Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211

www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Biodiesel as alternative fuel: Experimental analysis

and energetic evaluations
C. Carraretto, A. Macor, A. Mirandola
, A. Stoppato, S. Tonon
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Padova, Via Venezia, 1-35131 Padova, Italy

Abstract

This paper presents the first results of an investigation carried out by the authors on the potentialities
of biodiesel as an alternative fuel based on strategic considerations and field experiences in boilers and
diesel engines.
The operation of a biodiesel fuelled boiler has been checked for some months. The engines have been
bench-tested and then installed on urban buses for normal operation. Distances, fuel consumption and
emissions (CO2, CO, HC and NOX) have been monitored; in addition devices wear and tear, oil and air
filters dirtiness and lubricant degradation have been checked.
Further investigations have also been devoted to assess some environmental aspects of bio-diesel. In
particular the benefit of biodiesel to the total net emission of CO2 during the whole life cycle has been
studied and the net energy requirement has been evaluated.
Finally, the global environmental support to the production of biodiesel has been studied according to
the emergy analysis.
# 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Biodiesel; Diesel engines; Boilers; Performances; Emissions

1. Introduction

In the last years, the awareness of energetic and environmental problems encouraged many
researchers to investigate the possibility of using alternative fuels instead of petrol and its deriv-
atives. Among them, biodiesel, produced from different vegetable oils (soybean, rapeseed and
sunflower for example), seems very interesting for several reasons: it can replace diesel oil in
boilers and internal combustion engines without major adjustments; only a small decrease in

Corresponding author. Fax: +39-049-827-6785.
E-mail address: alberto.mirandola@unipd.it (A. Mirandola).

0360-5442/$ - see front matter # 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2004.03.042
2196 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211

Nomenclature

g boiler efficiency
DT temperature difference
CFPP cloud filter pour point
NHV net heating value
SFC specific fuel consumption
TDC top dead center
Tair external air temperature
Tex gases exhaust gas temperature

performances is reported; almost zero emissions of sulfates; a small net contribution of CO2
when the whole life-cycle is considered (including cultivation, production of oil and conversion
to biodiesel); emission of pollutants comparable with that of diesel oil. For these reasons, sev-
eral campaigns have been planned in many countries to introduce and promote the use of bio-
diesel. Nevertheless, many uncertainties still exist about the real potentialities of biodiesel as a
substitute of diesel oil and the results reported in the literature seem to be often restricted to the
specific analysis and scenario they derive from [1,6,11,13].
In order to get a wide overview on the advantages and the shortcomings of biodiesel, includ-
ing the global environmental impact, a wide project is being carried out by the Departments of
Mechanical Engineering and Agronomy of the University of Padova. This paper describes the
first results of the investigation performed by the authors on the use of biodiesel in boilers and
diesel engines, paying attention to performances, emissions and usage problems (wear and tear,
materials or lubricant degradation, unscheduled stops) when compared with diesel oil. The
operation of a boiler, working in a school, has been checked for some months. One type of
compression ignition engine has been bench-tested and then installed on an urban bus, which is
being monitored since autumn 2001.
The first results show that, accounted for a data dispersion, biodiesel (even pure) can com-
pletely substitute diesel oil in boilers with comparable efficiency and less fouling; the use of
blends of biodiesel and diesel oil are preferred in engines, in order to avoid some problems
related to the decrease of power and torque and to the increase of NOX emissions with increas-
ing content of pure biodiesel in the blend [12–14,16].
In order to provide a wide and complete evaluation of the potentialities of biodiesel as alter-
native fuel, further investigations have been performed at larger scale.
An economic evaluation is required to show what the potential convenience of using biodiesel
can be in complete or partial substitution of diesel oil, according to actual conditions.
Other important aspects that have to be considered are the global energy and material
requirement and the environmental impact, evaluated considering the whole life-cycle of bio-
diesel from the agricultural production of the biomass to the end-use. This has been done by
means of different methods (LCA and emergy analysis) [15].
 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211 2197

The total net emission of CO2 is considerably less than that of diesel oil and the amount of
energy required for the production of biodiesel is less than that obtained with the final product.
In addition, the emission of pollutants is somewhat less.
Finally, it must be observed that large-scale production of biomass is hardly feasible for sev-
eral reasons related to land availability and conservation and proper use of co-products.

