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Modern Transistor Circuits
for Beginners

BY
CLIVE SINCLAIR

BERNARDS (PUBLISHERS) LTD.

THE GRAMPIANS
WESTERN GATE
LONDON W.6
 First PublishedMay, 1962
ReprintedMay, 1963
ReprintedJune, 1964
ReprintedOctober,1965
ReprintedAugust, 1966
ReprintedMay, 1967
ReprintedJune, 1968
ReprintedApril, 1969
ReprintedMay, 1970
ReprintedMarch,1971
I ReprintedMay, 1972
ReprintedNovember,1972
ReprintedJune, 1973

Wc invite all authors.whethernew or well cstablished,to submitmanuscripts

hr publication.Thc manuscriptsmay daal with any lacct of clectronicsbut should
{ways bc practical.Any circuit diagramsthat may be includcdshould havebccn
thorougbly chcckddby thc author. If you aro consideringtrying your hand at
that you lct us havca sliort summafyof thc
writing this type of book we suggest
subjcctyou intendto cover.We will thenbe able to lct you know the sizc of bool
rcquircdand pcrhapsgive you someadviceon presentation.

1
d I.S.B.N. 0 900162 36

G) le62
;

Printedby Krisson Printing timited,'184

for Bernards(Publishers)Ltd., The
Reprintedin
 \

CONTENTS

Chapter I The ComponentsUsed ln Transistor Circuits

Chapter 2 Simple Translstor Radio Cireuits
OhaPter 3 Regenerative and Reflex Recelvers
-
I
{
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I
_l
 MODERN TRANSISTORCIRCUITS FOR BEGINNERS
CHAPTER I
The ComponentsUsedin TransistorCircuits
About a dozendifferent types of componeDtare
used in the circuits containedin this book and in
other transistor circuits. Each type of component
has its own symbol and the meaning of these
svmbols must be understood before a circuit
diagram can be properly interpreted.Circuit dia-
gramsare merely intendedto show what compon-
ents are used in a piece of electronic equipment
and the way in which they are connected.They
do not showwhat physicalpositioneachcompon-
ent has in the equipment.It would be possible
to use drawingsof the individual componentsin
such a diagram and this is sometimesdone but
it becomesfar too clumsya methodwherecomplex
circuitsare concerned, Someof the earliercircuits
in this book have both circuit diagrams(those
usrng symbols)and wiring diagrams(thoseusing
actual illustrations of the components).These
shouldenablethe constructorto gain a knowledge
of the circuit as a whole. One important point to
rememberis that specificationof a componentdoes
not necessarily indicatethe size or shapeof that
component.For example,if a 500 pF tuning cap-
acitor is specifiedand no other details are given
any 500 pF tuning capacitormay be used.The
sizeand shapeof 500pF tuning capacitorsmadeby
difierent manufacturersvary enormously,as do the
pricesand in this casethe choice is up to the con-
^tructor. If, however,a particular make of 500 pF
tuning capacitor is specified,this make should, if
possible,be used since its size has probably been
chosenby the designerto fit in well with the set.
It is not always necessaryto adherepreciselyto
rue specificationgiven for a componentbut it is
difficult for a beginnerto know when deviation is
possibleand to what degree.In this chaptersome
indication of generally permissible deviation is
given and thr6ughouf thle Uoot the possibilities
for deviation in a given circuit are outlined. The
constructorshould take note of these indications
since they will help to provide the experiencehe
needs.
Resistors.
The degree of resistancein a simple circuit
determinesthe amount of current that flows in
the circuit for a given voltage. The greater the
resistancethe smallerthe flow of current.Resistors
are two terminal'componentshaving a fixed and
known degree of resistance.The resistance is
measuredin ohms and may be anything from less
than I ohm to many millions of ohms. For the
sakeof convenienceI thousandohms is known as
1 Kilohm and I million ohms is known as one
megohm.These are often further abbreviatedto
lK-ohm and lM ohm respectively.The Greek
letter omegais often used as an abbreviationof
the word ohm on circuit diagrams.
Any value of resistanceis possiblebut normally
only certain " preferred" valuesare used- these
are :- 1.0,1.2,1.5,1.8,2.2,2.7,3.3,3.9,4.7,5.6,
6.8, 8.2 ohms and repeatingin the next decade
10, 12, 15 ohms, etc.Thus a circuit may specifya
resistor of 2.7K ohms (2.7 thousandohms) but
not one of 2.5K ohms sincethis is not a standard
value.
.Another piece of information normally given
when a resistoris specifiedis the power rating,
i.e. the amount of dower a resistoi can handlE.
Resistorsare normaily rated at one of the follow.
ing { watt,} watt, } watt, I watt and 5 watts.With
transistorcircuits, however,resistorsvery rarely
need handle more than + watt so that any of
these may be used. I watt and I watt resiitors
are most common.If a I watt resistor is specified
there is no reasonwhy a resistorof highei ratinp
it'""t0 b; il;h, t'*ati i;ru;;i;:
so long"oi "i-i-i"r-ti
as thereis sufficientroom to accommodate
it, the higher rating being larger.
Also normally specifiedis the toleranceof the
resistor.Resistorscan not be made with precisely
the resistancespecified and they always deviate
from it slightly one way or the other.The tolerance
is the measureof accuracy of the resistor and is
expressedin terms of a percentagedeviation, thus
! 5%, X l0%, or + 20%. For example,a 100K
ohm resistor which has a tolerance of t 10%
may in fact have any value between 90K ohms
and ll0K ohms. The designerof a circuit knows
what deviation is permissiblefor each resistor he
specifiesthus if he specifiesthat a certain resistor
should be ! l0% then a t 20oloresistor should
not be used.A X 5% type could be usedhowever
becausethis would be even nearer the ideal value
than necessary. The wider the tolerance the
cheaperthe resistors, t 20% being the cheapest.
When no toleranceis specified,as is often the case,
a + 20% type may be used.
The value of a resistor may be printed on it
but more usually a colour code is used. This is
illustrated in Fig. I and should be interpreted as
follows :- The colour of the body (l) or of the
first band (2) gives the first figure. The tip (l) or
secondband (2) gives the secondfigure. The band
or dot in the centre (l) or the third band gives the
number of noughtsfollowing the first two figures.
The fourth band (2) or the gold or silver tip (l)
indicates the tolerance. The absenceof a third
band or gold or silver tip meansthat the tolerance
is + 20o/".Typical examplesare given opposite:-
 FOR BEGINNBRS
MODERN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS

d Value
b c
7
Black Silver l0 ohms t l0%
Brown Black 22.000ohms t 5%
Red Yellow Gold
Red None 4.711qhms ! 20% i.e.
Violet Red
Ycllow 4.700ohms + 20'/.
Blue Silver -2b meeohms+ 10% i.e'
Rcd Black olms t 10%
zb.o-oo,ooo
The unit of capacitanceis tle.fa1ad Uu1 $n93
Volume Controls -*
tiris-is an extreriely large unit it is -normat to
be -- or
Volume controls are resistors that can
m,axl'
l'iii i'i t Jii" r' Ji i.'i"t"t"?t (mrd' millionths.a
varied betweei zero ohms and a spe.c.ltred picofarad(pf'- millionths.ot
mum value by the rotation of a splndle to wnlcn ti.ibiiiool. Even a micrifarad is a very large
"'i"i'ioi'"tia
;'i;b-i; diniitea (spindleconlrol.tvpe).orbv value tor a capacitor.
"6;ou"iffi'ui"
rotation of the body of the -co-ntrolrtsell (rlm iiuioto into two mSintvpes'€lec'
conEol type). Many types include a slngle
pole
troiuti. and non-electrolytic' The latter.rangeln
ilIrch-*iri.li is usc'daithe on/oft switch for the ;;fi;i';;"b;'i i pf fo t mf{' a-np1$eformrcr
eouipment in which the control rs useo.' ffi;;bili i*to. to^auout 1,000 mf+ E]eclrolv.-t1c
'In
a volume control, rotation ot the -splnqle ;;;ifit;normallv confinedto A'F' circuitry
rs
causesa metal wiper to move ftom one end to tne uniiit.v are polarised.That is to sal oneenc they
;til-"f a carUoi or wire track' Three -external ;;d;; uno itt" other end is negative and
;ffi# i* pio"ioio. one for eachendof the il;; ;d;vt bi conneciedthe ri[ht. wav round'
-iioe
triit-inC one for the metal wiper'-Two extra coT- fi;;" G;ii"; ot an electrolvticit^,3iq:tt
tacts aro provided for the switch when one ls ionnectedto the outer casingarrd
included.
'-- "^r'*""vi-iitiurv
itris6roviaes'a convenient means of identification'
iiti-tnott commonly usedvaluesof vol-umecon- 3ii*5ii"li-itt. -or
pi,iitiu"-ina is indicatedbv.a red
ttoi'ioi-iiuitti.ior ciriuits arc 2J! ohms, 5K ohms' ilil^ili tl paint bv.a p.ositiyg .'1ry;J"
lOK ohms and 50K ohms. (The value relerrrng itt.-"ir*if oiagram a positive-sign is use<lto-:19*
"i'ipr'i-.t'
to the total resistanceof the track) b-ut volume *iti.it tiO. is'which.^Non-elecuolytic- capacttors
controlsare made with valuesranging from about #;t;;ttit.a ana *tv be connectedeither way
-5 ohmsto about 5 meg ohms' round.
triii"-oin rent tyFesof track are used:- iiJn-electrolytic capacitorsare made in
various
riniat. ios;ithmic a'nh semi'logarithmic(log' and t""ii'*rti"ft Oiffer id the dielectric or insulating
r.mi-foe.i Thesedefinitionsrefer to the. rate is
at are paper'
-rirelinex'
ti,It"riut- ot.O' The most common types.
;#f""tli; iiiiii"n.t changes as .the spindle ffiffi i"ii piiliii: ipolvstvrene, -etc)'
rotated.With the linear type the re-slstance cnanges il' ;;;y;pfil,"til"t'it 6te' are interchangeablg-
lype ts
at the samerate all along the track but rn tne log' iiiat is io 3dy' it does not matter which how'
and semi-log.types. the resistancechangeror a uiiA. Wn.t.'a particular typg-is specified'
;il;a;.;;%t i jtation is much greaterat one end ever.it shouldbe usedif -posslble'..
"';!;;ii;; ,:-^r .
6t ttre tr-act than at the other' the rapto cnange ttre vatue-ofa caPacitorrequiredfor
working vol-
.nd .or..tponding to the .position of. maxlmum fiitii,i,,r"i p6.iti* io a circdit the
;;i;;:^i-f';ne-oi ttrese three tvpes is.specified "
i"ff^il;6rni"liv-ip."into' Tltit-it an indication
iitir.i ttt. other may be used instead without oTit. -u*i.uti, vbltageappliedto the capacltor
^ii.iineitttperformancl of the circuit but most of
"f i; ;#;;;il"c oTtrt" iiituif' with non'electrolvtics
;#';iil; fi-"AG; mavthenoccurat one.of iii"^rJtilti typesaremorethanatle tqiope
tii; ;fr;;?a; of thetrackmaking setting i,liiri trt""i,ign.;i
delicate ""tiageu6iiug.t encourtered in ordinarv
oi tni uot"*. lesseasy.In most casesthis will
not and the worling voltas€rauns
-therefdre,
;;;;-ffii;i*uitry
matter greatly. ;;;;i' be takeninto consideratton'
\iilt ;i&;;iiiict,-ho*tuit, more care m'st be
Fixed CaPacitors ;ffi.-,i',ypi.ui to.poouni calledfor.miglt be
A capacitor consists ossentially.of two ,m9tal u
air-gap f;iA.'-o-'rl.w. (volts^working)' ln !his- or "^T:
o1e of
ofut.r i'epurited from one another by an otlers 4 mfd. 12 v.w. capacitor may-be uq{
Sfii-t',i-'"i-i"tutating material' A capacitor iligiti-t'""it.!" stiil if.it is smalienough'.but "?
y'*'
i'ii"iorJt"'i1"-ili--t-o o'"' but permits an A'c' must not o.-"ita as it ltould probably
caoacitor
ii"Jffi oit" l'he largerthevafucofthe capaci' an be'destroYed.
'- 'a
iu'niJ ttte'tiiwer its resistanceor impedanceto. is Wntn capacitor.of a required. valueto is nol
X:t: tilil';- tich frequencv A'c' signal ^uuit"uji it is'normally quite-permissible use
i*ilatc-r.tt by a c-apacitcir of i givenvaluethan il,?'li^itili.i uiioe. bnd of nuch lower value
i-1;-AE:-sihur o? low fre-qu?ncv' Tu*
of t''
capacr- should
-- not be usedhowever'
it"ieiltihl fr"qiencythelowerthevalue given.degree it is *orthwhile remembering tlat the valueof
ffi;a;i;"E tb_- pasta signalwith a un
""rt.Lofytic is nlver very critical'
i,Tritil. ivtt"i"uEi ttrevilue of the capacitor no
tvi,c iJipecinedtheusa-of8 mfd
rfrnJtJi e itiia' "apacitor
0... ittoUA be Passedat all'

I
 MODERN TRANSISTOR CTRCUITS FOR BEGINNERS

BRITTSH
AND RMA-JAN[USA]RESISTOR
ANDCAPACITOR
COLOUR
CODES
INSTRUCTIONS - DEr-TtFy COr.rcNENt cy laFEnEtrcs to |LLUSTRAT|O{S tN IOWER COLWs. TA€N US€ TXE 'A!!e
rMMeDht€Ly gElot p D€TERMIN€ THE v^Lws EpR€sENtEo cy tre colciuFs.

