MODULE

TWO Sessions 9-12: Phrase Structures

Session Objectives:
At the end of the session, the students shall be able to:
1. Familiarize the different phrase structures through exercises;
2. Explain how the sentence is structured through examples; and
3. Resolve sentence ambiguities through structural analyses.

Activity
Roundtable Discussion
A. Is the sentence grammatical?
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

B. What do the sentences really mean?

The tuna can hit the boat.
Max found Bill an amusing companion.
Flying planes can be dangerous.

Takeaway: SYNTAX (structure) is not independent of SEMANTICS (meaning).

C. What sections do you find in the mall?

• Just like the shopping mall, English Sentence has different sections.

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 • They are called categories (hence we have the lexical categories N, Pro,
A, Adv, P, etc.)
• To understand the sentences, they are not only analyzed in terms of
linearity but also hierarchy.

Abstraction
In other words…
A fundamental tenet of generative grammar is that not only do words occur in
a linear order (or “string”) but they also enter into hierarchical relationships with
one another within coherent units known as “constituents”.
Constituents are the proper subparts of sentences.
Truth be told…
In traditional grammar, sentences (or clauses) are composed of words and
phrases, which are groups of words (without subject and predicate) forming a
coherent group. In generative grammar, sentences are likewise composed of
phrases, but phrases are defined as sequences of words — or a single word
— having syntactic significance: that is, they form a constituent. Since tree
diagrams indicate the phrases functioning as constituents, they are also called
phrase markers.
E.g. The students are studying online.
PHRASE STRUCTURE
Another grammatical resource that languages of the world use is word order. The
basic rules of English word order are referred to as phrase structure rules.
Phrase structure rules show how a sentence can be broken down into categories
and their constituent parts.
English word order is far from fixed, but there is enough regularity based on
frequency that can we can rely on.
Where do you draw the line?
Emmylou Harris sings country songs.

Without the idea of subject function and predicate function, it would be difficult to
know where to begin the analysis of a sentence. Hence, we did the right thing to
start with clause structure.

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Something to remember:

A, B, C are called nodes (the

phrase markers). Here, we can say
that:

- B and C are sisters

- A is the mother of B and C
- B and C are the daughters of
A

Emmylou Harris / sings country songs.

In this sentence, we can say that:
B- ___________?
C- ___________?
Subject is the NP, and Predicate is the VP. As sisters, they cannot exist without
the other. They are both obligatory elements in the structure of the sentence.
Note: All subject are NPs, but not all NPs are subjects.
The head, complement, and modifier
Head- is the element that the phrase is centered on. It is the one essential – or
obligatory – element in that phrase. Hence, it is the category of the head of a
phrase that determines the category of the phrase.
Modifier- is an optional element in the structure of the sentence. Hence, the
element that is modified can still exist even without the modifier.
Complement – coexists with the head. When a head demands a further
expression, that further (obligatory) expression is said to complement the head.
Emmylou Harris / sings country songs.
S NP : Emmylou Harris
Stand alone. o modifier, no complement. t’s already the HEAD because it is a
proper noun.
P VP: sings [V, head] country songs [NP]
‘country songs’ is a complement of ‘sings’ because the verb is a transitive verb; it
needs a direct ob ect. f you remove ‘country songs’, the sentence will have a
different meaning which is “Emmylou Harris is a singer. She can sing.”

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 n another (country songs), ‘country’ is a modifier of the head ‘songs’ since it
can be removed (Emmylou Harris sings songs).
The NP and VP complement each other, that is why they are called sisters!
Summary and Recap:

Subject~Predicate. The functional relation between the immediate

constituents of sentences, Noun Phrase (NP) and Verb Phrase (VP). It is a
mutual (two-way) dependency – S and P are both obligatory. S precedes P.

Modifier~Head. This is a one-way dependency: modifiers depend on heads.

Modifiers are optional (omissible). Some modifiers precede and some follow
the heads they modify.

Head~Complement. A two-way dependency. Complements are obligatory,

needed to complete the meaning of the phrase. The head generally precedes
its complement.

Heads. The head is the obligatory center of its phrase. Every phrase has a
head and no more than one head. The category of the head determines the
category of the phrase.