2. Biodiesel qualification

The word biodiesel is commonly referred to methyl esters of vegetable oil. This fuel is
obtained from vegetable oils (typically soybean, rapeseed or sunflower) with a process of trans-
esterification which changes the properties of the oil significantly.
The average composition of the fuel (see Table 1) has a considerable amount of oxygen (11%)
and a reduced amount of carbon (77%), while the hydrogen content is similar. For this reason
the LHV is typically lower (37 MJ/kg), the stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio has a typical value
of 12.5 and the combustion is generally improved.
Typically, biodiesel contains very small amounts of phosphorus and sulphur; therefore SOX
emissions are almost negligible and the temperature of the flue gases at the stack can be con-
siderably reduced, since acid condensation is not a problem of major concern. No aromatic
compounds are present.
In comparison with the commercial diesel oil D2, biodiesel has a higher density and a greater
Cetane number (usually above 50, due to the long linear acid chains that reduce the ignition

Table 1
Chemical and physical properties of commercial biodiesel and diesel oil
U.M. Biodiesel sample 1 Biodiesel sample 2 Diesel D2
v 3
Density at 15 C kg/m 886.1 882.4 829.0
Mm2/s
v
Viscosity at 40 C 4.3 4.66 2.40
Carbonious residue % m/m 0.18 0.75 0.01
according to Conradson
Ester content % m/m 98.9 98.7 –
Free glycerol % m/m 0.2 <0.1 –
v
CFPP C 4 4 4
LHV MJ/kg 37.54 36.97 42.99
Ashes % m/m <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Phosphorous mg/kg 274 37.6 –
Sulphur % m/m 0.007 0.018 0.001
Iodine number g I2/100 g 46 100.5 –
Oxidation stability G/m3 26.4 35.7 –
Distillation fractions
v
250 C %v 0 0 42
v
320 C 0 5 75
v
350 C 87 81 87
v
370 C 100 100 92
2198 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211
v
delay of the air–fuel mixture). In addition, the high flash point (more than 100 C) makes the
storage and transportation issues less important.
Some authors [6] reported that biodiesel is completely miscible with diesel oil, thus allowing
the use of blends of diesel and biodiesel in any percentage. The properties of biodiesel at low
temperatures are poorer than those of diesel oil. The CFPP is generally higher than that of die-
sel and this may involve some complications for the operation in cold weather.
The amount of carbonious residue from the hot decomposition of vegetable compounds with
high molecular weight is greater than that of the commercial diesel oil. This feature is crucial
for a proper use of biodiesel in new advanced injection systems.
The concern about oxidation problems is more important in the case of biodiesel than com-
mercial diesel oil. It involves a time-progressive change of the aromatic properties and a
reduction of the flash point. Oxidation products originated with biodiesel affect storage life and
contribute to deposit formation in tanks, fuel systems and filters. Nevertheless, the improved
decomposition implies a better biodegradability, which is very important when fuel is dispersed
in the environment.
Biodiesel has good lubricant properties with respect to diesel oil, in particular diesel with a
very small amount of sulphur. This is very important to reduce wear in the engine and the injec-
tion system [6].