RESISTORS CAPACITORS CAPACITORS CAPACITORS

ERITtSH,RMA/JAN MOULgEDM|CA MOULOED
PAPER cERAYtC
R'sIsTANCE IN OHMS COIOUn CooE6lVES CA'ACITY lN ,F qoLouR cs€ Grv€g cAP crTY tN lF coLoui coo€ GlvEs c^PlctrY tN fF
voLT cE RA'TNCS tN HUNOi€OS
l?6tm-Taio=tsi!;l f6{d wsEtrl oa volts. oNE colouR g NO |ioEG6-iNsui:i6TiEl
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IXAMPLE.6.ET SYSIEY: €xAwLE, rcUtEO rN!U!ATE0rtPE :

warTE-iaryx-on€EN'! ts rF bl
WHIIE-S|LVCR-lRdN, CLAIS J.

Fig. l. Colour codc tor R3tistorJ ond Copqcitort.

Spindtc rlp. Rim control

tyP.
fr syfibol3 qr.d

Fig. 2. Volumc control lymbolr.

 MODERN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
or evena l0 mfd. type will not alter performance.
It is not wise,however,to use a value which is
noticeablyless than that specified,particularly
wheredc-couplingcapacitorsare concerned.
Someextremelysmall electrolyticscalled tan'
talum capacitorshave recentlybeen put on the
market. These have no specialpropertiesother
thantheir smallsizeand they may be usedwhcre-
everan electrolyticis specified.
VariaQleCapacitors.
Tuning is normally performedin a radio set by
meansof a variablecapacitor(oftencalleda tuning
capacitor).In simple receiversa singlegang type
is hormally used6ut in more complexsetsa twin
gang capacitor,which is, in eftect, two tuning
mechanically coupled,is needed.
capacitors
Until recentlythe majority of tuning capacitors
usedan air gap as the dielectricbut the needfor
miniaturisationhas now made typeswith a solid
dielectricmore popularwhereusewith transistors
is concerned. The smallestairgaptypesare about
ll" squarebv l" deep whereasa solid dielectric
cipacitor hai recently been introducedwhich is
only threefifths of an inch squareby threeeighths
of an inch deeo.
The maximdmcapacitance of tuning capacitors
designed for the broadcastbandrangesfrom about
l00pf. to 500pf. dependingon the design.In a
circuit which usesonly a single gang capacitor
the use of a type having a value other than that
specifiedwill alter the tuning range slightly but
will not affectthe performance. Circuitswhich use
two gang capacitorsare more critical, however,
and the type specifiedshould alwaysbe used. A
solid dieliitric'capacitor can always be used in
'olaceof an air dielectrictvpe of the samevalue.
As well as variablecaflicitors used for tuning
DurDoses there are semi-variabletypes known as
irinimerswhich are usedfor makiridsmall adjust-
mentsto some Dart of the circuit, Once set these
are normally noi varied.Twin gangtuning capa'
citors normally have two trimmers built-in; one
for eachgang-Theseare providedfor alignment
purposes.
The very small types of solid dielectrictuning
'care. shouldbe treatedwith a certainamount
caoacitor
of They are remarkablefor their sizebut can
be damagedquite easily by turning the spindle
beyondthe end stop.As a matterof interest,some'
thing over 100separatepartsare usedin a typical
capacitorof this type.
Coils,R.F.Chokesand FerriteRod Aerials.
The R.F, or radio frequencyparts of a radio
receiver noimally use several ioils of various
types.The first of theseis the R.F. transformeror
coil which forms part of the first tuned circuit.
In setswhich do not usean externalaeriala ferrite
rod aerial is normally used as the R.F. coil. A
ferriterod aerialis an R.F. transformerwound on
a rod or slab madeof a nraterialknown as ferrite.
The lengthof the rod may be anythingfrom l|" to
FOR BEGINNERS
a foot. The longer the rod the greaterthe signal
it will oick up.-The svmbol foi an R.F' coil is
shownin Fig.'6. Someiimes, when the coil is ad'
justableas ii usuallythe case,an arrow is drawn
throuehthe coil.
An I.F. transformer is merely an R.F. trans'
former which is tuned and designedto operate
at a single fixed frequency.Thls typ,e of coil- is
normalhi enclosedin a can which also includes
a fixed tapacitor acrossthe primaryt
An R.F. choke is a singlecoil of wire wound
on a dust iron core or ferrite core. The name is
normally abbreviatedto R.F.C. It- operatesin
the oopositewav to a capacitor.That is to say
it pads'esd.c. without any restrictionbut offers
to A.C' which in'
an'impedance(or resistance)
creaseswith frequency.
-and
R.F. transformers chokes are specified
by meansof their inductance.The unit of induc-
tanceis the Henry but for R.F. this is ratherla.rge
and it is more nbrmal to talk in terms of milli-
Henries (thousandthsof a Henry) or mH and
microHenries(millionths of a Henry). A typical
R.F. choke might have an inductanceof 2.5mH
-Medium
and a typical Wave aerial coil might
have an-inductanceof 400 microHenries.
In many circuits for the home constructor
someor ail of the R.F. coils are home made in
which case full constructionaldetails' including
the numberof turns of wire, are normallygiven.
A.F. Transformers.
A.F. transformersare structurally similar to
'of but consistof a greatmany more turns
R.F. types
often very thin wire. Their inductanceis often
of the order of several Henries.
Two main typesare usedin traxsistorcircuitry.
The first is thb interstage transformer which is
designedto match the output impedanceof one
traniistor to the input inipedanCeof the ne.xt.
The second is the- outpul transformer which
matchesthe output impedanceof the last tran-
sistor to the impedanceof the loudspeaker.A.F.
transformer normally consist of two windings;
4 prima[y and a secondary.In some casesone
or'the other of theseis centretapped.The turns
ratio, that is, the ratio betweenthe number of
turns in the primary and the numberin the secon'
dary. is nofmally-included in the specification.
Som6times, the impedanceratio is quoted,instead
in which casethe'turns ratio can be calculated
bv takine the square root. For example,if the
imoedancie ratio is 16 to I (often written 16:l)
the turns ratio will be 4 : I and if the impedance
ratio is 50 : I the turns ratio will be about 7 : l.
An A.F. choke is identical to a transformer
exceotthat it has no secondary.The symbol is
also'the samebut with tho secondaryomitted.
The various leads of an A.F. transformercan
normally be identified by a -colour code' Each
manufacturertendsto have his own colour cotle
unfortunatelybut detailsare normally ir:ludr:d
with the transformer itself.
 i
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 FOR BBGINNBRS
MODERN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
complicated
s and Earpieces for use with hearing aids' For,mo-re low
Loudspeakers,Headphone i"iriJJ, iiiiii-e..o t6 operate lou-dspeakers'
'.iititi"ltv-i";pieces
transistors are quite satisfactory'
Loudspeakerssuitable for use.with anc
hrge variety of sizes'.shapes
#;";5-d; wtth
areavailabre Batteries.

ffir";;?*,""i'r**"t#A*lf$iif
t{r#lj}f$ ii*Er:jres
Larger sizesare also aval'
tJii?i. i'riJ-t."tier the speaker
The word battery really means.:t1t-t:1,::llt a
ioiieJ toeither but it is often used to-descrtbe
i;;-'i;;;T;*il,
the morep,ower i,Jiirl"i. ittiJtiig-r'itnitot"
ana so, for the.sake.or con-
wittueadopted here'
volumelever'
;r".i;ilrii; ffi;; it to a satisfactorv Two different types of battery are 'nov-made
use with transistors' lne
*iri.tt uit suitabl6-for
a loudspeaker
The first specificationgiven for impedan-ces ;osTcffffi-uno tttt cheapestis the zinc-carbon
common
ir il'J-ifipto""'"..'ilt 'n6st values. i""l't,iiii ut those used in torches'-Zinc- carbon
i.': i"i ro ohmsandthese arenormally in a great variety of shapes
great ii"li.tilt'"tiuuiituut. -aesigned
ili;iih an-outputtransformer'A lanv ffii-t1;;;t spi.iut tvptt for transistor
Iirttr imp.ounces are possible howeveru11-'T1lv *d'made bn ttre layer princtple--can
to avoldtne !ii"i"i"."i
Iiii,iitJ'i,"i ^-iigtt i*ptouncespeak-er a spgllir ;:l'd;;d ;iiv' rnt ott"t.tvie id the Mallorv
;;Jj'i;;" tiansformei'!h-e1 ii"i.i,*'JJr-*rtittt it availablein a wide YTi-ttY
"uiput is specified in a circuit' u"t i" verv few multi'cell
#; ffifid;iqtotqqti; theuse-oi1a ;i"^;ilAt;;i'titi,t
itai itptaan"e sh-olldbe usedsince will normatty units. They are most uittot wntn a very -small
speakerhaving a dlfierent impedance or in distor- ;#i; -i"
;.11'i';a;ii;d (ihe smallest,the RM.3l2'
i5J,ii i"-" ."frtiderablelossbf power ii'i?""ri!i it"'" .tpiit"l or where-constantvol-
i#'ic.;;;'uiu to* volume llevel' Wh-en a circuit fqt:i!"'
taee with life is requrred'tittn
factorthat controlslhe"Per- 'h;;;"b;6tv'utto-
;";.;;;v-b;Gry one should be used^srnce
Anotherimportant ipecified becauseoJ ifs
f"#;;;;;iT ioudspeaker is the strengthot rne it
as-so many A merturv battery TUI^1l:.uv'
i"^.i"ii.-riti. is norinallyexpressed unit masnet
l;;lui fi;;;'ti;t.
of a zinc-carbonone' however'
d;i;; it cuutt beiig the 'of i'. iitJo'i"'place
"- lowest gtreigth normally used rs fidTft;i";';-l,o;e.i life if the two are the same
#.dth. ihe
:;r;q;iliiri:["fi{!:ffi
",:'fl,*ff
verv smallestloudspeal
size.