NOUN PHRASE
The noun phrase is the most common and probably the most versatile phrase in
English. It is based around a head noun, which is the irreducible core of the phrase
or the obligatory element and the shortest possible version of the noun phrase.
Noun phrase can contain adjectives (A) or adjective phrases (AP) that precede the
N and prepositional phrase that follows the N.
Noun phrases:
- Dogs
- The dogs
- The large dogs
- The loudly barking large dogs
- The loudly barking large dogs across the house

Modifiers in noun phrase:

[A] Their extremely subtle tactics confuse me.
[B] Their tactics confuse me.
[C] Tactics confuse me.

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Pronouns as noun phrase
Because pronouns can replace noun phrases (and not just nouns), they are
considered noun phrases as well.

The students skipped the class.

The Grade 12 students skipped the class.
The extremely hardheaded Grade 12 students skipped the class.

They skipped the class.

Determiners:
hese are a fixed set of ‘grammatical’ words which give information relating to
definiteness and indefiniteness (roughly, whether the thing referred to by the NP
is familiar to both speaker and hearer or not) and information about quantity and
proportion.
demonstratives: this, that, these, those
Certain quantifiers: some, any, no, each, every, either, neither
possessives: my, your, its, her, his, our, their, John’s
Summary and Recap:
1. Syntax is not independent from Semantics. Analyzing the sentence
structure sheds light on the meaning of the sentence.
2. English sentence structure system has sections grouped in
constituency.

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 3. English sentences need to be analyzed in terms of linearity (left to right)
and hierarchy (bottom to up).
4. Basic word order rules in English are called phrase structure rules.
5. Relationships of words and phrases need to be analyzed, represented
by mother and daughters/sisters.
6. Head is the obligatory element in a phrase, the basis of the category.
7. Complement coexists with the head. It is obligatory when it is demanded
by the head. It follows the head (Head + Complement).
8. Modifier is optional. It either precedes (Modifier + Head) or follows
(Head + Modifier) the head.
9. The sentence is mainly divided into 2 main parts: Subject (NP) +
Predicate (VP).
10. Noun phrase is always the subject but can be embedded in VP as
complement. Its head is a noun and may contain the ff: AP, AdvP + AP,
and/or PP. Stand-alone NPs can be Proper Nouns or Pronouns.
11. NP can be branching (DET + NOM) or nonbranching (Proper Noun or
Pro).
12. Nominal is composed of N, AP + N, (AdvP + AP) + N, or any of them
with PP.

VERB PHRASE
The one constituent that a Verb Phrase (VP) must contain is a verb (V). VPs are
centered on V.
There are two kinds of verb in English: lexical and auxiliary.
Lexical verbs- those that belong to indefinitely large general vocabulary of
language (run, dance, sing, cook, teach, take, move, etc.)
Auxiliary verbs- a very special, restricted set of verbs that assist the lexical verb
(be, have, do [which can also be lexical] and modals [can, could, will, would, etc],
However…
Be careful with the words that may belong to more than one category (those that
can be nouns but can also be verbs)..
interest (This subject interests me / She has an interest in music)
film (The crew has finally filmed the scene / That is my favorite film)
Complements of Lexical Verbs
Lexical verbs are sub-categorized according to what other elements must appear
with them in the VP. In other words, they are sub-categorized in terms of what
complements they demand.

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Transitive Verbs
A transitive verb is one which requires a single Noun Phrase to complement it. The
NP here functions as a Direct Object.
Max played the guitar.
Kate cooks adobo.
Daniel loves her.

Intransitive Verbs

An intransitive verb is one that does not require any further constituent as a sister
in the . ‘ transitive’ means ‘has (and needs) no complement’. An intransitive
verb counts as a complete VP in its own right.

The dog died.

Omar sighs.
The audience laughed.

Ditransitive Verbs
Ditransitive verbs require TWO NPs as complements: INDIRECT OBJECT and
DIRECT OBJECT.
William gave Millie some bleach.
The staff sent the general a message.
Max buys his butler all necessary work-clothes.

Indirect objects can also be in PP, introduced by to or for. In such case, PP is not
a modifier but a complement.