3. Use of biodiesel in boilers

The use of biodiesel in boilers is somewhat popular even if researches in this area are still lim-
ited [3,8]. Field experiences and experimental works agree on the fact that using biodiesel on
adapted burners involves less emission of pollutants and fouling problems. For this reason bio-
diesel can be considered a viable alternative in boilers, especially in places where natural gas is
not available or when converting the boilers is difficult or very expensive.
Under the supervision of the Energy Group of the University of Padova, a thermal system
located in a school of the city of Padova has been monitored. It consists of two identical boilers
with a nominal power of 512 kW each; one of them has been converted to use biodiesel, while
the other still uses diesel oil. Based on the thermal power requested, the control and regulation
system can operate the boilers to work in either sequential mode or parallel mode, in order to
have a similar number of working hours for both.
Each burner can work at two different power levels of 214 and 512 kW. Control is automati-
cally made on the water inlet and outlet temperature.
Similar burners fuelled with biodiesel have been previously bench-tested [10], showing no
particular problems; the burner has to be adjusted for a slightly different fuel flow rate, at con-
stant thermal power, and some gummed gaskets must be changed with others made of Viton or
Teflon.
So, the burner fuelled with biodiesel has been equipped with new nozzles (to supply 22.8 and
26 kg/h at 12 bar) and different gaskets. Moreover, to avoid any problems during the winter
season, considering the average higher value of the flash point, the starting transformers have
been enhanced and the air–fuel ratio has been decreased at start up.
 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211 2199

Another problem is concerned with the detergent property of this fuel with respect to the die-
sel deposits which can be brought in suspension with the new fuel and block the nozzles. For
this reason, every old tank used for storage of biodiesel should be carefully cleaned.
Due to the lack of funds, in this first bench-tests it was not possible to install emission
measure equipment. The emissions are now being measured in a second experimental campaign
on a different boiler working in a building of the University of Padua. The results are not yet
available.

3.1. First experimental results

Two experimental campaigns took place during the winter seasons 2000–2001 and 2001–2002;
the thermal system worked in automatic mode, showing that no external assistance was required
when using biodiesel.
The biodiesel boiler has been working for 544 h at high power and 530 at low power with
1372 firings. Some programmed and occasional tests of the performances have been done. The
most significant results are presented in Table 2.
The efficiency of the ‘‘biodiesel’’ boiler is always higher than that of the ‘‘diesel’’ one and does
not decrease significantly with time; this is related to less fouling and has been confirmed by the
analysis performed at the end of the season. The increased efficiency is also connected with the
lower temperature of the gases at the stack (Tex gases).
The emissions of CO and CO2 are very similar for the two boilers. Unfortunately, emissions
of NOx could not be tested; previous studies [3] show a reduction by about 30%, thanks to the
presence of oxygen in the fuel; this is why some additives based on oxygenated compounds are
frequently added to the usual diesel oils.

Table 2
Compared results of the boilers fuelled with biodiesel and diesel oil
19/12/2000 14/2/2000 19/12/2001 25/2/2002 28/2/2002 6/3/2002
Boiler 1—biodiesel
O2 % 4.3 5.4 4.3 3.1 7.1 4.3
CO2 % 12.4 11.2 12.4 13.4 12.2 12
CO ppm 2 1 2 4 0 3
v
Tex gases C 193 187 174 168 191 153
v
Tair C 18 17.9 19 9 6 23
g 91.8 91.7 93 90.4 93.8 92.1
5/9/2000 5/10/2000 14/2/2001 2/11/2001 25/2/2002 28/2/2002
Boiler 2—diesel oil
O2 % 4.5 4.5 4 5 3.5 4
CO2 % 11.9 11.8 12.2 11.4 12.6 12.2
CO ppm 0 0 0 0 8 0
v
Tex gases C 297.8 245 389 227.4 408 389
v
Tair C 22.5 20 15.7 16 5 6
g 86.7 86.7 82.6 89.5 81.2 83
2200 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211

During the experimental campaign no failures or difficulties have been reported; not even the
peculiar penetrating odor of the exhaust gases, which is sometimes reported in literature, was
considered a troublesome problem by nearby residents. The ordinary maintenance showed no
degradation of the gaskets.
Another important aspect to be reported is the wide variation of the parameters of the com-
mercial biodiesel (see Table 1): the chemical analyses performed on some samples of biodiesel
showed considerable variations of the flash point, the carbonious residue, the phosphorous con-
tent and the iodine number. Even if these variations are in some cases remarkable, no operating
differences have been observed.
In conclusion, the cost of the fuel seems to be the only problem when using biodiesel in
boilers.