Diodes.
iildoo;ffi" i' uudutii'i-'tiong"t lluc1:!-l':d' A diodeis a two terminaldevicewhich.conducts
the m-agnetit
Naiu*r-rv, ti,. stronger llt?.I91"-"* in on.- tilttttion but not .in the othe'r'
limitation-of lsed rn
pensiveis the speaxet"Wiitti"tthe gauss maqlet tt.r. ait many typ-esmade but tho-se in tttis
"l;;;;6'-
speaKer.with a high sir'ctr-ai those described
cost, then, a to one with tr.niit"i-.ii.tiis point contact
should alwaysue useo'in-pieferEncl ii""n- itt known as germanium
a low gaussmagnet' diodes.
d-o*
With headphones,manufacturers 1{,nP' Diodesare rather proneto-damagedue 199ut'
.irih;"fi f;^d'i"'t"i--;g"et
-it
"ttt"
strensth ?$The
Jh' t'ritiii-tolp..lai cuit iiioito be taken when sold-
impe-dance'
only informatron grven as impgn-ant .tittg ti"- into a circuit'
specific impedance" not notmally most circuits One end of a diode is normallycolo.ured.red
or
a! it is with loudspeaiiirs-utcaotP than is actually tana round it' Tttil i: known
deliver very mucn toii- po*tt. rtui t.,i*ti-*irii"
indicatedas such
itii,iila io'otiu"a pairo-fheadpiones'
19-'T1*'- liirt! " i,*iii"t .no unJli uiuallv
;ffi^;d;*v Manv:'^t:lf'1"'t
is noinJcessary' on a circuit diagram'
i ::
;;iii;;iti;;a specrnc
oursivins "1, *l-:i,Tffl':. *l*' #l:
2:b;b*,
"tJll;iiii,l'J''r;i;
-'
Transistors'
named- the
dance may be taKen as T:11':'f'^"X-:,"..-""
figure" A transistor has three te-rnrinals in fig' 10
ttigtt impedanceas above this ."ii..;;;,"6;;; "nr"iiiJt' on the left
different types
".li
There are two difte-renttypesofea-rpiece'
crystal are shownconnectlonson the three
-rystal earfieces always h1y'9 -uttv il#;iiy';;;d viiweofromthewireend'
."a'in"!"iiii.
aiJ t*tremetv- ::"titi::' ^t'
hieh impedancesano -iomeiim Nothingwill be saidaboutthe properties
of the
ii1is es
noor, J]y1 ao be dis-cussed
liiSiie'ri"ir't''l-,i"1
O't'-tto*"n"t'-a-ndare only transistori,.r" otcuuiJltris"-wilt
not Dassor conouct
't'iii"tuiJ thrnrrohnrrt the book.- It should be rememberal'
r"i typesof circuit'Magneticear' iffifi;;, tilt the ransistor is even.'more ?rotr€
nieces may "i,ii"i1
be nlgn ldrpedance or.low -impeclance
i;;;ffi" fi;ouett oi"trtiutingthanthediodeand
fit;;y ireat-deal in qualitv-o^f
i:l::g"* ereatcaremust,tnerefore'bjtaken yhql tol*l:
sensitivity' For most simpletransrstor
iion uoi "".v.a earpreces i;;. Tit;;,;Jpiln is to hold the le-adwith a parr
iiii,ur,i, rtts'hftpeilunc"' highsensitivity
thodedesigned ;i";li;;; ilw6 tht Point
beingsoldered'
are required; tn" o"tfilJtF utiog
t0
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 N TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS FOR BBCINNERS
CHAPTER TWO
Simple Tra,rsistorRadio Circuits.
The readershould now be reasonablyfamiliar
with the symbolsusedin circuit diagramsand with
the functionsof the basic components.To make
things a little easier,however,two of the circuits
in this chapteralso havewiring diagrams.Neither
the wiring diagramnor the circuit diagramgives
any particularindicationof the relativepositions
of the componentsin the receiverbut in simple
circuitssuchas thesethe positionsdo not matter
and rnay be determinedby convenience.
Many constructors will wish to build up circuits
tenrporarilyjust to gain experienceand they will
wantto usethe components againin othercircuits.
For this reason,the samebasic componentsare
commonto all the receiversin this chapterand
m1y, therefore,be usedagain and again.As this
entailscontinualsolderingand unsolderingof the
leadsand contactsgreatcaremust be takennot to
damegethe components.If it is desiredto use
transistors severaltimes,transistorsocketsshould
be usedsincetheseavoid the needto solderto the
tiansistorleadsdirectly.The transistorsshouldnot
bc pluggedinto their socketsuntil the circuitryhas
beencheckedcarefullyand until one is sure that
the battery is connectedthe right way round.
Neverplug the transistors into their socketswith
the set switchedon.
The point about the batterybeing the right way
round is an importantone, becausein somecir-
cuits,a wronglyconnected batterycan destroyone
or more of the transistors.
None of the circuitsin this chapteruseany R.F.
amplification.That is to say, the signalobtained
from the tuned circuit is demodulatedor detected
immediatelyand then amplified by a transistor
A.F. amolifier.This meansthat the sensitivitvof
theserec'eivers is strictlylimited anclan aerialand
possiblyan earthconnectionmust be usedto pick
up a signal.With the two and threetransistorcir-
cuits, however,the aerial may not have to be very
long. The quality obtainablefrom all thesecircuits
is excellentsince,becauseof their very simplicity,
thereis little that can introducedistortion.
If a cirpuit is to be built up temporarily just for
practiceand to seehow well it works, one of the
best and simplestways is to use tag strips. These
are strips of paxolin with solder tags fixed along
both edges.It is fairly easyto work out a simple
methodof constructinga particular circuit on them
and the receiverwill be readily demolishedagain
later.
When a set fails to rvork one always tends to
suspectone of the transistorsbeing at fault. Unless
they are mistreated, however, transistors very
rarely fail. Componentssuch as tlte tuning capaci-
tor or the A.F. transformersare probably the most
likely to be faulty but nowadays,fortunately,very
few components boughtturn out to be dudsexcept
pcrhapsin the surpluscomponentfield whereone
can obtain componentsvery cheaplybut with less
confidencein their perfection.
Sincethe transisto-rsare the mostexpensive com-
ponentsone normally has to buy thereis always
a strongtemptationto economise on themas much
as possible.The transistorsspecifiedin the circuits
here are all made by reputablemanufacturersand
can be t.'ustedto work perfectly. There are very
much cheapertransistorson the market,however,
which are normally manufacturersrejects.These
are normally perfectlysatisfactoryfor most appli-
cationsbut they tendto be rathernoisyand to give
lessgain than the more expensiveones,Occasion-
ally, they might not work at all in a particularly
stringentcircuit. In general,if you intend to buy
only a few transistorsand to use them in several
circuitsthen it is worthwhilebuyingthe bestavail-
able.If, however.you intendto buy more than say
live, the cheapertypes may well be worthwhile
sinceoneor two bad oneswill not matterso much.
Someof the most peculiarlytricky faultsto find
often turn out to be due just to a battery which
is too old or worn so alwaystry changingthe bat-
tery for a new one in a faulty set beforechanging
any of the othercomponents.
Circuit No. I
The first circuit is shown in Fig. I I together
with a wiring diagram.The signalis pickedup by
the aerial and passedto the tuned circuit via C,.
The tunedcircuit is intendedto selectthe required
signal and consistsof Cr, the tuning capacitor
and L, the aerial coil. Lr and Cgofter a high impe-
danceto the signalto which Cz is tuned but a very
much lower impedanceto all other signalswhich
are passedto earth. The signal selectedis coupled
to the diode by means of the secondarywhich
matches the fairly high impedanceof the tuned
circuit to the much lower impedanceof the detec-
tor.
The dio8e, D,, which may be any make of ger-
manium point contact diode such as the Mullard
OA70, demodulates the R.F. signal.That is to say,
it extracts the A.F. signal by removing the R.F.
carrier wave. The output from the diode goes to
the baseof the transistorswhich then amplifies it
and the amplified signal appears in the head-
phones.The amount of gain provided by the tran-
sistor in this type of circuit is about 100 times.
That is to say',the signal heard in the headphones
is 100 times stronger than that put out by thc
diode.
The battery may be either 1.5 or 3 volts, the
Iatter giving slightly more gain. Higher voltages
may be usedbut there is very little, if any, advan-
tage in this. Voltagesof more than 9 volts should
not be used as they may causedamageto the
transistor.
 MODERN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS FOR BEGII.fNERS
This circuit consumesso little power that the
batterymay be solderedinto the circuit. Even one
of the tiny slirn penlightcells will give a life of
about one year.
The On/Oft switchmay be omittedif the head-
phone automaticallyswitchesoft the set.
C' is used to preventthe aerial from damping
the tuned circuit too severely.When a short aerial
is usedit may be omitted.Dampingof the tuned
circuit by the aerial causesthe tuningto be broad
rnakingit impossibleto separatethe stationssatis-
factorily.Other valuesmay be usedfor Cr and it
may be best to use somethingin the regionof 5
tr: l0 pf when a very long aerial is necessary. The
earth connectionmay be to a water pipe, tap or
radiator.
Cr, the tuning capacitor,may be any make of
the 250 pf, single gang type. The type specified
is the TSL which is 'isnarticularlyrobustand small
in size. This meke not suppliedwith fixing
screwsbut the size neededis 10 B.A. If you
already have a tuning capacitorwith a value of
other than 250 pf this may be usedbut the band
coveragewill bi difterent.A value of less than
250 pf will not enableycu to cover the whole of
the mediumwave band but a largervaluewill be
satisfactorybecausethe coil is adjustable.
L,, the aerialcoil, is, in fact,a very smallferrite
rod aerial which is also suppliedby TSL. In the
circuitsgiven in this chapterit doesnot act as an
areial as well as being a tuning coil but it is pre-
ferable to an ordinary tuning coil becauseof its
much higher "Q" factor. The "Q" factor is a
mefsureof quality and in this type of circuit a
high "Q" factor increasesthe sensitivity and
improvesthe selectivity.Sincethis ferriterod aerial
is no more expensivethan an ordinaryaerial coil
its use is well worthwhileparticularlysinceit will
be requiredfor many of the circuits given in this
book. The coil can be moved along the rod to
adjust the covenge.If you find that you cannot
tune in the higherfrequencystations,such as the
Light programme,just slide the coil nearerto the
end of the rod. If. on the other hand, the lower
frequencystations,suchas the Third programme,
are unobtainable,then the coil should be moved
nearerto the centreof its rod.
D,, the diode,is not a particularlycritical com-
ponent.The Mullard type OA70 will giveexcellent
resultsbut there are surplustypes on the market
which are muchcheaperand which work perfectly
well.
Tr,, the transistor,is specifiedas a Mullard
OCTl and this typeis recomrqended becauseit can
be relied upon td give good results.A Mullard
OC75 would be even better becauseof its high
sain but this type is rather more expensive.In
leneral, any mike or type of small iignal A.F.
iransistormay be used in this type of circuit.
The headphonesmust be good quality high
impedancetypes if satisfactoryresultsare to be
obiained.A high impedanceearpiecemay be used
instead,so long as it is the magnetictype, but
it nlust bc a high sensitivityunit. Those madeby
F'ortiphoneand Ardente,althougbexpensive, will
give far and awaythe bestresults.
Circuit No.2
Fig. 12 showsthe circuit diagram of a set which
is even simpler than that of Fig. ll. The results
are not quite so good, however, and the type of
transistorrequiredis more expensive.
All the components usedare the sameas in tbe
last circuit buf the diode is omitted and the uan-
sistor is an R.F. type, such as the OC44, instead
of an A.F. type. An A.F. type could be usedbut
wouldgive much lessgain.
Sincethere is no diode the R.F. signal is fed
directly to the transistor.Detection takes place in
the base-emitterjunction which is really a type
of diode itself. An amplifiedversionof the signal
then appearsin the collectorload which may be
either a high impedancemagneticearpieceor a
pair of high impedanceheadphones.
The currentconsumptionof this set is evenless
than that of the last and may be only about 20
microamps.This is incrediblylittle and even the
smallestbattery cell made, the minute RM3l2,
would last 2| monthsif left switchedon all the
time or about a year if usedfor five hoursa day.
A singleslim pen light cell will last as long as it
would on the shelf not being used even if left
switchedon all the time and, for this reason,the
switch shown is not reallv necessarv even if the
headohones are left conn6cted.The-current con-
sum$tionis so low that the set can be operated
perfectlywell by a simplehome made battery.A
simplecell can be madeby sandwiching a pieceof
absorbentpaper,which has been dipped in salt
water,betweentwo differentmetals.For example,
the metalsusedcouldbe a shillingand a halfpenny
or a sixpenceand a threepennybit. Care must
be taken to ensure that the two metals do not
touchone another.A batteryof this type may give
as much as 100 microamps,particularly if it is
warned up a bit. In any caseit will providequite
sufficientpower to drive this set.
The actual amount of current drawn by this
circuit depends on the signal strength. In the
absenceof a signal the current consumptionmay
fall to as little as 5 microamps.When a signal is
tuned in the current consumption will rise quite
sharplyand will then rise and fall continuouslyin
prop'oitionto the signalbeing broadcast.This may
be watchedby connectinga 100 microamp meter
in serieswith the headphones. lf a programmeof
music is tuned it will then be possibleto follow
the changing level of volume by watching the
meter needle. On a powerful note, the current
readingmay more than double.The meter may
alsobe usedasa tuningindicatorin muchthe same
way as a magic eye is used on some domestic
radios and radiograms.AII that is necessaryis to
tune the set for maximum meter reading.
 MODBRN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS FOR BEGINNBRS
CornponentsList
Cr-20 pf fixed capacitor.
Cr---250pf variable capacitor-
L,-Aerial coil- lf", ferrite rod aerial.
Trl-R.F. transistorMullard OC44 or OC45.
High Impedancemagneticearpieceor headphones.
Battery-l* to 6 volts.
Circuit No.3
None of the circuits so far described havc
incorporatedany means for varying the volume.
This is not normally necessarybecauseof the
low output of the circuits. In areas of strons
rign"isii.igttt, tro**ir, *iroe a i"oo-ieii"i ii
useda volume control may be necessaryor at least
desirable.
The volume controlsusedin radio setsnormallv
havecarboncompositionresistivetracksand ofte;
incorporatean on/off switch.This circuit requires
such'a unit with a single pole switch (the most
commontype) and a value of 5K ohms although
any value from 2.5K ohms to lOK ohms may be
used.Tbe make or type does not matter and the
constructormay chooseone accordingto the size
which bestsuitshis requirements. Somevery small
rim control typesare now availableand thesewill
suit bestthosewho wishto miniaturisetheir equip-
ment.
Thcre are normally five contacts on a volume
control of the type required;threefor the control
sectionand two for the switch. The centre one of
the group of three should go to the basc of the
transistor.the left hand one to the diode and the
right hand one to earth. This normally resultsin
a clockwiserotation of the spindleproducingan
increasein volumc. If it doesnot, merelychange
over the two outside contacts. The two switch
contactsmav be connectedeither wav round.
In the abienceof a signal, the colllctor current
of the transistor will vary between 20 and 100
microampsas the volume control is turned from
its minimum to maximum oosition.(Thesefisures
will vary slightly from trinsistor tb transiitor.)
Whena signalis tuned in, the collectorcurrent will
increascin proportion to tho strengthof the signal
as with the last sct.
With these simple sets it is usually neccssary
to solder the battery into the circuit becausetherb
are no suitablcbattcry clips on the market. Solder-
ing to batteries is not always easy but can be
simplified considerablyby rubbing the area to be
soldered with coarse sandpaperbefore anplying
the solder. An old nailfile-m-aybe used in'pjaci
of thc sandpaperto good eftect.
Componells.
Cr-30 pl trimming capacitor (anything from 25
to 50 pf may be used)
e,-250 pf tuning capacitor
L,-Medium wave band aerial coil - 1t'
fcrritc rod aerial.
D.'-Germanium point contactdiode - Mullard
oA70.
Rr-5K ohm volume control with on/oft switch
-- any type.
Tr'-Small signalA.F. transistor- Mullard OCTl
High Impedancemagneticearrriece
or headphoncs.
Batterybetween1.5and 6 voits.
Circuit No.4.
In the circuits so far describedthe collector
current of the transistorhas dependeduDon the
strength-of the signal received;^thestrorigerthe
slgnal the greater the collector curreDt.This is
excellentfrom the point of viewof batteryeconomy
but it doesnot obfainthe maximumgaiir from the
transistor.
The amount of gain a transistor provides
dependsupon severalfactorsand one of the most
importantis the collectorcurrent.Below a certain
point the gain begins to drop rapidly with de.
creasingcollector current. Wittr everv transistor
thereis a particularlevelof collectorcdrrentwhich
givesoptimum currentgain. Beyondthis level the
gain remainsreasonablyhigh for a while and then
beginsto fall againas-muih larger current levels
are reached.For small signal transistors the
optimum current level lies somewherebetween.l
aqi I m4 and anywherein this regiongood gain
will be achieved.
In the circuit of Fig. 14 the transistorbaseis
isolatedfrom the diode and the volume control
by a 2 microfaradelectrolyticcapacitor.The base
bias is suppliedby a l00K ohm resistorR,. This
meansthat the collectorcurrent remainsreason-
ably constant and is independentof the signal
strength.The preciselevel of the collectorcur-rent
will dependon the characteristics of the transistor,
which vary quite a lot from one unit to another.
and on the batteryvoltage.With a battervvoltase
of 3V. and an av-erage 6CZt ttre collectoicurre"nt
shouldbe about l* mA. The collectorcurrentwill
also be dgperidenton room temperatureand will
rise slightly if the transistorgets hotter.
In this circuit and the last the fixed capacitor
used to couple the aerial to the tuned circirit has
beenreplacedby a trimmer which is shown on the
circuit 4iagram as having a value of 30 pf. In fact,
any value betweenabout 25 pf and 50 pf will be
satisfactory.The advantageof using the trimmer
is that the coupling betweenthe aerial and the
coil can be adjustedto suit conditions and the
lengthof the aerial in use.In strong signal areas
and with a long aerialit mav
may be nec-ssary
necessarv onen
to open
the capacitoralmostright out in order to sepaiate
the stationssatisfactorily.
The value of R, may be varied experimentally
to achievemaximumgain.Loweringthe valuewill
increasethe collector current and vice-versa.R,
shouldnot be reducedto lessthan about20K ohms
to avoid any possibility of damaginglhe battety
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 M()DERN TRANSISI'OR CIRCUITS FOR BEGTNNI]RS