William gave some bleach to Millie.

The staff sent a message to the general.
Max buys all necessary work-clothes for his butler.

Intensive Verbs
Intensive verbs (or copular/linking verbs) require a single complement, which can
take the form of an Adjective Phrase, a Noun Phrase or a Prepositional Phrase.
Examples of intensive verbs are be, become, seem, appear, turn, remain, look,
taste, feel, smell, sound.

Ed is extravagant.
She seems tired and restless.
The proposed trip sounds exciting.
The victim is with us.

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Complex Transitive Verbs

Complex transitive verbs take two complements: a direct object (NP) and an
object-predicative. It can take the form of an AP, an NP, or a PP.

Jack finds his own jokes extremely funny. (AP)

They made Stella their spokesperson. (NP)
Liza put the liquor under her bed. (PP)

his is the issue with….

Max found Bill an amusing companion.

Prepositional Verbs
Prepositional verbs are called ‘prepositional’ because they can only be
complemented by a PP.
Glance (at NP), reply (to NP), refer (to NP), and worry (about NP) are examples
of prepositional verbs – complemented by a Prepositional Phrase. Take glance,
for example:
Max glanced. (glance is not intransitive)
Max glanced the falling acrobat. (glance is not transitive)
Max glanced at the falling acrobat. (glance demands a PP complement)
There are, then, three kinds of VP consisting of [V + PP]:
(a) V [intens] + PP. The PP is a complement (subject complement);
The dignitaries are in the venue.
(b) V [prep] + PP. The PP is a complement (prepositional complement);
The dignitaries worry about the venue.
(c) V [intrans] + PP. The PP is an optional modifier.
The dignitaries are laughing in the venue.

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Special Type of Verbs: Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb consists of a verb + a particle.
He called up the street.
He called up the boss.

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He called the street up.
He called the boss up.

1. Ken shouted out the answers.

2. The student gave in her essay.
3. The man looked out the window.
4. My mother handed over the money.
5. Pamela switched off the lamp.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
Within a PP, the relation between a preposition and the following Noun Phrase is
a head-complement relation.
Two basic forms of PP:
(a) PPs in which the preposition (P) is complemented by an NP
(e.g. beside a stream and to Max)

(b) PPs consisting of just a P.

(there, here, upstairs, downstairs, etc.)

Prepositional Phrase as Adjunct Adverbial

Georgia sunbathed beside a stream.
Minerva ate her meals in the cafeteria.
Roselito gave Myrna some chocolates during recess.

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Georgia sunbathed beside a stream.

Minerva ate her meals in the cafeteria.

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Roselito gave Myrna some chocolates during recess.

On the auxiliaries and how to label them

Each auxiliary verb is the head of its VP and takes a VP complement.
You should have written an essay.

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 Doing a step-by-step structural analysis
Asher goes online everyday.

Next, identify what is the role of online everyday.

We know that everyday is an adverb, so let us set it aside first.
That leaves us with online. What is online?
Since goes is an intensive verb, then online is a subject complement.
What category does online belong to? Is it a stand-alone?

goes and online are sisters; the mother is VP.

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 Now you have a VP! The next thing is attach everyday.
What category does everyday belong to? Is it a stand-alone?
What is the sister of everyday?

[goes online] VP and everyday are sisters; the mother is the second VP.

ow you have another ! t’s time to connect the Sub ect!

Is Asher a common noun or proper noun?
Since Asher is a proper noun and that there are no determiners and modifiers, let’s
label it now.
Is Asher stand-alone?

Asher is an N that is an NP in itself!

Now let’s connect the NP and VP!

Important things to remember:

1. A simple sentence has 2 basic parts: SUBJECT and PREDICATE.
2. Subject is a NP, while Predicate is a VP.
3. All Subjects are NPs, but not all NPs are Subjects. At times, they are
embedded in VP as complement.