4. Use of biodiesel in internal combustion engines

The use of biodiesel in the automotive industry has been continuously increasing in the last
years, especially in France (where blends with diesel oil are widely used) and Germany (where
many engines can be fuelled with pure biodiesel). Some manufacturers (e.g. Volkswagen, Audi,
Mercedes-Benz) currently guarantee their engines for biodiesel use.
Many studies on the performances and emissions of compression ignition engines, fuelled
with pure biodiesel and blends with diesel oil, have been performed and are reported in the
literature [1,2,4,7,13]. Even if based on different engine architectures, that may influence results
generalization, all the tests showed a slight reduction of the performances (e.g. 5% decrease of
the power over the entire speed range) and a significant increase of fuel consumption (+15%).
The presence of oxygen in biodiesel leads to more complete combustion processes, resulting in
lower emissions of CO, particulates and visible smoke. However, an increase in NOX emissions
has been measured, due to higher temperatures.
One of the most important biodiesel drawbacks is the deterioration of the lubricant proper-
ties: in fact, because of the high boiling point, the biodiesel that flows into the crankcase as a
result of blow-by, dilutes the lubricant progressively, modifying its additives properties.
Since biodiesel has detergent characteristics, it may bring in suspension fuel tank sludge that
may block fuel-ways in the fuel injection system. Moreover, as already explained, biodiesel is
not compatible with some plastic materials used in pipes and seals, which must be changed.
Investigations have been carried out by the authors using different blends of biodiesel and
diesel oil (i.e. 100%, 80%, 70%, 50%, 30%, 20% and 0% volume of biodiesel, respectively) on six
cylinders direct injection diesel engine, whose nameplate parameters are shown in Table 3. This
engine is widely installed on local urban buses.
Preliminary bench-tests have been performed to evaluate the variation of engine performances
and emissions versus the percentage of biofuel. Figs. 1 and 2 show torque and SFC for different
blends; the curves represent average results of different test series reported to ISO conditions.
No modification has been done on engine set-points, in order to allow a complete fuel inter-
changeability.
The increase of biodiesel percentage in the blend involves a slight decrease of both power and
torque over the entire speed range. In particular, with pure biodiesel there is a reduction by
 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211 2201

Table 3
Nameplate parameters of the engine
Model UNIC 8220.12
Volume 9572 cm3
Cylinders 6 in line
Cycle Diesel 4 strokes
Compression ratio 17:1
Bore/stroke 125/130 mm
Maximum power 158 kW at 2600 rpm
Maximum torque 628 Nm at 1600 rpm
v
Injection advance 24 PPMS
Feeding Natural
Injection system Direct
Cooling system Water cooled

about 3% of the maximum power and about 5% of the maximum torque. Moreover, with pure
biodiesel, the maximum torque is reached at higher speed; previous studies [2] suggested that
this fact might be related to an increase of the flame velocity observed with biodiesel. This may
result in a pressure peak shift to a crank angle closer to TDC.
Figs. 3–5 show the injection advance effect on power, torque and SFC when pure biodiesel is
used. The SFC for pure diesel oil at nominal injection advance is also reported for comparison.
A significant increase of SFC over the entire speed range is registered with biodiesel (about
+16% average), due to its lower LHV and greater density. However, by reducing the injection
advance, it is possible to optimize combustion, improving performances especially at low and
medium speed, with respect to nominal injection advance operation, by reducing the injection
angle, power and torque are increased up to almost pure diesel oil levels while SFC is reduced.

Fig. 1. Torque for diesel oil and different oil–biodiesel blends.