C<tmponenls, Components.
Cr-30 pf trimmer. Rr-5K ohm volume
C1-30 pf trinrmer.
Cr--250 pf tuning capacitor-- C,--250 pf tuning cap- control.
Lr-TSL l/" f.errite rod aerial. acrtor. Rr-6.8K ohms.
D,-Germanium point contact diode - Mullard
Cr-2 mfd. 3 v.w. elect- R -2.2 K ohms.
rolytic. Rn-lK ohm.
oA70. Cr-10 mfd. 3 v.w. Headphones-High
Rr--5K ohmsvolumecontrol with on/oft switch.
Rr-100K ohm I watt resistor 20"/o tolerance * electrolytic. impedancemagnetic.
(lower wattage types may be used if D'-OA70 or similar.
Trr-Mullard OCTI
available).
G-2 mfd.3 v.w. electrolyticcapacitor. Circuit No.6.
Tr'-Small signalA.F. transistor- Mullard OCTI
This is the first circuit in this book to use an
High impedancemagneticheadphones
or earpiece. A.F. transfonner.A comparisonbetweenthis cir-
Battery1.5or 3 volts. cuit and the last will show that the onlv real
diffcrencebetweenthem is the insertion of this
transformerbetweenthe diode and the volume
Circuit No. 5 control.The purposeof this is to match the com-
Although the collectorcurrentof the transistor paratlvelyhigh output impedanceof the diode to
in the last circuit was not alteredby the strength the lower impedance of the transistor thereby
of the signalreceivedit wasdependenton the pro- increasingthe gain.The increasein curreutgain is
pertiesof the transistoritself ahd on 'o' temp-era- about 4| times and the actual increasein iower
ture. This dependence can be overcomeby usine gain is someth_iug in the regionof l0 times iaking
the spccialstdbilisingcircuitryusedin this circuitl into accountthe power lost in the transformer.
With this type of circuit it doesnot n'latterwhat The transformerusedis the TSL interstasetvDe
transistoris usedor what the temperature is: the LT-44. This same transformeris used aiain in
collector current remainsrelativelv constant.In many of the other circuitsgiven later in th! book
this particular circuit the collecior current is so its purchaseis well worthwhile.
l| mA. The purposeof C4 in this circuit and the last is
to preventthe emitter resistorfrom causingnega-
Stabilisationis achievedby meansof resistors tive feedbackand therebyreducingthe galn c5n-
R:, Re and R,. Becausethe base-emitter function siderably.
of Tr, is forward biasedit has a low resistanc€
and the emittervoltageis alwaysvery nearly that Cornponents.
of the base.The basevoltageis determinedby R,
and R3 which form a potentialdivider acrossthe C,--40 pf trimmer. Rr--sK ohmsvolume
battery ln this casethe basevoltageis about l| Ct-250 pf tuning cap- control with switch.
volts which will also be roughly the emitter vol- acrtor Rr-6.8K ohms.
tage.If the emitter voltageis l| volts thoughand C.-2 mfd. 3 v.w. R.-2.2K ohms.
with the emitter resistanceof lK ohm the emitter C^-10 mfd. 3 v.w. Rn-lK ohm.
currentmustbe about l| mA by Ohm'slaw. Sincc Tr- interstage High impedancemag-
the collectorcurrent is alwaysvirtually the same transformertvpe neticheadphones.
as the emittercurrentthistoo will be 1| mA. I.I'44.
Battery-g volts.
If any battery voltageother than 9 volts is to
be usedthe valueof Rr mustbe alteredin propor- Circuit Ni.7.
tion. For example,a battery voltageof 4.5 votts - Amazing as it may seemit is just possibleto
would requirea value of R. of 470 ohms.For a drive a loudspeakerfrom a singletransistor set
3 volt battery330ohmswould be required.If these under suitableconditions.The areahas to be one
changesare made the collectorcurrent will still of reasonablyhigh signal strength and a really
be l| mA. Therewill be virtually no loss of gain good aerial and earth must be used. The loud-
since,within certainlimits, the gain is determined speakershouldbe a largesensitivetype prefprably
by the current through the transistorand not by at least 5 inchesin diameterand rvith a magnet
the voltageacrossit. strengthof 8,500gaussor more. The larger and
more sensitivethe speakerthe betterthe perform-
Sincethe crinent consumptionis comparatively ance.
low eventhe smallest9 volt battervmav be used. The collectorcurrentof the transistoris 6 mA
The Ever ReadyPP5is the smallesima<ieand will and-thep-owercolsumptionfrom the battery is a
fit in very well with the small scale of the other total of 63 mA. The output poweris a maximum
components. If you cannotobtrin batteryclips for of about 20 mW which is mbre than sufficientfor
the PP5 removethe clips from a worn out battery rcasonablevolume. The transformerused is the
of the sametype and use these. TSL outputtypeLT700.
 MODERN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS FOR BEGINNERS

Tr,, a Mullard OC75,is not rea'lly.intended to Circuit No.9.

be usid as an output transistorbut in tbis circutttt This is a muchmore sophisticated versionof the
*iti*oti ueryweil indeedbecause of the relatively lasi lircuit. Both transistoisare well stabilisedand
low collectoicurrentlevel. It was chosenin pre- a volume control has been included.
i.r.n.e to the usual output transistor,such.asthe The collectorcurrentof eachtransistoris about
OC72. becauseof its higher gain which is very I mA and the overall power gain from the diode
--ttri in so simplea circuit.
useful to the headphones is about 40 dB or 10,000times'
Uatt.ty voltagecannot be alteredin this Ali the circuitsdescribedso far, includingthis
circuit becauie of thl considerableloss of maxi- one but excludingcircuit No. 7, can be built into
mum output powerthat would result' As the circuit a little olasticb& sold bv TSI- for one shilling
stands,the transformerexactlymatcheslheoutput This boi is 2!" x lt" * 4" and will comfortably
imoedanceof the transistorto that of the speaker housethe ferrite rod aerial,tuning capacitor,bat-
wh-enthe set is at full volume. terv and other componentsif ihe smallesttypes
Connponents. are used.The box is madeof clearplasticand mav
C'--40 pt trimmer. R1-5K ohm volume be painted on the insideto give a durablefinish
Cr-150 pf tuning caP' control with switch. thai will not rub off. Holesto take the tuning cap-
citor Rz-6.8K ohms. aiitor and volumecontrol (whereused)can easily
C'-2 mfd. 3 v.w. Rr-2.2K ohms. be dritled in the sideswhererequired'Assembling
Cn-25 mfd.3 v.w. Rr-220 ohms. a setin sucha box as this will give it an excellent
D,-Mullard OA70. Tr- output trans' finish and make it suitableas a present.
Tr,-Mullard OC75. former tyPe LT700.
Battery-9 volts. Components.
-
Circuit No.8. C,-40 pf trimmer. Rr-5K ohm volume
*iitt a singletransistorset it is almostalways -acitor. tuning cap-
C;-250^pf coltrg with switch.
n...ituty to iave a goodaerialand earthfor satis- Rr-22K ohms.
i;;t";t volume.Wit[ two transistors,however,-.]!he C.-2 mfd.3 v.w. Rr-2.2K ohms.
.iiiu guln makesthe situationfar lesscritical' The Cr-2 mfd.3 v.w. R{ lK ohm.
"*itt often be unnecessary and tlre aerial may
iiiitt Cu-10 mfd. 3 v.w. Ru-22K ohms.
not needto be more than a few yardsot wrre' C;-10 mfd. 3 v.w. Ro-2.2K ohms.
Fie. l8 shows a very simple type of two D,-OA70. Rz-220 ohms.
trans'istorset which, nevertheless, gives a very R'-220 ohms-
T;,-oc71
saiistactoryperformance.The slgn-alis picked up Battery-3 volts.
6v-itt" o.iidt and fed to the dibde in the,usual Tr,-OC75. High imPedalcemag-
*'uu. it, the output from the diode and netic.headPhones or
the amplified versionof the signal-appearsacross
"tplifies eerpleces.
ii't" load R,. The output from Tr' is fed Circuit No. 10.
io-ri" *tti.tt eives siill furthei amplificationand
"oii..tot
With two transistorsusingtransformercoupling
rruri.i ttresignil to the headphones' Trz is not com-
a reallv good performance l,oudspeaker set can be
pletelystabilised,that is to say' somevarlatronln
and wltn -cnange built. Allhough this circuit is extiemelysimplethe
iollectorcurrentwith temperature resultsthat cin be obtainedwith it are very satis-
oiliuniitioi *ill occur.A^certainamountof stabil' factory.With a few yards of aerial local stations
ir.iion-li *pplied, however'by taking the bias are peifectlyclear anciwith a really -goodaerial.and
from the coilbctor via R2 rather than from tne earth more distant and possiblyforeign stations
neeatiuesideof the battery.If the collector.current can be received.
tends to rise the voltage acrossthe heaopnones High Lain is achievedby accuratelymatchin-g
droos causingthe basecurrent to drop whlcn' ln the o"utp;t impedanceof Ti' to the input imped-
i,iti"tt-"oJ-i"- reiurn the collector current towards anceof'Trz bymeansof an interstagetransformer,
itt oiiei*t value.One disadvantage of this system
feed- T'. The usi df a transformerin this way increases
ir til.Tiiti"ls a certainamountof -negative the gain by about50 timesor 17 dB'.
back at audio frequenciesparticularly.ln tnls..case eitnouitr the larger the speakerthe better tbe
irit"i"-ift" t.uals i'nductive.This negativefeedbaa:k results a small spJakermay be used.with .this
reducesthe gain somewhatbut improvesthe-noe- circuit. There are now somevery nice little 2 inch
ii,i"Jirriiiti tv reducinganv distdrtion which Tr'
loudsoeakerson the market which were spccially
mlv have introduced. desisnedfor usein transistorsetsand an extremely
ComPonent|- neat"littleradio could be built using one of these
C,JO pf trimmer. D'-OA70
and this circuit.
C,-250 Pf tuningcaP- The current consumptionfrom the battery will
acitor.- Tr'-OC71
varv a little dependingupon the transistorsused
C,-2 mfd.3 v.w' but shouldbe aiound7 mA. For the batteryeither
i,-z.Ck ott.t. Trz-oC7"l
"{^99:li a PP5or a PP3would suit a really small set or one
R"-SOK ohms. Lr- - terrlte roo of the larger 9 volt batteriesmay be usedif a large
Higtr, impedancehead'
--fittonei aerial'
or earpiece. Battery-l'5 or 3 volts' speakeris to be emPloYed.

