal muscles. All movement (except reflexes)
involve Somatic NS. It consists of nerves carrying
signals from eyes, ears, skeletal muscles and the skin
to CNS. In turn it also carries signals from CNS to
skeletal muscles , skin etc…
Autonomic NS - controls involuntary movement of
non -skeletal muscles (e.g. heart, lungs, eyes,
stomach and blood vessels of internal organs).
The Autonomic NS is divided in :
- Sympathetic nervous system
- Parasympathetic nervous system.

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The somatic nervous system: What happens when you decide to move your
fingers?
(1)The decision arises in the brain;
(2)is transmitted via the spinal cord;
(3)transfers to another nerve (or series of nerves);
(4)the instruction is transmitted to the skeletal muscles;
(5)the muscles contract or relax, moving the fingers.

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Peripheral Nervous System -

Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
• This function starts working when there is need for awakening,
excitement and energy. These changes prepare the body for fight
or flight and so it is the arousing system.

ØSo what happens when the SNS is affected?

ØHigher heart rate
ØReduced activity in the stomach
ØPupil dilation or expansion
ØRelaxation of the bronchi in lungs

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Peripheral Nervous System - Parasympathetic

Nervous System (PNS)

§ This function starts working to calm down and to save energy.

It is involved when we rest and digest.
§ So what happens when the PNS is affected?
ØDecreased heart rate
ØIncreased activity in the stomach
ØPupil contraction
ØConstriction of bronchi of the lungs

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Peripheral Nervous System -

Autonomic Nervous System
Both the Sympathetic NS and Parasympathetic NS are important
functions and need to be activated.
§ What happens to the person who has the sympathetic working
more than the parasympathetic? The person will feel:

ØStressed

ØAnxious

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Central Nervous System -

Structure and Functions of the Brain

—The brain is divided in 3 main regions.

ØForebrain

ØMidbrain

ØHindbrain

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Forebrain
• The forebrain is located towards the top and front of
the brain. It has the following main parts:

a.Cerebrum – 70% of all neurons in CNS. Crucial role in

thinking, use of language and other cognitive skills.

b.Limbic system – Amygdala (anger and aggression) and

Hippocampus (learning and memory). So it regulates
the emotions and is significant for learning and
memory.

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Forebrain cont…

c. Thalamus – it is involved in wakefulness and

sleep.
d. Hypothalamus – control of body temperature,
hunger, thirst, sexual behaviour, endocrine
system (produces and releases hormones) and
reactions to stress.
e. Basal Ganglia – voluntary motor control, motor
(procedural) learning, eye movements,
cognitive function and emotions.

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Midbrain
The midbrain is involved in vision, hearing and control of movement.
It contains the reticular activating system which regulates sleep,
arousal and wakefulness influencing heart rate and breathing rate.
•The Tectum and Cerebellum are main components of midbrain.
• The Tectum consists of visual receptors and auditory receptors.
• The Cerebellum is also part of the midbrain but also the
hindbrain. It is involved in balance and coordination. (See details
– Hindbrain).

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Hindbrain
• The hindbrain is known as the reptilian brain. It consists of three (3)
parts:
ØMedulla oblongata – control of breathing, digestion and swallowing.
This is also part of the reticular activating system.
ØPons – control of consciousness (shared with midbrain since - it is
also part of the reticular activating system). Also involved with vision
and it is a relay station between different parts of the brain.
ØCerebellum – body balance and coordination. ‘overlearned’ skills are
found here e.g. Driving a car, riding a bicycle (also shared with
midbrain).

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The CEREBRAL CORTEX

§It is the outer layer of the cerebrum, only two millimetres deep.
§It is important in terms of our ability to perceive, think, remember and use language.
§It consists of four lobes, which have different functions.
§The entire brain is divided in two hemispheres.

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What are the functions of the

Cerebral cortex?

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Frontal lobe Reasoning and abstract thinking, motor

processing (planning and control of
movement – primary motor cortex).
Significant for fine motor skills.

Parietal lobe Somatosensory processing - sensations in

the skin and muscles of the body.
Receives information regarding senses
(temperature, pain, pressure).

Temporal lobe Auditory processing. Involved with speech

perception. Respond to sounds – high or
low pitch. Meaning of words and concepts
stored here. So if damaged person will
have semantic dementia – loss of
information about word meaning.
Occipital lobe Visual processing. 50% of cerebral cortex
devoted to visual processing.
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Hemispheric Specialisation

oThe brain has two (2) hemispheres. Each hemisphere differs in

its function – hemispheric specialisation.
oOne hemisphere might be more dominant over the other for
certain processes.
oFor example in the great majority of people, language abilities
are based mainly in the left hemisphere.

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The intact but lateralized brain

Right-Left Hemisphere Differences
Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere
• Right Hand Control • Left Hand Control
• Writing • Emotional Expression
• Language • Spatial awareness
• Scientific Skills • Music
• Mathematics • Creativity
• Lists • Imagination
• Logic • Dimension
• Linear Thinking Mode • Gestalt (Whole Picture)
• Holistic Thinking Mode

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Our Two
Hemispheres

Lateralization (“going to one side”)

The two hemispheres serve some different functions.
How do we know about these differences?
§Brain damage studies revealed many functions of the left
hemisphere.
§Brain scans and split brain studies show more about the functions of
the two hemispheres, and how they coordinate with each other.

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Hemispheric Specialisation

• Most of what is know about hemispheric

specialisation comes from split-brain patients.
• Most of these patients suffered from epilepsy
(seizures) and their Corpus Callosum (bridge) was
cut.
• Without Corpus Callosum information is not
transferred from one hemisphere to the other.

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Split- Brain Studies

To end severe whole-brain seizures, some people have had

surgery to cut the corpus callosum,
a band of axons connecting the hemispheres.

Researchers have studied the impact of this surgery on patients’

functioning.

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Plasticity: The Brain is Flexible

If the brain is damaged, especially in the general association areas of

the cortex:
§ the brain does not repair damaged neurons, BUT it can restore
some functions
§ it can form new connections, reassign existing networks, and insert
new neurons, some grown from stem cells

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Brain Organisation

We have 3 principles about the brain organisation.

1.It is interconnected – modules in the brain are connected.

2.It is hierarchical – processing takes place at various levels.

3.Functional differentiation – certain areas are responsible for

specific functions.

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Ways of Studying the Brain

• Event-related potentials (ERP) – stimulus is presented and scalp-electrodes record

brain activity. Used for timing of cognitive processing.

• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) – technique that works using the detection
of positrons (particles emitted by some radioactive substances). Used to study
episodic memory.

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Ways of Studying the Brain cont…

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI and fMRI)- radio waves are

used to excite atoms in the brain. Thus producing magnetic
changes. These changes are recorded on the computer giving a
3d picture.
• It tells us about the structure of the brain rather than the
functions.
• fMRI are used to understand functions of the brain. T o
understand which brain regions are being activated.

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Further information…

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_2QFWJQP1Sc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=olsLiMXjpEs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9N5qbMFtKQ4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UbwzyO3qBZU

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