2202 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211

Fig. 2. Specific fuel consumption for diesel oil and different oil–biodiesel blends.

The effect of the injection advance on CO and NOX emissions measured at maximum power
and maximum torque speed is shown in Fig. 6. By reducing the injection advance, CO emission
is reduced up to medium speed; this could be related to improved combustion over this low
speed range; at higher speeds CO emissions increase since the previous effect is probably not

Fig. 3. Effect of injection advance on power.

 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211 2203

Fig. 4. Effect of injection advance on torque.

evident any longer. Conversely, NOX are reduced over the entire speed range due to lower
average temperatures.
Engines bench-tested have subsequently been installed on urban buses for normal operation;
they were fueled by a blend of biodiesel (30%) and diesel-oil (70%), and have been monitored

Fig. 5. Effect of injection advance on specific fuel consumption.

2204 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211

Fig. 6. Effect of injection advance on emissions.

since winter 2001 to assess the long-term effects of pure biodiesel and its blends on fuel con-
sumption, maintenance costs and reliability. To make sure that the already described negative
effects on lubricant, seals and tank deposits would not affect the experimental campaign, semi-
synthetic lubricant and Viton components have been used. In addition, high efficiency filters
have been applied to both fuel and lubricant system. Lubricant samples and worn filters are to
be analyzed periodically to assess lubricant degradation and wear metals content.
For comparison, two similar engines have been installed on two buses and used with normal
diesel-oil in the same operating conditions. In Tables 4 and 5 the distances covered by the buses,
their fuel consumption and emissions during the test period (December 2001–May 2002) are
reported.
As can be noticed, there is a gap in unit (per km) fuel consumption between the biodiesel
buses and the other two. It cannot be explained only with the difference of the heating value of
the fuels: 43,000 kJ/kg for diesel oil, 37,000 kJ/kg for biodiesel, so 41,200 kJ/kg can be
expected for the 30–70% blend. But the differences range from 2.6% to 23%. Since the city paths

Table 4
Global results of the on-road experimentation during the period 2/12/2001–24/5/2002
Days Total distance Total consumption Unit distance Difference in unit
(km) (l) (km/l) distance
BUS 1 Biodiesel 190 26,358 15,586 1.69 18.4 %
(30–70% mix)
BUS 2 Biodiesel 192 31,976 17,021 1.88 9.2 %
(30–70% mix)
BUS 3 Diesel oil 173 25,726 13,300 1.93 6.8 %
BUS 4 Diesel oil 176 29,833 14,413 2.07 –
 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211 2205

Table 5
Global results of the on-road emissions during the period 2/12/2001–24/5/2002
CO (% vol) CO2 (% vol) O2 (% vol) HC (ppm) NOX (ppm)
BUS 1 Biodiesel 0.018 2.4 18.6 15 1264
(30–70% mix)
BUS 2 Biodiesel 0.017 2.1 18.5 17 1193
(30–70% mix)
BUS 3 Diesel oil 0.02 2.2 17.9 19 1112
BUS 4 Diesel oil 0.016 2.3 18.4 18 1146

were the same for the four buses, this means that other reasons cause the difference. The main
one is the injection advance, which should be reduced in order to optimize the combustion of
biodiesel, as inferred from bench-test.
As regards the emissions, it must be observed that the average reduction of HC and CO con-
tent with biodiesel is 13.5% and 3%, respectively, thanks to the intrinsic oxygen contained by
biodiesel. The NOx values, on the contrary, have an increase by about 9%, according to the
main results in literature [2–4].