18
Tc6
 .E

-
MODERN TRANSISTOIICIRCUITS FOR BEGINNERS

If extragain is requiredOC75'smay be usedfor Circuit Nt>.12.

both Tr, and Trr. In which casethe value of Rr This circuit hasa similar overallgainto thatof
may be increasedto l20K ohms. Circuit No. ll but it doesnot usean A.F. trans-
Components. former. This makesit rather more expensive but
R,-.--100Kohms. it can be built into a smallercasebecause thetran.
C,--40 pf trimmer
CN150 pf tuning cap- D,-OA70 or
acitor
sistoris very much smallerthan the transformer
replaces.
Direct couplingis usedbetweenthe diodeand
it
I
Cr-2 mfd. 12 v.w.
Trr*OC7l
Tr"-OC72
T,- interstage
transformertype
L'[44.
Trl. Whilst this meanssacrificinga smallamount
of gain this is worthwhile becauseof the con-
siderablesaving in components.There is also a
t
L,- i|" territe rod Tr- output tr_ans'
aerial. former tYPeLT700. saving in current consumptionfrom the battery
Loudspeaker-3 ohms but this is not sufficientlyhigh to be a considera.
tion on its own.
uii.I.,l$ uor,r. The collector load of Tr' is 4.7K ohms which is
rather higher than would normally be usedwith
Circuit No. ll. a battery-of only 3 volts. It is made possibleby
In areasof low signalstrengthor wheneverthe the low collector current of Trr and is desirable
maximurnpossiblegain is requireda transformer becauseit meansthat Tr, is driven from an impe'
couolcd tlvo transistorcircuit, such as the one dancewhich is considerablyhigher than its input
' s h o w ni n F i g . 2 l m a y b c u s e d I. n a r e a sc f v e r y imrredance. If a transistoris driven from a very
high signalst-rength this set will operatewell with lo* imnedancesource some distortion occurs
only a-few feet of aerial lnd possiblyiust with because-theinput impedanceof the transistor
the-ferrite rod aerialalone.If maximumgain is varieswith frequencythus causinga variationin
required, OC75's should be used for both Tr' gain. If the transistoris driven from a high impe'
and Tr, but normally sufficient gain will be dancesourcehowever,any changesin the input
obtainedwith OCTl's. impedanceof the transistorwill have little eftect
Sonrereadersmay be prtzzledby the fact that, on'the powerfed from the sourceto the transistor
evenwith a compaiativeiyhigh giin circuit such and the gain will renrainvirtually constant.
as this one,it is unlikelythat the ferriterod aerial Tr, is biasedto a collectorcurrentlevelof about
would be adequatefor signalpickup.The reason 4 mA and Tr, to one of about I mA making the
lieswith the diode.In this type of circuitno ampli- fotal consumptionfrom the batterylessthan 2 mA.
licationis givento the signalbeforeit is fed to the Slim penlightbatteriesor two mercurycells-can
diode for demodulation.This componentdoes be used,therefore,and will give a very long life.
not, however,operateat the samelevelof efficiency
whateverthe strengthof the signal.At low levels Components.
of signalstrengththe sensitivitydrops very con- C,-40 pf trimmer. R, r,-4.7K ohms.
sidcrablyand with the amount of signal picked C'-150 nf tuning cap- R,,-10K ohms.
up by the ferrite rod aerial the efficiencyof the acitor R,--470 ohms.
diode would be very low indeed. Too low' in C,r--{.01mtd. R.-1.5K ohms.
fact, to provide enough signal for even a very Cn--2vf. 12 v.w. R--5K ohms volume
high gain transistoramplifier. C,-50p.f. 3 v.w. control with switch.
in liris circuit both tiansistorsare stabilisedby Tr* s-OC7l Rn-lK ohm.
the conventionalmethod,of using an emitter re-
sistorand a basebias potentiometer. The collector D,-OA7b
Lr- lfl' ferrite
rod aerial.
I
current of Trr is just under ] mA and that of
Trr is just under I mA. Trt is operatedat a current
level which provides slightly less than maximum
Battery-3 volts.
Earpiece-lK ohm
magnetictype.
I
gain becauseless noiseis generatedin this way' Circuit No. 13.
Components. This receiver usesthree transistorswith trans-
C,--40 pf trimmer. R,-5K ohm volume former couplingbetweentwo of them.In this way
Cr150 nf tuning caP' control with switch. sufficientgain is achievedto drive a loudspeaker
acitor. Rr-10K ohms. evenwhen only a short aerial is usedwithout an
C'-0.01 mfd. R,--4.7K ohms. earthconnection. The setis idealfor useas a bed-
Cn--2mfd. 12v.w. R,--470 ohms. sideradio.
Cu-10 mfd. 12 v.w. Ru-lOK ohms. When several stagesof A.F. amplification are
R'--4.7K ohms. used in a circuit the internal resistanceof the bat-
Cr-2 rnfd.12v.vt. Rr-lK ohm. tery can becometroublesome.With a new battery
C7-50 mfd. 3 v.w. D1-OA70 this resistanceis usually low enoughto be ignored
Tr,-OC7l but as the battery ages the resistancerises. The
Tr,-@71 Higir impedancemag- trouble arises becausethe resistanceof the bat-
neticearpiece. tery forms part of the load of each transistor.
I =cs
t_
=
I
Bottcry I

{
I
I
I
l'-'
I
23. Clrcuit No
I
 MODEIIN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS FOR BEGINNERS

Since.the load of Tr, is part of the input of Tr, With a classA output stagethe maximumpos-
any signalimposedon the load of Tri is fed to sible efficiencyis only 50%. That is to say, only
Trr. What happensthen is thai part of the outpur half the power drawn from the battcry is actually
of Tr3 appeaisacrossthe loadirigof Tr,, becairse turnedinto A.F. power to drive the louclspeaker.
of theircommonload in the batteiy,and this signal This would not matter too much if it were not
d,rivesTrr. Since the baseof Tr, is in place with for the fact that the current or power consumption
theoutputof Tr, this normallyresultsinbscillation femainsconstantlyat the maximumlevelwhatever
known as " motor-boating " becauseof the noise the actualoutputvolumein useis. Thus the overall
it makesin the loudspeaker.The only wav to over- eflflciencymay be only 20"/" or l5/" and this
corne this is to de-cbuplethe power supplv line makesit undesirable to designthe setfor anything
at a suitablepoinr. In fhis circriit this is ailiieved but a low maximum output power unlessa very
by meansof Rn and Cu.Rn reducesthe magnitude largebattery is to be used.
of the signalfed back and C, removesmosi of the
remainderand puts the power supply line effect- Wjth a classB output stagethe situationis very
ively at earthpotentialas far as A.F-.is concerned. much better.The maximum efficiencvmav be as
The sameresultcould be achieved by puttinearr high as 75/o evenin a practicalreceiverlnd the
electrolyticdirectlyacrossthe batterybrit its v-alue current drarvn frcnr the battery varies with the
would heve to be inconvenientlylarge and the volume level.This meansthat the set can be de-
methodusedhere is more practical. signedfor a much higher maximum volume level
withcut the battery being run down too quickly.
The loudspeakerused may be of any size but
shouldbe as sensitiveas poisible.As before,the In this circuit 2 x @72's are usedin the output
biggerthe speakerusedth-egreaterthe soundout- stage.TransformerT, actsas a phasesplitterdiv-
put from the receiver. ing Tr, a negativesignal when Trn has-a posi*tive
one and vice versa.Becauseof the wav iri which
If the set is to be used as a bedsideradio. the the transistorsare biased they only am-plifynega-
bedsprings_may-be usedasthe aerial.Alternatively tive signals so that when oire is-ampiifyine ihe
metal window frames,water pipes and radiator.s other is not. T, combinesthe outDutsienilsirom
can be verv eftectiveas can a lelcvisionaerial. the two transistorsand drives the loudipeaker.It
is important that each transistorshoulil amplify
Cornpottents. the signalby the same amount and for this'rea-
Cr-40 pf trimmer. R,-4.7K ohms. sonwhat is known as a matchedpair of transistors
Cr--250 pf tuning cap- Rr-l2K ohms. mustbe used.Transistorsfrom ady productionline
acltor Rr-2.2K ohms. -overall
may be similar to one anotherin oerform-
C'-0.01 mfd. Rnr s-lK ohm. ance,but althoughthey are all made in fhe same
Cr-2 mfd. 12 v.w. R6-5K ohms volurne way as far as is possible,they tend to differ quitc
C,-100 mfd. 12 v.w. controlwith switch. considerablyin the gainsthey provide.This does
R,--8.2K ohrns. not normallymattera greatdeal exceptwith push-
Co-50 rnfd. 3 v.w. Rr-I00 ohms. pull circuitssuchas this one.A matchedpaiidoes
Cr-2 mfd. 12 v.w. Lr- l|" territe not cost more than two singleunits anh in this
C8-50 mfd. 3 v.w. rod aerial. circuit one should be used.
T1-LT44. Loudspeaker- 3 ohms
T3-LT700. Since the current consumptionof this set is
Tr' r-OC7l D,-OA70 , likely to be higherthan most'of the previousones
a rather larger battery is desirable.A pp3 will
Tr"-OC72 still give a nscfullife but a Pp5 is rathertoo small.
If the set is not intendedto be a miniature one
as large a battery as possibleshould be usedfor
Circuit No. 14. reasonsof economv.
This circuit is similar to the last exceDtthat ir R,2 and R6 are both used to provide nesative
uses.a class B push-pull output circriit which feedbackand thus reducedistortioir.They reiult in
requlrestwo transistorsinsteadcf a classA out-
put circuit which requiresonly one. ?-smalllossof-gain,however,and may 6e omitted
if the degreeof distortionthis resultsjn is acceot-
'.[he able as it often will be.
Ioudspeakersets shown so far have had
power outputs,of up to only about 30 mW. This R,o controls the degreeof forward bias given
limit hasbeenkept-tobecadse of the high curreflr to thc two transistorsand shouldbe adjustedfor
consumptionof a classA outfiut stace.Circul, minimum distortionat low volume leveis.Before
No. 14,howe'rer,usesa classB ciutr:utJtaeewhich switch.ingon the batteryfor the first time set Ryo
providesmuch grcater e{Eciencyind th! maxi- roughly to its mjd positionand adjustfrom there.
mum output power is raisedto 200 mW. At this Re very careful to ensurethat Rroii neverreduced
level,evena relativelyinefficientloudspeaker will to its minimum resistanceposition as this mav
give a good volume. causedamageto the transistbrs,
 z

:
u

tr
o.
z

.:
()
.!
o

ts dt

iii 6
E
 MODERN TI(ANSISJ'IOR CIRCUITS
Components.
Cr--40 pf trimmer. Loudspeaker
C3-250 pf tuning cap-
acitor R1-5K volume control
Ca-{.01 muf. with switch.
C.-2 mfd. 12 v.w. R, rr-68K ohms.
C5s-100 mfd. 3 v.w. R: z-10K ohms.
Rr-3.9K ohms.
Cu-2 mfd. 12 v.w. Rne-lK ohm.
C'-100 mfd. 9 v.w. Ru-27K ohms.
Rn-470 ohms.
Tl-L'f44. Rro-20K ohms serni
T,-LT700. variable.
Tr,,-OC7l R"-100 ohms.
Ru-10 ohms.
Trr r-OC72's (matched Lt- l*" ferrite rod
pair). aerial.
Dr-OA7l Battery-9 volts.
Circuit No. 15.
The last few circuits have been fairly compli-
catedin that they useda relativelylarge number
of components. They followedconventionaldesign
practice.Excellentresultscan be achieved,how-
ever, with very much simpler circuits if less
conventionaltechniquesare used. There is no
virtue in complexitybut unfortunatelypeopletend
to associateit with good performancewithout
consideringfully what is involved.A receiverfor
any given performancerequirementscan always
be designedusingconventionaltechniques without
too much trouble.With a little more trouble and
a certain amount of imagination,however, the
sameor betterresultscould probablybe achieved
with far fewer components.There is virtue in
simplicity,not only nor even primarily because
of the savingin cost but becausethe fewer the
components usedthe lessthereis to go wrongand
the greater, therefore, the reliability. Another
advantageof simplicity,in an agewhen miniatur-
isation is important and often a creed,is that a
givenpieceof equipmentcan be built in lessspace.
Circuit No. 15 is a particularly good example
of what good results can be obtained with an
extremelysimple circuit. 'Besidesits simplicity it
hasanotherimportantadvantage. The currentcon-
sumptionis extremelylow so that eventhe very
smallestmercury cell can be used. The current
consumptionvarieswith signal strengthbut the
averagelevel is unlikely to be more than about
I /5th of a mA, which is minuteevenby transistor
standards.
The operationof the set is a little unusual.The
secondaryof the aerial coil is connectedbetween
the base and'the emitter of Trr. Trt acts as a
detectorand A.F. amplifier and Cs removesany
residualR.F. from the output. The base-emitter
circuit of Tr, acts as the load for Trt and Tr1
supplies the base bias as well as the signal for
Trr. In this way no resistors are required and
couplingand de-couplingcapacitorsare avoided.
Whilst no provisionis madefor stabilisationnone
FOR BIJGINNIRS
is necessarybecauseeven at fairly high tempera-
tures the collector currents of the two transistors
will be extremelylow by normal standards.q can
usually be omitted without afiectingthe perform-
anceof the set at all.
For maximum gain an OC44 should be usedfor
Trl and an OC75 for Tr, but even with an OC45
and an OCTI the sensitivityof the set is quite
remarkable.It is important that the earpiecebe
a really good quality magnetic type with as high
an impedanceas possible.
If this set is built into a small plasticbox and
provided with a few feet of aeri-alwire with a
crocodileclip on the end it will make an extremely
attractive pocket radio. The crocodile clip can be
attachedto any convenientmetal object.
Components.
Cr--40 pf trimmer. Tr,-OC45 & OC44.
Cr-150 pf.
- tuning cap- Tr,--OC71 & OC75.
acitor .. Lr- If," ferrite
Cr-0.01 mfd. (when rod aerial.
used). Mercury cell (any type)
High impedanceear- or slim penlight cell.
piece-lK ohm.
The total cost of building the above set, even
using the best componentsshould only be about
30s.0d.
Circuit No. 16.
The gain of the receivershown in Circuit No. 15
can be increasedconsiderablyby the addition of
another stage. If a volume control is included
the set becomesthat of Circuit No. 16.
The third stageis very much more conveDtional
than the first two being R-C coupled and stabil-
ised by means of a feedbackresistor. The basic
simplicity is still retained, however, with the
number of componentsused being far below the
averagefor this type of set.As far as performance
is concernedthe circuit may be compared with
that of Fig. 22. The gain of the latter will be
slightly higfer but the practical performanceof
the two setswill be very much the same.Whereas
Circuit No. 12 uses8 hxed resistorsand 5 fixed
capacitors,however,Circuit No. 16 uses only 2
of each.
The current level of Trs is about I mA. This
makes the total consumptionof the set much
higher than that of the last one,bringing it to over
I mA, but this is still very low by normal stan-
dards and a small mercury cell, such as the
RM400, will still have a very usefullife. If a still
lower consumptionis requiredat the expenseof
a small amount of gain, R3 may be increascdto
120K ohms which will make the curent drain on
the battery about I mA. At this level, an RM400
cell, which is the samesizeas an aspirin tablet,will
give a life of 140 hours. (The RM400 is made
by Mallory and may be bought or ordered from
Bootsthe Chemists).
 MODIRN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS FOR BEGINNERS