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4. NP can be nonbranching (stand-alone) and branching (DET + NOM). A NP
should be NOM when it is to be attached to a DET.
5. When words are stand-alone (noun, verb, adjective, adverb), it has to be
labeled ‘category + phrase’.
6. Adverbs modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
7. Compound nouns are taken as one.
8. Verbs are versatile; please familiarize yourself with the 6 types, even including
the 7th which is the phrasal verb.
9. PP can be a complement or modifier. Check the verb, so you would know if PP
is a Comp. or Mod.
10. Each auxiliary is a head of its VP.
11. Develop the skill of being able to identify which words are to be made sisters
first.

Analysis
Practice Exercise 1
Identify the S and the P.
(a) No one has ordered my lovely prune-and-spinach fritters.
(b) Her memory for names was a constant source of amazement to him.
(c) There are too many uninvited guests here.
(d) Only six of the domino-toppling contestants came properly equipped.
(e) It was Lydia who finally trapped the pig.
(f) he fact that you received no birthday greetings from Mars doesn’t mean it is
uninhabited.
(g) That evening, Laura learned the Health and Safety Regulations by heart.

Practice Exercise 2
(A) were being given away
(B) obsolescent washing machines
(C) ten long holidays at the Hotel Mortification
(D) have made me realize that ‘cheap’ does indeed mean ‘nasty

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 Practice Exercise 3
Which one is the correct structural analysis for the meaning “more ideas that are
exciting”?

Draw the correct structural analysis for second-hand car salesmen?

Practice Exercise 4
Draw the tree diagram structure of the following noun phrases:
1. An overripened apple

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2. The difficult challenge
3. Every single lady
4. Your delicious ice cream
5. Those creative minds
6. Our own fixed mindset
7. he book’s cover
8. An excellently performed dance

Practice Exercise 5
Which verbs are intensive?
[A] Max turned a subtle shade of green.
[B] Max turned another card.
[C] Tarzan felt a tap on his shoulder.
[D] Tarzan felt a real idiot.
[E] The leopard-skin pillbox hat didn’t become her.
[F] The hat became a very useful wastepaper basket.
[G] The captain sounds an absolute tyrant.
[H] The captain sounded the ship’s horn.

Practice Exercise 6
Identify the type of verb used in each sentence.
(a) The girl in the palace dyed her hair deep purple.
(b) Hot air rises.
(c) Richard promised me his spaghetti machine.
(d) The sedan-chair proved very useful.
(e) Someone stole my contact-lenses.
(f) It sounds like a really good film.
(g) he candidate’s antics amused the board of examiners.

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(h) The committee nominated her Acrobat of the Year.
(i) Oscar feeds his cat smoked salmon.
(j) I like my curries as hot as you can make them.
(k) This calls for a celebration.
(l) The main witness for the prosecution disappeared.
(m) He applied for a gun license.

Practice Exercise 7
Decide whether the PP in the following sentences is part of the complementation of
a DITRANSITIVE verb or not.
(a) Holden wrote ten letters to Africa.
(b) Holden wrote ten letters to the White House.
(c) Max took the hyena to the station.
(d) Max lent his hyena to the Dramatics Society.
(e) William baked a cake for everyone.
(f) William baked a cake for Christmas.
(g) Laura saved the money for a piano.
(h) Laura saved a place for Martha.

Practice Exercise 8
Name the auxiliaries used in the sentences.
(1) They might have slipped out for a chat.
(2) She always has dyed her hair deep purple.
(3) The exercises should have been much easier.
(4) I will be happily looking after your charming children.
(5) William must have surreptitiously shown Millie the answers.

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Practice Exercise 9
Where do you cut the sentence?
(a) I am accepting your invitation.
(b) he income received from fines can’t be taken into account.
(c) Grishkin and the man in brown are in league.
(d) One day, my boy, all this will be yours.
(e) One day will be enough for this job.

Practice Exercise 10
Choose the correct structural illustration.
Which analysis corresponds with the interpretation ‘the old teacher of Romanian
history?

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Which tree structure corresponds to the following phrases:
[a] Animals from the zoo
[b] Refurbished citrus fruit markets

Practice Exercise 11
Draw the tree diagram structure of the following sentences.
(a) Nicholas felt strangely euphoric.
(b) The local gallery lends us the materials.
(c) The teacher teaches Social Science.
(d) The young boy called himself a superhero.
(e) Princess talks about her unforgettable experience.
(f) The guest has arrived there.

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