5. Some economic considerations

Many economic evaluations of biodiesel use have been performed in the past. The cost of
biodiesel depends on the places where the soy beans grow, the agriculture techniques that are
used, the process technology considered to get the biodiesel as well as the intermediate processes
that are required. The average cost of biodiesel in Italy is about 2–3 times higher than that of
diesel fuel, without considering excise tax and VAT [5].
Since 1993, the Italian government has been promoting the use of biodiesel by abolition of
the excise tax on a maximum annual amount of 125,000 t of biodiesel. In 2001, the allowance
has been increased to 300,000 t.1
As described previously, the use of biodiesel in boilers is not problematic at all. Some small
modifications required on the burners do not influence economic performances too much. The
operating costs depend on the physical and chemical properties of biodiesel (lower LHV, higher
density), the improved efficiency of the boiler using biodiesel (about 5%) and the lower cost of
biodiesel for the user (usually the difference is equal to 0.05 4/l).
Under these conditions, starting from the results presented in paragraph 3, the use of bio-
diesel is more convenient than diesel oil, with a reduction of almost 5% on the cost of the ther-
mal power supplied. Disregarding the efficiency improvement, the operating cost with biodiesel
and diesel oil would be very similar (+0.64% for biodiesel).
The modifications required to run a diesel engine with biodiesel have been already described
in a previous section. Since they are only minor ones, they do not affect the operating cost
remarkably.

1
This regulation is still subjected to EU approval.
2206 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211

The main items influencing the operating cost are the economic cost of the fuel, the different
density and the engine performance, described by the SFC.
The cost of biodiesel for ICE is slightly greater than that of diesel oil (approximate difference
of 0.06 4/l). The SFC, a function of the engine speed, is higher in biodiesel than in diesel oil.
Bench-test results previously reported showed that the average value of SFC for biodiesel is
17% greater that that of diesel oil. Other tests on different engines show that the increase ranges
from 5% to 20%.
Under these conditions the specific cost in 4/kWh shows an increase by about 2.1%. If the
cost of the two fuels is the same, the specific cost for the engine running on biodiesel is 9.8%
higher.
Concerning the role of biodiesel in meeting the demand of fuel for diesel engines and boilers,
it has been assumed that all the set aside land in Italy is used for cultivation of bioenergy crops
such as soy, rapeseed or sunflower. When average yields and typical processes are considered,
the amount of biodiesel that is available is about 900,000 t, which is 3.9% of the total yearly
consumption of diesel in Italy. In such a context it is reasonable to use a blend with a small
amount of biodiesel.2

6. Life-cycle considerations

In addition to the advantages and disadvantages of using biodiesel in boilers and internal
combustion engines that have been previously discussed, strategic decisions about the pro-
motion of biodiesel should be also based on the results of life cycle analyses. In so doing all the
direct and indirect processes involved in the production of biodiesel have to be taken into
account.
The complete life cycle of biodiesel is currently under investigation by means of different
methods (LCA evaluation and emergy analysis).
Analyses have been performed including the agricultural production of soybean, the crushing
process to get the oil and the final trans-esterification process for the production of biodiesel.
Transport of various semi-products has also been taken into account.
All the steps have been carefully evaluated and the energy and material flows quantified,
according to the inventory step of the LCA evaluation.
The production yields of the agricultural phase, the crushing process and the conversion to
biodiesel that have been assumed are described in Table 6.
Particular attention has been devoted to determine the net emission of CO2 from the com-
plete cycle of production and use of biodiesel. It is very important how the amount of CO2 pro-
duced by all the processes is allocated on the products and by-products (biodiesel, crude
glycerine, soybean meal and soapstock).
The present investigation considers the present North-Italian conditions for soybean harvest
(2445 kg/ha), fuel (116.5 kg/ha) and fertilizer consumption (80, 43 and 51 kg/ha for nitrogen,
phosphates and potassium compounds, respectively), and oil to biodiesel conversion plants
(300,000 kcal/tbiodiesel of steam and 28 kWh/tbiodiesel of electricity) and different allocation

2
In France several refineries are used to add 5% of biodiesel to automotive diesel.
 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211 2207