As with the last circuit, C, can normally be The aerial coil and the tuning capacitorare both
omitted.The higher gain transistorscan also be extremelysmall and for the volumecontrol a rim
usedbut this is unlikely to be necessary
sincethe control type may be used to minimise the space
gain is alreadyvery hidh. If an OC75 is usedfor consumed.
Trr, Rr should be increasedto 68K ohms. The
earpiece must be a sensitivehigh impedancetype Components.
with an impedancebetween250 and-1,000oh-nis. C'--40 pf trimmer. Tr'-OC45
C,-250 pf tuning cap-
Components, acltor Tr,-OC7l
Cg-0.01 mfd.
C,--40 pf trimmer. Lr- lf," ferrite C,-2 mfd. 12 v.w. Trr-4C72
Cr-150 pf tuning cap- rod aerial. Rr-2.2K ohms.
acrtor Trr-OC45 Rr-5K ohms volume T1- type LT700.
C"--0.01mfd. control with switch. Loudspeaker-3 ohms
Cr-2 mfd. 12 v.w. Trr-OC7l f"- lt" ferrite impedance
R,-1.5K ohms. rod aerial.
Rr-5K ohms volume Tr,-oc7l
controlwith switch. Circuit No. 18.
Rr-56K ohms. Earpiece-lK ohm. This is another exampleof simplifieddesign.
Trr is a commonemitter stagewith an extremely
Circuit No. 17. high value of collector resiitor. This is used tb
This receivcrfollowsa similarDatternto the last match the high input impedanceof Tr, which is
hut the battery potentialhas be6n increasedto 9 ooeratedin the commoncollectormode. Despite
volts and the set hrs been designedto drive a the useof a commoncollectorstage,which noim-
loudspeaker. The collectorcurrenl of the outDut ally.has low gain, the overall power gain of the
stageis about 9 rnA and the maximumoutbut receiver is very high becauseof the accurate
poweris 30 mW. With a sensitive2 inch diameter matchingof the impedances.The collector cur-
3 chm loudspeaker,a pocketradio of -good oei- rent of Tr3 varieswith the settingof the volume
formance canbe built uiing thiscircuit. control.
The total currentconsumption is no loneerlow Components.
-batterv C,--40 pf.
enoughto be ignored.The^drain on the Tr, ,,-OC7l
will be about I0 mA and whilst a pp5 could b! C,-250 pf. tuning cap-
tusedits life would not be very lons. Unless acitor Dr-OA70
absoluteminimumsizeis requireda pp3-wouldbe Cr-2 mfd. 12 v.w.
preferable. R,-22K ohms. Lr- l*" ferrite
Rr-5K ohmsvolume rod aerial.
The circuit lendsitself vcry rvell to miniaturisa- control. High impedancemag-
tion becauseof the small numberof comrronents. neuc earDlece.

L
 MODERN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
CHAPTER THREE
Regenerativeand Reflex Receivers.
None of the radrosso far describedincludeany
R.F. amplificationbefore the detector.As has
been cxplained this makes them insensitive,so
that they require external aerials and unselective
which makes it difficult to seDaratethe stations
satisfactorily.Nor are these sEtssuitable for re-
ceiving foreign stations except under very good
conditionsand with a very long aerial.
The above faults can be overcome,at least to
a certain degree, by the use of a regenerative
detectorinsteadof a crystal diode. The-resenera-
tive detector,which in ihis book is, of co-urse,a
transistorbut which could also be a valve, pro-
vides a reasonableamount of R.F. eain. The
transistor functions in the normal iav as u
detectorwhich providesA.F. gain but, because
the transistorusedis an R.F. type,it alsoamplifies
the-R.F. signaland the R.F. butput is fed^back
to the input to increaseit. If morE than a certain
amount is fed back the transistorwill oscillateso
the degreeof feedback has to be carefullv con-
trolled.
Detection occursin a transistorat verv low lev-
els of collector current: with certain restrictions.
thelowerthe better.For maximumR.F. sain.how-
ever, a very much higher collector iurrent is
required.This meansthat a compromisemust be
made betweendetectionefficiencvand RlF. eain.
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the circuit
circuit is extr6melv
extr6melvuseful'be-
useful'be-
causeof the simplicity
cause simplicity with which R.F. gain
which R.F. eain iis
obtainedand because-asingle transistorIs per per-
suaded to perform three functions: namelv
detection,R.F. amplifi",ationand A.F. amplifici-
tion The economyof this is obvious.
The optimum collector current for a transistor
performing these functions is usuallv about
0-25 mA for an R.F. germanium junction tran-
sistor such as the OC4{ and about b.l mA for a
surfacebarrier transistor.S.B.T.'s,(surfacebarrier
transistors)make particularly good regenerative
detectors and they are used i-n severil of the
circuits in tbis chapter.
Circuit No. 19.
The circuit shown in Fie. 29 is that of a very
simple single trinsistor receiver. The siqnal is
picked up by the aerial and selectedby thJ tuned
circuit in the normal way. It is cou-pledto the
transistorvia the secondaryof the aeriai coil. Since
the transistoris biased to-a low level of collector
curent the input is fairly non linear, that is to say,
a negativesignal is amplified more than a positive
one,and a certain amount of detectiontakesplace
and gives rise to an amplified A.F. signal in the
collector.A certain amount of R.F. amplification
also takesplace,however,and this is coubledback
to the tuned circuit by meansof I-r. It is tlien added
with the input signal and contributesto the out-
put. If it were not for this regenerationthe et
FOR BEGINNERS
wouldoperatesimplyasa detectorplusA.F. ampli-
fier receiveras in the last Chaptei.The inclusion
of the regenerationeftectivelyincreasesthe inDut
^the
signalby as much as 100times or evenmore,
actual level dependsvery rnuch on the desreeof
regeneretionthat can be applied before oscillation
starts.This means,in theory, that an aerial which
picks up only one hundrEdthof the sisnal is
requiredto obtain the sameresultsas are obtainetl
without any regenerationat all.
..{1 thi_scircuit the re-generatio!is controlled by
sliding L, along the ferrite rod. This alters the
coupling with L, and thus controls the amount
of feedback.L2 consistsof between3 and 5 turns
of thin enamelledwire (the gaugeis not important)
wouno onto a slnglelayer of paper.The laver of
papershouldbe sufficientlyloose-toenableif to be
slid up and down on the iod. The coil is put onto
the_endof L, nearestto the yellow lead.'
, Whenthe setis completed,slideto up and down
the rod to obtain oscillationin the lieadphones.
If no oscillationoccurs reversethe condections
to L2 or take it off the rod and put it on the other
way round. If you still fail to-obtain oscillation
increasethe numberof turns on l, and repeatthe
operationabove.
When oscillationhas been achieved,move Lr
towards the end of the coil a little way past the
point gt which oscillati-onstops and cirnhcct up
a small aerial. It should now be possibleto.tune
in one or more stations. To acliieve maximum
sensitivity,the coil should now be moved towards
Lr to the point just beforeoscillationbeeins.Each
time a stationis tuned in, I" will havJto be re-
adjusted for maximum sensitivity. A strio of
-glued
cardboard or thin plastic may be to L to
make this easier.The end of ihe strlp should then
passthrough a slot in the caseso fhat it can be
convenientlyadjustedwithout openins the back.
As has been mentioned, the colledtor currenr
Ievelis sornethingof a compromise.The oDtimum
level varies somewhat frdm one transistor to
another and it is well worthwhile tryine different
valuesfor R, which controls the collalctdrcrurent.
In this circuit any value from 250K ohms to
{M ghms.may.betried or you could try omitting
R, altogethersincethis gives the best r6sults witfr
some transistors.The higher the batterv voltase
used.the larger the value of R, is likely io be f6r
maxrmum gatn.
Components.
Cr-40 pf trimmer. Rr-See text.
Cr--250 pf. tuning cap- Tr,-OC44
acrtor
Cr-0.01 mfd. Lr- l*" ferrite
C,-0.001 mfd. rod aeria--I.
Headphonesor earpiece-high impedancemag-
netlc type.
 MODERN TRANSISTOR
Circuit No.20.
There are quite a large numberof methodsof
conuotrng regenerationor feedback and this
crrcurt shows an alternative to that of, Fie. 29.
Apart from the methodsof feedbick th. il; ;r_
cuils are virtually identical anC wilt givi-th;;;"
perlormance.
-Inltgad-of using a feedbackcoil this circuit uses
a reedback.capacitor with an R.F. choketo prevent
rne r(.!'.-stgnaltrom going to earth via C". The
qegreeof regenerationdependson the settins of
particuiirly
!.:,Ill!h
surtable,. Tuy O" any type-of trimmer.
however, are the air gap types witir
quarter,inch diameter spindle sirice'a lfioU .ln
be fitted for simple adjuitment. fne ictuai uaii"
used rs not_particularly critical but it must be
Frge 9lough for oscillation to be obtainable.At
least 1.5 pf is normally required for this but it
qependsvery much on the transistor
used and
on the length of the aerial.
_ Th_evalue of the R.F.C. may be anything from
I mH to 5 mH without any alieration'in tfie-p.r-
formance. The only purp6se of tfrii ;;;;;;*,
rs to ensurethat the signalis fed back to the tuned
ctrculr. (-5 removes any R.F. signal that passes
through.the-R.F.C.and prevents"tnetiaipione,
or earpieceleads from artectingtire pJrforin-ance.
rn somecasesit may be an advantageto increase
the value of C, to'0.01 mtO. Uuiitis-i;';;;;i"
necessary.
When'a r€generativedetector is in oscillation it
actsas a miniature ftansmitter and can cauJJUao
interferenceto radios in
vicility. ft i, il-i,iriy
annoys-rh-eneighbours-the but is liable to ildii-h"
wrath of the G.p.O. so a set of this tvpe musi not
be qllowed to oscillate more tharr;ffi;taril*
-"oJ'if,.
. The notes referring to the value
oarreryvottagein the last circuit also "i-ii,
apply to this
one. Lower ba-tteryvoltagescan be us-ed-if R, is
reoucedaccordingly.For aaattery voltageof i.5
the value of R, w-ili needto be aroirnd 256K oh;s
Dutother valuesshouldbe tried.
Components.
C'--40 pf trimmer.
Cr-50 pf. tuning capacitor
q-20 pf trimmerl
C.{).Oi mfd.
Cr-0.001 mfd.
Lr- l|" ferrite rod aerial.
Trr-OC44 or
R.F.C.- 1.5 mH.
Hlj,p^hg_T: or earpiece-high impedance mag-
nenc types- lK ohm.
Circuit No.2L '
.This circuit is basically that of Circuit No. 19
with a stage_qf A.F. amplifi.ition uad"O.'Th;;"i"
ls consrderablyincreasedby this and reasonlble
resulrscan be expectedwith only the ferrite rod
aenal.
Trs is biased by means of an emitter resistor
anq basebraspotentiometerto a call€ctor current
ri-
CIRCUITS FOR BEGINNERS
level of I mA with a 9 volt battery or
a 4.5 volt batterv. ] mA with
The,application of regeneration to a detector
nor onty lncreases the sensitivity of the
-iiiarrriir"o
receiver
but alsothe selectiviry.This mdy U"
oy,co.nsldenng.the
propertiesof ihe tuned circuit.
lr 9o-rnrhe-tunrngcapacitorand the coil wereoer-
recr rrom the theoreticalpoint of view and if
there
yal no damping of the funed circult Uv ine iian_
slsrorand aerralthen the .., e', of thq tuned cir-
cuit would be infinite and the ..t..tiuitv ioufO
be. razor sharp.,Too sharp, in tuii, u"Ji"i" ir,.
sroeoandswould be cut off. In practice,however,
the coil has a certain amount of 0...'..sist"n."
and there is.leakagein.the capacitor.Furifrir-&.,
the tuned circuit is fairly he-avilyOampeO. fhese
factors_makethe " e " l6w and it" i"oiie'fario.
lllll.Ihrl a signalis fed back from thE output
or tne transistorin such a way as to augmentihe
signal in the tuned circuit, tiowever,iilinOs-ro
overcomethe lossesin the tuned ciriuit and ihus
raise-sthe " e " factor and improves ttre ieiectivitv.
As the degreeof regeneration is iniriiieolt;;;",n
Decomes.hjgher and the selectivitynarroweran'dit
ls some.tlmes possrbleto make the .. e,' of the
runedclrcult too high to passthe 5 Kc/s band of
rne broadcastsignal.This is unlikely to causethe
constructorany trouble however.
Th.e uge of regenerationthus overcomes,to a
c€rratndegrge,the two major disadvantages of
rne_sets ln chapter L The only disadvantaleis a
slightloss-ofqualitywhich inireasesas the"nolnt
or oscrltatlonrs approached
Components.
Ct--40 pf trimmer. Rr-l Mes. ohm. -"""
C,-l'50 pf tuning cap- R,-i.iK."
acltor
Rr_33K.
Cr-0.01 mtd. n,-+.2f.
C,-0.001 mfd. Rr-lK.
C,-2 mfd. t2 v.w. Tn_OC++
Co-25 mfd. 12 v.w.
l"- - ferrite rod Trr-OC7l
aerial.
l"-as in fid. 29.
Circuit No.22.
By using two stagesof A.F. amplification with
a regenerativedetector really goo'd performance
9an b9 obtainedwith only tfie?nite-;od;;h.
Even in areasof fairly lori, .igairt Loeth tfri;;,
should still be abte io hold ltJ o*n-iiTf,il
;;
external aerial.
In.any set which is to work without an external
aerial certain precautionsstroutObe Lki;'i;^ii;,
layour ot the components.The ferrite rod aerial
snoulo be mountedaway from large comOonents
s.uchas the battery and ihe tuning EipaciiSisinc"
-atl;il,';;il;;
these tend to darip it. If space
Urecoil from all th^eother componentsbv amini-
FyT.o.f a-quarteroJ an inch. The feniie-ioo *lir
rs nrgntydrrectionaland mustbe rotatedfor maxi-
mum pick up. This will occur wtren 1li- roJ"i,
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 MODERN TRANSISTOR
parallelwith thc groundand at right anglesto the
directionof the transmittingstation.
The collector currents of the A.F. transistors
dependon the gainsof the transistorsthemselves
but should be around I mA and 1.5 mA for Tr,
and Tr3 respectively
when a 9 volt batteryis used
and half thesevalueswhen a 4.5 volt battery is
used.For highergainsOC75'smay be usedinstead
of OCTl's.
The performanceof the regenerativedetector
dependsto a large extent on how good the R.F.
qualitiesof the transistorare. The OC44 has a
reasonablyhigh cut-oftfrequencyand works very
well but if any other type of R.F. transistoris used
it should have a cut-off frequency of at least
7 mcls. Surplus types, such as those known as
white spot transistors,perform well sometimes
but vary rathera lot from one type to another.At
thcir best they can be excellentbut it is really a
matterof luck sincesomewill not oscillateat all. If
severalare boughtthe bestcould be usedfor R.F.
purposesand the othersshouldwork well in A.F.
circuitswhereveran OCTI is specified.
Contponents.
C,-40 pf trimmer. Rr-lM ohm.
Cr-250 pf tuning cap- R,-2.2K.
acitor &-lK.
C,-{.01 mfd. R{-390K.
C,-0.001 mfd. Ri-220K.
C,,'-2 mfd. l2 v.w. Tr,-OC44
Ll- - , lf" ferrite rod Trrg-OC7l
aerial.
I-,-as Fig. 29.
CircuitNo.23.
This circuit consistsof the same regenerative
detectorused in the previouscircuits couplcd to
a three stage200 mW amplifier.This amplifier
will give enoughgain for full outputto be obtained
from just a ferrite rod aerial.
By using a certain amount of ingenuityin the
layout of the componentsthe entire set can be
built into a casesmallenoughto fit into the pocket.
The output power is more than adequateto give
reallygood volumefuoma2" loudspeaker but any
sizeloudspeakermay be used.
The collectorcurrent of Tr, depcnds,as men-
tioned before, on the value of R1 and various
ralues may be tried to obtain the best results.
Tr, has a collector current of I mA and Tr, has
one of 3 mA. The collectorcurrentsof the output
transistorsdependupon the strengthof the signal
but they may vary from 3 mA to about 20 mA
on peaks.Sincethe output stageis operatedas a
ClassB amplifier the efhciencyis high and a PP3
batterymay be used.
'I-
CIRCUITS FOR BI'CINNERS
Components.
C'-40 pf trimmer. R,-l meg,
Cr-250 pf tuning cap-
Rr-5K volume control
acitor . with switch.
C'--0.01mfd. R3-6.8K.
Cn-0.001mfd. R{-10K.
Cu-2 mfd. 12 v.w. Ri-3.9K.
R6-lK.
Cuo-lffi mfd. 3 v.w.
R-,27K.
C'-2 mfd. lTv.w. Rs-10K.
C'-100 mfd. 8 v.w. Rr-lK.
rr,-oc++orsFr308.ftpi3l*ni-variabte.
Tr,-OC7l or SFT 352. Ro-100 ohms.
Trr-OC7l or SFT 352. R'r-10 ohms.
Tr, r-matched pair Lr- lf" ferrite rod
OC72's. aenal.
Tr- type LT44.
T2- type LT700.
Loudspeaker-3ohms
Circuit No. 24.
All the transistorsused in circuits so far des-
cribed have been ordinary alloy junction types.
Other types exist, however,and one of theseis
the surfacebarrier type. S.B.T.'s are made by
Semiconductors Limited and they have several
peculiarities rvhichmakethemparticularlysuitable
for use in regenerative detectorcircuits.
S.B.T.'shave extremely good high frequency
performance, their gain beingvery nearlyconstant
throughoutthe A.M. band.They alsoprovidetheir
maximumgain at very low levelsof collectorcur-
rent, high gain being obtainableat only 0.2 mA,
for example.Thesetwo featuresare very important
in a detectorbecausethey mean that good R.F.
gain can still be achievedat the level of collector
current required for high detectionefficiency.
S.B.T.'scan be damagedby excessive voltageor
current.To be completelysafe a battery of more
than 4.5 volts should never be used and the col-
lector currentshouldbe kept to a limit of 5 mA.
Care must also be taken when using a soldering
iron since stray voltagesfrom one of thesecan
ruin the S.B.T. To be on the safe side the iron
shouldbe unpluggedfrom the mainsjust prior to
use.
The S.B.T.oscillatesvery well. So well, in fact,
that once started it is very hard to stop. The
methodof controlsometimes usedwith alloy tran-
sistorsof varyingthe basebias to controlthe gain
will not work with arr S.B.T. since it will often
continueto oscillatewhen all bias is removed.In
view of this anothermethod is used in Fig. 34.
A feedbackcoil is used as before but now it has
a 5K ohm volume control wired in parallel with
it. The circuit is initially set up by adjusting the
control so that there is maxintum resistanceacross
L: and then sliding I-o towards the centre of the
rod until oscillationstarts.Le is then pusheda bit
furtherstill to ensurethat oscillationis continuous
acrossthe band. The circuit now can be brought
 I*
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 MODERN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS FOR BEGINNBRS

in and out of oscillation and the degleeof regen- C.-2 mfd. 12 v.w. &-10K.
eration can be controlled by varying Rr. Sincethis C,-100 mfd. 3 v.w. Rr-22K.
method of varying regenerationis smooth and R5-5.6K.
convenientit may be used with any of the other Tr1-tJC44 or SFT 308. Ru-100 ohms.
regenerativedetector circuits in this Chapter- Tr,-OC7l or OC75. T1- type LT700.
No particular type of S.B.T. has been specified Trt-@72 or SFT 323. Lr- lt" ferrite rod
for this circuit becauseany type may be used, at Loudspeaker-3 ohms aerial.
these frequencies,with satisfactory results. The
SBO78is usuallythe cheapesttype availableand
is perfectly suitable. Circuit No.26.
This receiver has the same output power as
Components. that of Fig. 35 but has much more gain. The
increasedgain is obtainedby transformercoupling
C'-250 pf'- tuning cap- R,-100K. Tr, to Tr. and it makesthe set more suitablethan
acitor Rs-470 ohm. the last one for difficult reception areas. The
C,-0.01 mfd. &-5K volumc control addedgain is achievedat the exp-ense of simplicity,
C'--4.001 mfd. with switch. however,since far more componentsare requircd.
Cn-2 mf,l. 12 v.w. R{-lK. Unless the extra gain is really needed the last
Trr-any surfacebarrier R5-82K. circuit will be preferable.
transistor, Earpiece-High impe- Just for the sake of variety a different form of
Tr,-OC7l dancemagnetictype. regenerationhas beenused.Ia consistsof 10 turns
sPT 352. wound next to the yellow wire end of I+ and it
Lr- l*" ferrite rod does not need to move. Feedbackis controlled by
aerial. meansof Cr, a 40 pf trimmer capacitor.If oscilla-
tion cannot be achievedreversethe connections
CircuitNo.25. to Ia. Conventional stabilisation is used for Tr,
to provide a collectorcurrent of about I mA. The
This receiver uses an interesting and elegant regenerationsystemsused in Figs. 34 and 35 may
outputcircuit which,althougheconomicalin num. be used insteadof the one shown.
ber of components, is well stabilised against
temperaturechangesand which can accepta wide Components.
variationin transistorparameters. Cr-250 pl tuning cap- R.-lK.
The driver and the output transistorare directly acitor R'--47K.
coupled, the collector of Tr, being connectedto C,--{.01 mfd. Rr--4.7K.
the baseof Tr3.Any tendencyfor the collectorcur. Ca-100 nfd. 3 v.w. Rr-lK.
rent of either transistor to change is amplified Rs-sK volume control.
by the other and reapplied to that transistor with Cr--c0 pf trimmer. Rr--470 ohms.
its phasechangeso as to halt or minimisethe tend- C'-2 mfd. 12 v.w. Rro-8.2K.
ency. A full explanationof the way in which the Cc-100 mfd. 3 v.w. Ru-2.2K.
circuit functions is given in " Transistor Audio Rs-220 ohms.
Amplifier Manual ". C-100 mfd. 12 v.w. Tn-OC44
The output power of the set is 30 mW which
is quite adequateif a good loudspeakeris used. C'-2 mfd. 12v.w. TSL. Tr,-OC7l
The small number of components used makes Ce-100 mfd. 3 v.w.
miniaturisation simple and since the set will not Tts--OC72
normally require an externalaerial it should make Loudspeaker-3 ohm
an excellentpocket radio. Increasedgain may be L- lf" ferrite rod.
obtained by using an OC75 for Tre. R!-2.2K. Tr- type LT44.
Where a more convenient type of regenerative Rr--{8K. T'- type LT700.
control is required, R1 may be replaced by a Ir.s-10K. R.F.C.-1.5 mH.
4.7K ohm fixed resistor and the 5K ohm volume This completesthe seriesof regenerativedetec-
conttol may be connectedacross the coil l" as tor receiverscircuits given in this book. They are
in Fig. 34. There will then be no need to slide a little more difrcult to build than the sets in
the coil uo and down onceit has beenset. Chapter 2 but they are also more rewarding.One
The totil current drain of the set is about l0 mA point should be remembered,these sets are not
and the most suitable battery for a pocket set suitable for use by someoneunfamiliar with this
will be the PP3. type of set so they make poor presents.Anyone
who has no knowledge of them is unlikely to be
Components, able to set the regenerationlevel correctly so that
C'-250 pf. R,-l meg. they may causeoscillationand henceinterference.
C:{).01mfd. R:-5K ohms volume They are bestsuited.therefore,for useby the con-
C'-{.001 mfd. control. structorhimself.
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 MODERN TRANSISTORCIRCUITS FOR BICINNERS
Circuit No. 27. R.F. Add-on Unit.
The reasonsfor the shortcomings of the simple
setsin ChapterTwo have alreadybeengiven and
it may be rcmemberedthat they are primarily
due to a lack of R.F. sain before the detector.
Fig. 37 showsthe circuitd'iagramof an R.F. ampli-
fier thet may be added to any of the circuits in
ChapterTwo and which will considerablyboost
their performance.In many casesit will make it
possibleto use thc set without an externalaerial
of any sort. The selectivitywill also be improved
considerably.
Trr acts as an R.F. amplifierand this is its only
function. The signal is picked up by &e ferrite rod
aerial,or by an externalaerial when one is used,
and fed to ihe transistor.The outout load for the
transistoris the R.F. choke R.F.e.l. The output
from the unit as a whole is taken from acrbss
R.F.C.2.When this unit is connectedto anv of
-and
the circuits in ChapterTwo, the aerial coil
tuning capacitorof that circuit are omitted and
R.F.C.2of Fig. 37 is connectedin place of the
secondaryof the aerial coil. The only other con-
nectionsto be madeare thoseconnectingthe nega-
tive and positive lines of the R.F. amplifier-to
thoseof the receiver.
The R.F. gain of the amplifier is considerably
increased by the regeneration which also improve.s
the selectivity.The gain is not entirelydependent
on regeneration, however,as it is in regenerative
detectors. The unit will work without regeneration
and this is only usedto improvethe per:formance.
The degree of regenerationis controlled by C,,
but, once set, it neednot be alteredeach time a
new station is tuned in. It can be adiustedand
forgottenin fact.
C, shouldbe set to as hieh a positionas possible
without oscillationoccurringaf any settin! of the
tuning capacitor.This is best done by seitingC,
so that the set is oscillatinsand then brinei;'e it
back slowly until oscillationjust stops.C, Jhoirld
now be tunedacrossthe band and it will probablv
be found that oscillation still occursat one or two
frequencie-s. C, should then be reduced slightly
againuntil oscillationdoesnot occur at all. Once
set,C, should not needto be alteredagainunless
the set is operatedin somewherewhere the tem-
peratureis considerablydifferentfrom that when
the adiustmentwas made.
Wtren ttre add-on unit is to be usedrvith a lorv
voltageset,4.5 volts or less,the useof an S.B.T.
insteadof an QC44 is possible.If the voltageis
only 1.5 volts an S.B.T.will, in fact, give a much
better performance.
In some cesesit may bs necessaryto remove
the connectionsto the secondaryof the aerialcoil
beforeoscillationcan be obtained.It mav also be
necessaryto usea largervaluefor C: if tlie supply
voltageis very low but this is unlikely.
L
Contponents.
Ct--40 pf trimmer R.F.C.I and2-1.5 mH
Cr-20 pf trimmcr. -2.5 mH (not crilical).
C3-250 pf tuning cap- L"- lf" ferrite rod
acltor aerial.
C.-O.01 mfd. Tr,-OC44 or SFT 308.
C,-0.1 mfd. R,-4.7K.
Cu-0.1 mfd. R,-2.2K.
R3-lK.
Circuit No.28.
This circuit is includedto give an exampleof
how the circuit of Fig.37 can be coupledto-those
in,ChapterTwo. The circuit it is coupleto is that
of Fig. 15.
As,may be seen,the circuit of Fig. 15 remains
completelyunchangedexceptfor thE input. In a
sense,the R.F. amplifier has been interdosedbe-
twconthe aerialcoil and the diodewith a resulting
increas-e in both gain and sensitivity.Since thii
typg o.f set does not needany specialadjustment
eachtime it is tunedit is perfectlysuitabl6for use
by someoneunfamiliar with its methodsof func-
tioning. lt is so simple to use, in fact, that it
can be givenas a.presentto anyonewithout any
specraloperattnglnstructlons.
Reflex Reccirers.
The regenerative detectortype of receiverover-
carne,to a certain extent. the disadvantases of
the circuitsin ChapterTwo, but they do haie dis-
advantages themselvcs. The main one is the need
to readjustthe regenerationlevel frequencybut
they also suffer from insufficientseniitiviw for
many purposes.Circuits as simple as thesecan-
not, of-course,be expectedto competewitb com-
mercial setswhich are very much-more compli-
catedbut betterresultscan be obtainedbv uslns
the reflexprinciple.A well designedreflexset cai
be almostas good as a manufaitured6 transistor
superhet.It will not have quite the sensitivitvbut
for the Home, Light and Third and possiblylux-
embourgit may be just as good particularl! from
the qualitypoint of view whereit may wdll out-
strip the supprhet.
- A reflex amplifier is one that amplifies two dif-
ferentfrequenciesin a receiverat the sametime.
Unlike a regenerative detector.however,it doesnot
demodulate_the signal.Nor doesit dependon its
R.F. amplificationpurely on regeneration.Since
tne translstordoes not have to act as a detector.
this function being performedby a diode, there is
no need for a compromiseas far as the collector
currentis concerned, this may be setfor maximum
gai!. Since maximum R.F. gain and maximum
A.F. gain nust occur at very much the samecol-
lector current levels there is no confliction of
interestsas far as theseare concerned.
A reflex radio works then, in the followins
wty: the requiredsignalis amplifiedat R.F. bi
the first transistorand is then demodulatedbv i
germanium- diode as_inFig. 38. From the diode,
however, the A.F. signal is returned to the first
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 MODERN TRANSISTORCIRCUITS FOR BDGINNBRS