Table 6
Production yields
Soybean crop yield (t/km2) 245
Soy-oil from crushing (kg oil/kg soybean) 0.37
Soybean meal (kg meal/kg soybean) 0.47
Biodiesel (kg biodiesel/kg oil) 0.95
Glycerin (kg glycerin/kg oil) 0.20

options. The first one considers the CO2 produced by the processes to be allocated proportion-
ally to the mass of the products. Under this assumption, the emission of CO2 is about
0:21 kgCO2 =kg biodiesel. If the whole amount of CO2 produced by the processes is entirely allo-
cated on biodiesel, the emission of CO2 is about 0:72 kgCO2 =kg biodiesel. Note that at the tail-
pipe, the amount is 65.0% of the total CO2 emitted (see Fig. 7). For comparison, the whole life
diesel emissions are 0:82 kgCO2 =kg biodiesel.
The fossil energy required by all the processes involved in the production of biodiesel is very
important in order to evaluate how ‘‘renewable’’ the biofuel under investigation is. The evalu-
ation has been conducted according to the LCA method, considering the direct and indirect
energy requirements.
Results show that the total energy requirement to get 1 MJ of biofuel is equal to 1.398 MJ of
primary energy, 35% of which is derived from fossil fuels. The chart in Fig. 8 details the energy
required in each phase.
The environmental support to the production of biodiesel, evaluated at the level of the bio-
sphere, has been quantified by means of the emergy analysis [9].

Fig. 7. CO2 emissions.

2208 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211

Fig. 8. Energy requirement.

Odum [9] introduced the concept of form emergy, i.e. ‘‘the total amount of exergy of one kind
(usually solar) that is directly or indirectly required to make a given product or to support a
given flow’’. All the renewable and non-renewable, locally available or imported, energy and
material flows involved in the processes (even if in indirect way) are accounted for. A quality
coefficient called transformity is used to describe the specific amount of resources required. The
amount of input solar emergy consumed per output exergy unit is called solar transformity, and is
measured as solar emergy joules per exergy joule of product (seJ/J). It allows for comparison
among different products or flows [9]. By summing each flow, multiplied by its transformity, it is
possible to get a measure of the global environmental support required to get a unit of biodiesel.
The higher the transformity, the higher the environmental support that is needed to make a
unit of product available. In Table 7, several values of transformity for different fuels are com-

Table 7
Transformity of fuels
Biodiesel (seJ/J) 1.6 105
Biodiesel [18] (seJ/J) 2.0 105
Biodiesel [17] (seJ/J) 2.7 105
Ethanol from corn [18] (seJ/J) 1.7 105
Gasoline [9] (seJ/J) 6.6 104
Crude oil [9] (seJ/J) 5.4 104
Natural gas [9] (seJ/J) 4.8 104
 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211 2209

Table 8
Emergy inputs for 1 kg of biodiesel
Amount Transformity Solar emergy
(seJ/unit) (seJ/kgbio)
Agricultural phase
Renewable inputs
Solar radiation J 5:78E þ 10 1:00E þ 00 5:78E þ 10
Rain (chemical potential) kg 9:41E þ 03 8:99E þ 07 8:46E þ 11
Soil cycle J 3:14E þ 07 6:06E þ 03 1:90E þ 11
Non-renewable inputs
Organic matter J 1:79E þ 06 7:38E þ 04 1:32E þ 11
Nitrogen fertilizer kg 0.0859 3:80E þ 12 3:26E þ 11
Potassium fertilizer kg 0.0548 3:90E þ 12 2:14E þ 11
Phosphorus fertilizer kg 0.0462 1:10E þ 12 5:08E þ 10
Herbicide kg 0.0018 1:48E þ 13 2:64E þ 10
Diesel oil kg 0.1289 2:95E þ 12 3:81E þ 11
Lubricant l 0.0039 2:20E þ 12 8:52E þ 09
Gasoline kg 0.0000 2:70E þ 12 0:00E þ 00
Propane l 0.0000 2:70E þ 12 0:00E þ 00
Natural gas m3 0.0000 1:66E þ 12 0:00E þ 00
Water (chemical potential) kg 42941.841 2:03E þ 08 8:70E þ 11
Electricity MJ 0.0000 1:50E þ 11 0:00E þ 00
Air n.d.
Steel (agricultural machinery) kg 0.0203 6:70E þ 12 1:36E þ 11
Seeds kg 25.000 3:50E þ 04 8:75E þ 04
Human work years 4.77E-06 2:69E þ 16 1:28E þ 11
Services 4 n.d. 2:01E þ 12
Total agricultural phase 3:37E þ 12