transistorto be amplifiedagain.Any furtherstages Iectorcurrentsof I mA makinethe total consumD-

theremay be will simplyprovidemore A.F. ampli- tion of the set 2mA. This is- low enough for^a
fication.Regenerationmay be used to maximise PP5 battery to be used so the set may be built
the R.F. gain and improve selectivitybut it need very compactly.If the smallestcomponentsavail-
not be continuouslyadjusted. able are used the set mav be built into one of the
Circuit No. 29. TSL l/-d. plasticboxes.-
The first reflex receiver is shown in Fig. 39. As the quality of this type of set is normally
It may be comparedwith that of Fig. 38. Both very good it may be used as a jack for recording
circuits give the same performancebut Fig. 39 radio programmeson tape. For this purposethe
achievesit with one less transistorbecauseTr, earpiece should be replaced by a 4.7K ohm
amplifiesat R.F. and A.F. therebyperformingthe resistor and the output taken from across this
functionsof Trr and Tr, in Fig 38. resistorvia a I mfd. isolatingcapacitor.For best
quality regenerationshould not be used although
After the required signal has been selectedby
the tuned circuit it is amplified by the transistor. a small amountwill do no harm. This mav mean
The R.F. output of Tr1 is preventedfrom reaching that an aerial is necessary in which caseit'should
the headphones by the R.F. choke and is passed be kept as short as possibleconsistentwith an
to the diode via Cu. The A.F. output from the adequaterecordinglevel. If it is necessaryto use a
diode is developedacrossR4 and fed back to Tr, long cable between the receiver and the tape
via C6.Any R.F. that may have crept through is recorderthe value of the resistorshouldbe reduced
earthedby Cgwhich has too low a value to notice- to lK ohm. The output from the set should be
ably attenuatethe A.F. signal. The A.F. signal is sufficientto drive virtually any tape rccordor on
then amplified by the transistor and fed to the the market.
headphonesvia the R.F.C. which has much too Components.
low ri value to block it at all. C, has a low enough C,--40 pf trimmer. R1-2.7K.
value to preventthe A.F. signalfrom reachingthe C-150 pf tuning cap- Rs-lK.
diode. acitor &-18K.
The transistor is biased to a collector current G-0.01 mfo. R.-5K.
of I mA at which level it will give a high gain at C,---25 mfd. 12 v.w. &-1K.
both R.F. and A.F. As a matter of interest the TSL. R6-33K.
Cs-200 pf. Rr--4.7K.
transistorgives a total power gain of something
like 60 dB or 1,000,000 C,-2 mfd. 12 v.w. Rs-lK.
times. Cz-4.01 mfd. Dr-OA70
Regenerationmay be applied by connecting a
C'-2 mfd. 12 v.w.
20 pf trimmer betweenthe collector of Tr, and the
yellow terminal of the ferrite rod aerial. It may C,-50 mfd. 3 v.w. R.F.C.l.-l mH -
Tr,-OC44 or SFT 308. 2.5 mH.
then be adjustedas in Fig. 38. Trr-oC7L or SFT 352. High impedancemag-
With regeneration used this set will work in 9 volt battery. netic earpiece
sqme areas without an external aerial, a remark-
able achievementfor a single transistor radio. lK ohm.
Circuit No.3I.
Under these circumstancesthe volume will, of Simpler reflex circuits than thosejust described
course,be very low but the fact that it is possible are possible.The one shownin Fig. 4l is a typical
at all is amazing. examplb.It uses two diodes insteadof one but
Components. far fewer resistorsand capacitorsbecausestabilisa-
C,-40 pf trimmer. Rr-2.2K. tion is by rqeansof a feedbackresistorinstead of
C4-250 pf tuning cap- R,-lK. an emitter rcsistor and base bias potentiometer.
acitor R'-18K. The performanceof the set is very much the same
G--{.01 mfd. Rr-sK. as that of Fig. 39.
Cr--25 mfd. 12 v.w. D,-O470 Regenerationis included in the circuit, feedback
being by meansof a 20 pf trimmer. In somecases,
Cr-200 pf. Lr- l|" feriite rod it may be better to use a 10 pf type to achicvea
C{1 mfd. 12 v.w. aerial. smoother and finer control. Once set to the
optimum position the regenerationcontrol need
c,__0.0r
mrtr. "':1,,!rTlHoTu:?,'.n"'*' not be altered.
Tr,-OC44 or SFI 308. _ TlCnelic_typg. Components. Trt-OCzl4 or
R.F.C.-I.5 mH. C,--40 pf trimmer. SFT 308.
Circuit No.30. Cr-250 pf trning cap- D' r-OA70's
Fig. 40 showsthe circuit of a receiversimilar acitor '.
to that of Circuit No. 29 but with an additional Ca-20 pf trimmer. Lr- l|" ferrite rod
stateof A.F. amplification.With the extra gain C*-0.01 mfd. aerial.
provided by Tr, the set will give really good C,-2fi) pf. Earpiece-High impe-
volumewithout an externclaerial. Rr-100K. dance magnetictype
Both Tr, and Tr, are biasedso as to have col- R.F.C.--|-2.5 mlt. lK ohm.

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 MODERN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS FOR BEGINNERS

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Circuit No. 32. turisationin its presentform. To achievemaximum

By addinga simpleA.F. stageto the last circuit
a receiverof similarperformance to that of Fie. 40
can be built whilst-maintainingthe compoient
economy.The componentsrequiredare the same
as thosefor Fig. 4l with the followingadditions:-
sensitivity the aerial rod is much larger than that
used in the previous sets in this book and tlis,
togetherwith the high gain of the AFl17, makes
the overall sensitivitycomparablewith that of a
superhet.

Cs-0.01 mfd. Rr-2.2K. The output stageof the receiveris also novel.
C,-2 mfd. l2 v.w. &-510K. It workson the half-supplyprinciple,the collector-
Tr,-OC7[ or emittervoltagebeinghalf the supplyvoltageunder
sF-t352. quiescentconditions.This makespossiblea circuit
which, although very simple, is completelyfree
from any possibilityof the transistordissipating
Circuit No. 33. too much power and so destroyingitself. It also
avoidsthe use of an output transformerwhich is
This is the last reflex receiverof this type and a worthwhileeconomy.The loudspeakerusedhas
it shouldneed very little explanation.It cbnsists a voice coil impedanceof 130 ohms but one of
of the reflexcircuit of Fig. 4l with a two transistor 140ohms may be used insteadif the former is not
transformercoupled A.F. amplifier added. The available.The current consumptionof the set is
performanciof this set shouldbe adequateeven 40 mA so the batteryshould be as large as pos-
in areas of low signal strengthsince the gain is sible.The size of the loudspeakerdoesnot matter
extremelyhigh. much but it should be over 4" in diameter.

Components, The coil details given by Mullards are as

follows: -
C'-40 pf trimmer. R?-8.2K.
C'-10 pf trimmer. Rs-2.2K. Aerial Coil.
Cs-250 pf tuning cap- Re-220 ohms. Wound on Ferroxcuberod type FXl057, 6"
acitor R,o-470 ohms. long l" dia. Grade 82.
Cr-0.01 mfd. D,-OA70, Primary winding, 50 turns of 3 x 3 x 3 x 46
C,-200 pf. s.w.g.litz, spreadwound to 2t".
Ce-O.01 mfd. D-OA70, Coupli-ngwintiing,3 turns ot3'x 46 s.w.g.inter-
C'-2 mfd. l2 v.w. woundat earthyend of primary.
C'-10 mfd. 3 v.w. Tr,-OC44 Regenerative winding,4 turns of 3 x.46 s.w.g.
sFr 308. interwoundf" from earthyend of primary.
C,-25 mfd. 12 v.w. Tr,-aC7l R.F. Choke- 600 turns of 40 s.w.g.enamelled
SFT352. copperwire, wound on NeosidTl2 iron dust
C'n-100 mfd. 8 v.w. TI,-OC7Z assembly.
R,-100K. T,- typeLT44.
Rr-2.2K. Ts- Sl type LT700. Components.
Rr-SK volumecontrol. L'- -'
lf" ferrite
R{-33K. rod. C.,-27 pt. Rn-4.7K.
R,-4.7K. Loudspeaker-3 ohms C,-365 pT tuning cap-
Ri-150K.
R.-lK' acitor ,. R6-10K.
C,--{.02 mfd. R?-2.2K.
C.-330 pf. R,-33K.
Circuit No. 34. Co-10 mfd. 12 v.w. Rn-10K.
R'o-l .5K.
This radio usesone of the new allov diftused C6-100 mfd. 8 v.w. R,,-470 ohms.
transistors,the AFll7. The circuit wai desisned Rrr-S.6K'
by Mullards who make this transistor C?-10 mfd. 12 v.w. D'-OA70 or
The advan[age of the AFllT over an ordinarv C,-100 mfd. l2 v.w. Tr,-AFl17.
R.F. transistorsuchas the OC44is its muchhisher Tr,-OC7l
R-F. gain.This makesits use in a reflex receiver, Cg-10 mfd. 12 v.w. SFT352.
whereso much dependson the gain of the first Trr-OC8l.
transistor,really advantageous. Rr-50K semi-variable. Loudspeaker-130-150
R,-500K. ohms.
This set was designedpurely as a larger sized R'-5K volume control
portablereceivcrand it is'not'suitablefo-rminia- with switch.
MODERN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS FOR BBGINNBRS

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 MODERN TRANSISTOR CIRCUTTS FOR BEGINNERS

Circuit No. 35. The gain of this set is not particularlygood but
This circuitis includedfor the sakeof complcte- selectivityis good.
nesssinceit usesa twin.gangtuning capacitor-.The The vast majority of commercial radios use
type used is the TSL " Babyvar'-' whicb, at the two-gangcapacitorsin superhetcircuits but these
time of writing, is the smaliest in the world. It are rather outside the scopeof this book.
has two sectionseach of which has a maximum Cotnponents.
capacityof 120pf and two trimmers; one for each Cr g-: tuning capacitor120pf *
8ang. 120 pt.
L, is any transistor I.F. transformer with the Lr- ferrite rod aerial.
fixed capacitor removed. When the set has been Ia-Transistor I.F.T. with tixed capacitorremoved.
built it must be alignedby moving the winding Cr-0.1 mfd. Tr,-OC44
of Lr to the centreof the rod and adiustine the
-on Cr-0.1 mfd. SFT 308.
slug of the I.F.T. for maximum volume a Cs-2 mfd. 12 v.w. Tra-OC?l
station.at the high frequency end of the band. Cc-10 mfd. 12 v.w. SFT352.
The trimmer capacitors,Csa-and Gb which are Trr-OC75.
built into the tuningcapacitor,shouldbe adjusted Cr-i'mtd.12 v.w. D,-OA70
for maximum gain on a statiotr at the low frc. Cc-10 mfd. 12 v.w.
quencyend of the band.

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