Industrial phase
Diesel oil for transport kg 0.0280 2:95E þ 12 8:27E þ 10
Steel (industrial machinery) kg 2.90E-02 6:70E þ 12 1:94E þ 11
Steel (industrial plant) kg 0.0225 6:70E þ 12 1:50E þ 11
Concrete kg 0.0399 7:48E þ 11 2:99E þ 10
Fuel (methane) m3 0.0728 1:66E þ 12 1:21E þ 11
Air (combustion, drying, etc) n.d.
Electricity MJ 0.7622 1:50E þ 11 1:14E þ 11
Water kg 0.3645 2:03E þ 08 7:38E þ 07
Steam (from methane combustion) MJ 47.442 4:88E þ 10 2:32E þ 11
Hexane kg 0.0053 2:50E þ 09 1:32E þ 07
Sodium hydroxide kg 0.0023 2:50E þ 09 5:70E þ 06
Sodium methoxide kg 0.0241 2:50E þ 09 6:01E þ 07
HCl kg 0.0075 2:50E þ 09 1:89E þ 07
Methanol kg 0.0895 2:50E þ 09 2:24E þ 08
Human work years 2.15E-06 2:69E þ 16 5:79E þ 10
Services 4 0.7361 2:01E þ 12 1:48E þ 12
Total industrial phase 2:46E þ 12
Total inputs 5:83E þ 12
2210 C. Carraretto et al. / Energy 29 (2004) 2195–2211

pared. The first value has been obtained by the authors, starting from the LCA analysis results
reported in Table 8.
Results indicate that the transformities of biofuels are greater than those of fossil fuels, thus
showing that a larger amount of resources is required to get the product (increased environmen-
tal support). This can be explained by the fact that natural processes (those required to get fos-
sil fuels) are more efficient than industrial ones. On the other hand, the time involved in the
formation of the fossil fuels is considerably different from that required for the production of
the biomass.

7. Conclusions

The first results of an investigation on the potentialities of biodiesel as alternative fuel in boil-
ers and ICE have been presented in this paper.
Biodiesel seems to be a promising solution for boilers, since only minor adjustments are
required; performances are comparable with oil operation.
Investigations have also been carried out on ICE using biodiesel pure and in blends with die-
sel oil. Performances are slightly reduced while SFC is notably increased using biodiesel. CO
emissions are reduced but NOX are increased. Preliminary tests showed that by optimizing the
injection advance both performances and emissions can be improved.
Some precautions must be taken when using biodiesel: due to the detergent properties, tanks
have to be carefully cleaned before storage; since the fuel is not compatible with some plastic
materials used in pipes and gaskets, resistant materials should be used (e.g. Viton or Teflon).
One of the main limiting factors to the diffusion of biodiesel is the high economic cost to
produce it, if compared to that of diesel oil. Nowadays the cost of biodiesel is competitive only
when excise tax is not applied. Nevertheless, the promotion of biodiesel is justified by the
fact that the global emission of CO2 is greatly reduced and that the net energy requirement is
positive. In addition, the use of biodiesel involves an appreciable reduction of some emitted
pollutants. This could be a key solution to reduce urban pollution.
In order to fully exploit some biodiesel peculiar characteristics, a careful study of the combus-
tion dynamics should be performed.

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